Malayan campaign

2022-12-13T08:28:11Z

138.215.255.219:

{{short description|1941–1942 World War II military campaign}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Malayan campaign
| partof = the [[Pacific War]], [[World War II]]
| image = File:Japanese troops final stages to conquest Singapore, Johore Bahru (AWM 127900).JPG
| image_size = 350px
| caption = Troops of the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] crouch on a street in [[Johor Bahru]] in the final stages of the Malayan campaign.
| date = 8 December 1941 – 15 February 1942 (2 months, and 8 days)
| place = [[British Malaya]]
| coordinates =
| result = Japanese victory
* Surrender or expulsion of all Commonwealth forces in Malaya
| territory = [[Japanese occupation of Malaya]]
| combatant1 = '''{{flag|British Empire}}''' {{bulleted list|{{UK}}|{{flagcountry|British India}}|{{flagicon|Malayan Union}} [[British Malaya|Malaya]]|{{nowrap|{{flag|Straits Settlements}}}}|{{AUS}}|{{flagcountry|Dominion of New Zealand}}}}
{{flagdeco|NED}} [[Dutch government-in-exile|Netherlands]] {{bulleted list|{{flagicon|NED}} [[Dutch East Indies]]}}<hr>{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Kuomintang|Kuomintang of Malaya]]<ref name="Kratoska2018">{{cite book|author=Paul H. Kratoska|title=The Japanese Occupation of Malaya and Singapore, 1941-45: A Social and Economic History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xvlqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA299|date=30 April 2018|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=978-9971-69-638-2|pages=299–}}</ref> {{flagicon image|Flag of the Communist Party of Malaya.svg}} [[Communist Party of Malaya]]<ref name="Kratoska2018"/>
| combatant2 = '''{{flagicon|Empire of Japan}} [[Imperial Japan|Japan]]''' {{flagicon|Thailand}} [[History of Thailand (1932–1973)|Thailand]]<hr>{{flagdeco|Indonesia}} [[Kesatuan Melayu Muda|Young Malays Union]]
| commander1 = {{nowrap|'''{{flagdeco|UK}} [[Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Archibald Wavell]] {{flagicon|UK}} [[Robert Brooke-Popham]] {{flagicon|UK}} [[Arthur Percival]]{{surrendered}}''' {{flagicon|UK}} [[Lewis Heath]]{{surrendered}} {{nowrap|{{flagicon|UK}} [[David Murray-Lyon]]{{surrendered}}}} {{flagicon|UK}} [[Archibald Paris]]{{KIA}} {{flagicon|UK}} [[Arthur Edward Barstow|Arthur Barstow]]{{KIA}} {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Gordon Bennett (general)|Gordon Bennett]]<hr>{{flagicon|UK|naval}} [[Tom Phillips (Royal Navy officer)|Tom Phillips]]{{KIA}}<hr>{{flagicon|UK|air force}} [[Conway Pulford]]{{KIA}}<hr>{{flagicon image|Naval Jack of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Leong Yew Koh]]<ref name="Kratoska2018">{{cite book|author=Paul H. Kratoska|title=The Japanese Occupation of Malaya and Singapore, 1941-45: A Social and Economic History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xvlqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA299|date=30 April 2018|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=978-9971-69-638-2|pages=299–}}</ref> {{flagicon image|Flag of the Communist Party of Malaya.svg}} [[Lai Teck]]}}
| commander2 = '''{{flagicon|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Hisaichi Terauchi]] {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Tomoyuki Yamashita]]''' {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Takuro Matsui]] {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Takuma Nishimura]] {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Renya Mutaguchi]] {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|army}} {{ill|Michio Sugawara|jp|菅原道大}}<hr>{{flagicon|Empire of Japan|naval}} [[Nobutake Kondō]] {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|naval}} [[Jisaburō Ozawa]] {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|naval}} [[Shintarō Hashimoto]]<hr>{{flagdeco|Indonesia}} [[Ibrahim Yaacob]]
| units1 = {{nowrap|'''{{flagdeco|UK}} [[British Far East Command|Far East Command]]{{efn|group=infobox|until 7 January 1942}}'''}} '''[[American-British-Dutch-Australian Command|ABDA Command]]{{efn|group=infobox|from 7 January 1942}}'''<hr>'''{{flagdeco|UK|airforce}} [[Malaya Command]]'''
*{{flagdeco|British India}} [[III Corps (India)|III Corps]]
**[[9th Infantry Division (India)|9th Division]]
**[[11th Infantry Division (India)|11th Division]]
*{{flagdeco|Australia}} [[8th Division (Australia)|8th Division]]
*{{flagdeco|UK}} [[53rd Brigade (United Kingdom)|53rd Brigade]]
*{{flagdeco|Malayan Union}} [[Royal Malay Regiment|Malay Regiment]]
*{{flagdeco|Straits Settlements}} [[Straits Settlements Volunteer Force|SSVF]]
<hr>'''{{flagicon|UK|air force}} [[Far East Air Force (Royal Air Force)#Early history|RAF Far East]]'''
*{{flagicon|UK}} [[RAF]] (8 SQNs)
*{{flagicon|AUS}} [[RAAF]] (4 SQNs)
*{{flagdeco|NZ}} [[RNZAF]] ([[No. 488 Squadron RNZAF|1 SQN]])
{{flagdeco|Netherlands}} [[Military Aviation of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army|ML-KNIL]]
<hr>{{nowrap|'''{{flagdeco|UK|naval}} [[East Indies Fleet]]'''}}
* [[Force Z]]
<hr>{{flagdeco|ROC|army}} [[Dalforce|OCAJA]]<ref name="Kratoska2018"/> {{flagicon image|Flag of the Malayan Peoples' Anti Japanese Army.png}} [[Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army|MPAJA]]<ref name="Kratoska2018"/>
| units2 = {{nowrap|'''{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Southern Expeditionary Army|South Expeditionary Army]]'''}} <hr>
'''{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Twenty-Fifth Army (Japan)|25th Army]]'''
* [[Japanese Imperial Guards|Imperial Guards]]
* [[5th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|5th Division]]
* [[18th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|18th Division]]
* [[3rd Tank Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|3rd Tank Brigade]]
* [[56th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|56th Division]]
* [[Imperial Japanese Army Air Service|3rd Air Corps]]
* [[Imperial Japanese Army Air Service|3 Sentai/5th Air Corps]]
<hr>'''{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|naval}} [[2nd Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)|2nd Fleet]]'''
* [[2nd Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)#Distant Cover Force|Distant Cover Force]]
* [[2nd Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)#Closed Cover Force|Closed Cover Force]]
* [[2nd Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)#Invasion Force|Invasion Force]]
* [[11th Air Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)|22nd Air Flotilla]]
<hr>{{flagicon image|Thai National Police Flag.svg}} [[Royal Thai Police]]<hr>{{flagdeco|Indonesia}} [[Kesatuan Melayu Muda|Young Malays Union]]
| strength1 = 138,000 troops<ref name="The Fall of Singapore">{{cite book| title = The Fall of Singapore | author = Frank Owen | publisher = Penguin Books | year = 2001 | location = England | isbn = 0-14-139133-2}}</ref> 253 aircraft 810 artillery pieces 208+ anti-tank and anti-aircraft guns 54 fortress guns<ref name="Allen 2013 pp. 300-301">Allen (2013) pp. 300-301.</ref>{{efn|Between Singapore and Malaya, the Japanese captured 300 field guns, 180 mortars/howitzers, 100 anti-aircraft guns, 54 fortress guns, 108 1-pounder guns (likely a typo meant to say 2-pounder), and, on the mainland, another 330 guns of unspecified type. Kevin Blackburn, Karl Hack. "Did Singapore Have to Fall?: Churchill and the Impregnable Fortress". Routledge. 1 November 2003. Page 193 gives a total of 225 25-pounders and 18-pounders for the campaign, but this number excludes [[QF 4.5-inch howitzer|4.5-inch]] and [[QF 3.7-inch mountain howitzer|3.7-inch]] howitzers and 75mm field guns, as well as fortress guns. Page 74 gives a total of 226 for British artillery pieces during the siege of Singapore itself, including fortress guns (172 without them).}} 250+ AFVs<ref name="Allen 2013 pp. 300-301"/>{{efn|50 armoured vehicles were captured on Malaya and 200 on Singapore, mostly [[Universal Carrier]]s and armoured cars; includes Mark VI 23 tanks.}}<ref name="The Indian cavalry: history of the Indian Armoured Corps, Volume 2">Sandhu 1987, p. 32.</ref> 15,400+ motor vehicles<ref>Allen (2013) pp. 300-301</ref>{{efn|1,800 trucks and 13,600 cars and other vehicles were lost to the Japanese on both Singapore and the mainland.}}
| strength2 = 70,000 troops 799 aircraft<ref>JM-54, "[http://ddsnext.crl.edu/services/download/pdf/451165?from=001&to=123 Malay Operations Record]" p. 11. 612 Army and 187 Navy planes, of which 153 Army and 29 Navy planes were reserve. Retrieved 4/1/2022</ref> 440+ artillery pieces<ref>Allen, Louis. ''Singapore 1941–1942: Revised Edition'', Routledge, 2013. p. 169</ref> 200 tanks 3,000+ trucks<ref>Toland, John. ''The Rising Sun'' New York: The Modern Library, 2003. p. 272</ref>
| casualties1 = '''138,000''' 5,703 killed or died of wounds up to 31 January + 7,531 killed or died of wounds 1–16 February<ref name=Corfield382>Corfield & Corfield (2012), p. 743. The names of all of those who died are listed in the book.</ref> 10,000 wounded ~130,000 captured<ref name=Wigmore382>Wigmore 1957, p. 382</ref>
| casualties2 = '''9,657''' (Including the casualties of the [[Battle of Singapore]]) 3,507 killed 6,150 wounded<ref>Tsuji (1960) p. 220. 1,793 dead and 2,772 wounded in Malaya; 1,714 dead and 3,378 wounded at Singapore.</ref> 30+ tanks destroyed<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Colin |title=Singapore Burning |date=2006 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=London |isbn=978-0141010366}}</ref> 108 - 331 aircraft damaged or destroyed<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roy |first1=Kaushik |title=Battle for Malaya: The Indian Army in Defeat, 1941-1942 |date=2019 |publisher=Open Road Integrated Media}}</ref>
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Malaya}}
{{Campaignbox Pacific 1941}}
{{Campaignbox South-East Asia}}
| width = 350px
}}
{{Campaignbox South-East Asian Theatre}}
{{History of Malaysia}}

The '''Malayan campaign''', referred to by Japanese sources as the {{nihongo|'''Malay Operation'''|馬来作戦|Maree Sakusen}}, was a military campaign fought by [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] and [[Axis powers|Axis]] forces in [[British Malaya|Malaya]], from 8 December 1941 – 15 February 1942 during the [[World War II|Second World War]]. It was dominated by [[Land warfare|land battles]] between [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] army units and the [[Imperial Japanese Army]], with minor skirmishes at the beginning of the campaign between British Commonwealth and [[Royal Thai Police]]. The Japanese had air and naval supremacy from the opening days of the campaign. For the British, Indian, [[Australians|Australian]], and [[Federated Malay States|Malayan]] forces defending the colony, the campaign was a total disaster.

The operation is notable for the Japanese use of [[bicycle infantry]], which allowed troops to carry more equipment and swiftly move through thick jungle terrain. [[Royal Engineers]], equipped with demolition charges, destroyed over a hundred bridges during the retreat, yet this did little to delay the Japanese. By the time the Japanese had [[Battle of Singapore|captured Singapore]], they had suffered 9,657 casualties; Allied losses totaled 145,703, including 15,703 casualties and 130,000 captured.<ref name=Wigmore382/><ref name="Generals At War">{{cite episode|title=Singapore |url=http://www.ngcasia.com/programmes/generals-at-war/photos/singapore |series=Generals At War |credits=[[Nicholas Rowe (actor)|Nicholas Rowe]], [[Alistair Irwin]] |network=[[National Geographic Channel]] |location=[[Singapore]] |air-date=21 September 2009 |minutes=60 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090926211240/http://www.ngcasia.com/programmes/generals-at-war/photos/singapore |archive-date=26 September 2009 }}</ref>

==Background==

===Japanese===
By 1941 the Japanese had been engaged for four years in trying to [[Second Sino-Japanese War|subjugate China]]. They were heavily reliant on imported materials for their military forces, particularly oil from the United States.<ref name="Maechling">Maechling, Charles. ''Pearl Harbor: The First Energy War''. History Today. Dec. 2000</ref> From 1940 to 1941, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands imposed [[ABCD line|embargoes]] on supplying oil and war materials to Japan.<ref name="Maechling"/> The object of the embargoes was to assist the Chinese and encourage the Japanese to halt military action in China. The Japanese considered that pulling out of China would result in a loss of face and decided instead to take military action against US, British and Dutch territories in South East Asia.<ref name="Maechling" /> The Japanese forces for the invasion were assembled in 1941 on [[Hainan]] Island and in [[French Indochina]]. This troop build-up was noticed by the Allies and, when asked, the Japanese advised that it related to its operations in China.

When the Japanese invaded, they had over 200 [[tank]]s, consisting of the [[Type 95 Ha-Go|Type 95 ''Ha-Go'']], [[Type 97 Chi-Ha|Type 97 ''Chi-Ha'']], [[Type 89 I-Go|Type 89 ''I-Go'']] and [[Type 97 Te-Ke|Type 97 ''Te-Ke'']].<ref>Bayly/Harper, p. 110</ref> In addition, they had nearly 800 aircraft available. Commonwealth troops were equipped with the [[Lanchester 6x4 Armoured Car]], [[Marmon-Herrington Armoured Car]], [[Universal Carrier]] and only 23 obsolete [[Light Tank Mk VI|Mk VIB light tanks]] (in the 100th Light Tank Squadron of the Indian Army), none of which were sufficiently armed for [[armoured warfare]].<ref name="The Indian cavalry: history of the Indian Armoured Corps, Volume 2"/> They had just over 250 combat aircraft, but half of these were destroyed inside the first few days of combat.

===Commonwealth===
{{Main article|Singapore strategy}}
Between the wars, the British military strategy in the [[Far East]] was undermined by a lack of attention and funding. In 1937, [[Major-general (United Kingdom)|Major-General]] [[William Dobbie]], [[General officer commanding|General Officer Commanding]] (GOC) Malaya (1935–39), looked at Malaya's defences and reported that during the monsoon season, from October to March, landings could be made by an enemy on the east coast and bases could be established in [[Siam]] (Thailand). He predicted that landings could be made at [[Songkhla]] and [[Pattani (town)|Pattani]] in Siam, and [[Kota Bharu]] in Malaya. He recommended large reinforcements to be sent immediately. His predictions turned out to be correct, but his recommendations were ignored. The British government's plans relied primarily on the stationing of a strong fleet at the [[Singapore Naval Base]] in the event of any enemy hostility, in order to defend both Britain's Far Eastern possessions and the route to [[Australia]]. A strong naval presence was also thought to act as a deterrent against possible aggressors.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Rise and Fall of the Singapore Naval Base, 1919–1942 |series=Cambridge Commonwealth Series |first=W. David |last=McIntyre|publisher=MacMillan Press |year=1979 |location=London |isbn=0-333-24867-8 |oclc=5860782 |pages=135–137 }}</ref>

[[File:Arthur Percival.jpg|[[Lieutenant-general (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Arthur Percival]], [[General officer commanding|GOC]] [[Malaya Command]] at the time of the Japanese invasion|left|thumb|150px]]
By 1940, however, the army commander in Malaya, [[Lieutenant-general (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Lionel Bond]], conceded that a successful defence of Singapore demanded the defence of the whole peninsula, and that the naval base alone would not be sufficient to deter a Japanese invasion.<ref name="Bayly/Harper, p. 107">Bayly/Harper, p. 107</ref> Military planners concluded that the desired Malayan [[air force]] strength would be 300–500 aircraft, but this was never reached because of the higher priorities in the allocation of men and material for Britain and the [[Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II|Middle East]].{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

The defence strategy for Malaya rested on two basic assumptions: first, that there would be sufficient early warning of an attack to allow for reinforcement of British troops, and second, that American help was at hand in case of attack. By late 1941, after Lieutenant-General [[Arthur Percival|Arthur E. Percival]] had taken over as GOC Malaya, it became clear that neither of these assumptions had any real substance.<ref name="Bayly/Harper, p. 107"/> In addition, Churchill and Roosevelt had agreed that in the event of war breaking out in [[South East Asia]], priority would be given to finishing the war in [[Europe]]. The east, until that time, would be a secondary priority. Containment was considered the primary strategy in the east.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

===Intelligence operations===
{{See also|F Kikan}}
Planning for this offensive was undertaken by the Japanese Military Affairs Bureau's Unit 82 based in Taiwan. Intelligence on Malaya was gathered through a network of agents which included Japanese embassy staff; disaffected Malayans (particularly members of the Japanese-established ''Tortoise Society'');{{citation needed|date=January 2022}} and Japanese, Korean, and Taiwanese business people and tourists. Japanese spies, which included a British intelligence officer, Captain [[Patrick Stanley Vaughan Heenan]], also provided intelligence and assistance.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/specials/noprisoners/viewpoints/elphick.htm |title=Cover-ups and the Singapore Traitor Affair |first=Peter |last=Elphick |work=Fall of Singapore 60th Anniversary Conference |date=28 November 2001 |access-date=16 October 2022}} Published online by ''Four Corners'', Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 2002.</ref>

Prior to hostilities Japanese intelligence officers like [[Iwaichi Fujiwara]] had established covert intelligence offices (or ''Kikans'') that linked up with the Malay and Indian pro-independence organisations such as [[Kesatuan Melayu Muda]] in Malaya [[Indian Independence League]]. The Japanese gave these movements financial support in return for their members providing intelligence and later assistance in determining Allied troop movements, strengths, and dispositions prior to the invasion.<ref>{{Citation
| surname1 = Lebra
| given1 = Joyce C.
| year = 1971
| title = Japanese trained Armies in South-East Asia
| publisher = New York,Columbia University Press
| isbn = 0-231-03995-6
| pages = 23–24
}}</ref>

Through the operation of these networks prior to the invasion the Japanese knew where the Commonwealth forces were based and their unit strengths, had good maps of Malaya, and had local guides available to provide them with directions.<ref>''New Perspectives on the Japanese Occupation in Malaya and Singapore 1941–1945'', Yōji Akashi and Mako Yoshimura, NUS Press, 2008, page 30, {{ISBN|9971692996}}, 9789971692995</ref>

===November 1941===
In November 1941 the British became aware of the large scale buildup of Japanese troops in French Indo-China. Thailand was seen to be under threat from this build-up as well as Malaya. British strategists had foreseen the possibility of Thailand's Kra isthmus being used by the Japanese to invade Malaya. To counteract this potential threat, plans for a pre-emptive invasion of southern Thailand, named [[Operation Matador (1941)|Operation Matador]], had been drawn up. By the time the invasion became highly likely the British decided not to use them for political reasons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fepow-community.org.uk/arthur_lane/Percivals_Report/html/opening_of_hostilities.htm|title=OPENING OF HOSTILITIES|access-date=27 December 2022}}</ref>

==Japanese invasion of Malaya==
{{Main article|Battle of Kota Bharu}}

The Malayan campaign began when the [[Japanese Twenty-Fifth Army|25th Army]], under the command of Lieutenant General [[Tomoyuki Yamashita]], invaded Malaya on 8 December 1941. Japanese troops launched an [[amphibious assault]] on the northern coast of Malaya at [[Kota Bharu]] and started advancing down the eastern coast of Malaya.<ref name="Kleman1">{{cite web|first = Klemen|last = L |url= https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/kota_bharu.html |title= "Seventy minutes before Pearl Harbor" The landing at Kota Bharu, Malaya, on December 7th 1941 |date=1999–2000 |work=Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942}}</ref> [[Japanese Invasion of Thailand|The Japanese 5th Division also landed at Pattani and Songkhla in Thailand]], then moved south into western Malaya.<ref name="Kleman1" /> French Indo-China was still under French administration, and had little option but to co-operate with the Japanese. The French authorities therefore submitted to the Japanese military using the territory's ports as naval bases, building air bases, and massing forces there for the invasion. Japan also coerced Thailand into co-operating with the invasion, though Thai troops resisted the landings in Thai territory for eight hours.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}

[[First air raid on Singapore|At 04:00, 17 Japanese bombers attacked Singapore]], the first ever air raid on the colony. It became evident to the British that Japanese bombers based in Indochina were now within range of Singapore.<ref name="Kleman1" />

[[File:Yamashita.jpg|Lt Gen Tomoyuki Yamashita, Commander of the Japanese 25th Army|thumb|upright=.75]]
The Japanese were initially resisted by [[Indian III Corps|III Corps]] of the [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]] and several [[British Army]] battalions. The Japanese quickly isolated individual Indian units defending the coastline, before concentrating their forces to surround the defenders and force their surrender.<ref name="Kleman1" /> The Japanese forces held a slight advantage in numbers in northern Malaya and were significantly superior in [[close air support]], [[tank|armour]], co-ordination, tactics, and experience, having fought in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]. The Allies had no tanks, which had put them at a severe disadvantage. The Japanese also used [[bicycle infantry]] and [[light tank]]s, which allowed swift movement of their forces overland through terrain covered with thick [[tropical rainforest]], criss-crossed by native paths. Although the Japanese had not brought bicycles with them (to speed the disembarkation process), they knew from their intelligence that suitable machines were plentiful in Malaya and quickly confiscated what they needed from civilians and retailers.<ref name="Kleman1" />

A replacement for Operation Matador, named [[Operation Krohcol]] by [[British Indian Army]], was implemented on 8 December, but the troops were easily defeated by the [[Royal Thai Police]] and the Japanese 5th Division.<ref name="The Fall of Singapore"/> [[Force Z]] of the Royal Navy ([[battleship]] {{HMS|Prince of Wales|53|6}}, [[battlecruiser]] {{HMS|Repulse|1916|6}}, and four [[destroyer]]s, under the command of [[Thomas Phillips (Naval officer)|Admiral Sir Tom Phillips]]) had arrived right before the outbreak of hostilities. Japanese aircraft based in Indochina [[Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse|sank ''Prince of Wales'' and ''Repulse'']] on 10 December, leaving the east coast of Malaya exposed, allowing the Japanese to continue their invasion.<ref name="Kleman1" />

==Air war==

===Background===
As a lower-priority theatre, the Allies had comparatively few modern aircraft to challenge the Japanese. In addition the Allies did not consider Japanese aircraft a significant threat. In 1941 the Allies assumed that Japan would only have a few hundred poor quality outdated aircraft. The respected ''Janes All the World's Aircraft'' for 1941 indicated that the Japanese only had a cluster of dated foreign and indigenous aircraft. Japanese pilots were also underrated, considered unlikely to make particularly good pilots.<ref>[http://www.combinedfleet.com/ijnaf.htm The Imperial Japanese Navy Air Force in the Pacific War], Steve Lange, 1996, retrieved 1 May 2016</ref>

Prior to the invasion on 8 December there were 75 Allied aircraft stationed in northern Malaya and 83 in Singapore. The only fighter squadron in northern Malaya was No 21 Squadron RAAF that was equipped with 12 Brewster Buffalos.<ref name=Trueman>[http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-two/the-pacific-war-1941-to-1945/the-attack-on-malaya-by-japan/ C N Trueman, "The Attack on Malaya by Japan"] historylearningsite.co.uk, 19 May 2015. 3 March 2016., retrieved 29 April 2016</ref> The Japanese had at least 459 aircraft available.<ref name=Bond>British and Japanese Military Leadership in the Far Eastern War - 1941-45 - Military History and Policy, Brian Bond, Routledge, 2012, page 141, {{ISBN|1136348832}}, 9781136348839</ref>

===Japanese aircraft and units===
[[File:1942 Japan Fighter Aircraft at Penang.jpg|right|250px|Japanese aircraft at Penang - January 1941]]
The Japanese Navy's [[22nd Air Flotilla]] (22nd Kōkū-Sentai) with 110 aircraft and commanded by Vice Admiral Matsunaga Sadaichi operating out of three air bases near [[Saigon]] took part in the initial attacks on Malaya.<ref name=Diamond/><ref name=hist>[http://www.historynet.com/japans-fatally-flawed-air-forces-in-world-war-ii-2.htm Japan's fatally flawed air forces in WW2], John W. Whitman, Aviation History, September 2006, retrieved 1 May 2016</ref><ref name=Kehn>A Blue Sea of Blood: Deciphering the Mysterious Fate of the USS Edsall, Donald M. Kehn, MBI Publishing Company, 2009, page 90, {{ISBN|1616732385}}, 9781616732387</ref>

The 22nd Air Flotilla included the 22nd [[Genzan Air Group|(Genzan)]], Bihoro, and Kanoya Air Groups (or [[Kōkūtai]]).<ref name=Kehn/> They were equipped with 33 Type 96 [[Mitsubishi G3M]]1 ''Nell'' bombers. The Air Flotilla also had 25 Type 96 Mitsubishi A5M4 ''Claude'' fighters available.<ref name=Chant>Japanese Air Service, Air Forces of WW1 and WW2, Chris Chant, Hamlyn Publishing Group, 1979, pages 179 and 184</ref> The Genzen Air Group was a key participant in the [[Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse|sinking]] of the British [[capital ship]]s {{HMS|Prince of Wales|53|6}} and {{HMS|Repulse|1916|6}} off the coast of [[British Malaya|Malaya]] on 10 December 1941, losing one aircraft and its crew during the battle. On 22 January 1942, bombers from the Genzan Air Group attacked [[Kallang Airport]] in [[Singapore]], and subsequently provided air support for Japanese offensives in Malaya including the [[Battle off Endau|landings at Endau]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}

The Japanese 3rd {{nihongo|Air Corps|飛行集団|Hikō Shudan}} and three {{nihongo|Air Combat Groups|飛行戦隊|Hikō Sentai}} of the 5th Air Corps took part in the Malaya Campaign.<ref name=Intro>[http://www.warbirdforum.com/jaaf.htm An introduction to the Japanese Army Air Force], Dan Ford, retrieved 3 May 2016</ref> In total there were 354 [[Imperial Japanese Army Air Service]] (IJAAS) first line aircraft involved together with the 110 [[Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service]] (IJNAS) aircraft.<ref name=Diamond>The Fall of Malaya and Singapore: Rare Photographs from Wartime Archives Images of War, Jon Diamond, Pen and Sword, 2015, {{ISBN|1473854474}}, 9781473854475</ref> The Army units were variously equipped with fighters: [[Nakajima Ki-27]] ''Nate'', [[Nakajima Ki-43]] ''Oscar'', [[Mitsubishi Ki-51]] ''Sonia''; bombers: [[Kawasaki Ki-48]] ''Lily'', [[Mitsubishi Ki-21]] ''Sally'', [[Mitsubishi Ki-30]] ''Ann''; and reconnaissance: [[Mitsubishi Ki-15]] ''Babs'', [[Mitsubishi Ki-46]] ''Dinah''.<ref name=Chant/>

Most Japanese pilots of the IJAAS units and at least a quarter of the IJNAS pilots had combat experience against the Chinese and the Soviets. They were all very well trained.<ref name=Intro/>

===Allied aircraft and units===
[[File:Bristol Blenheims 62 Squadron Singapore Feb 1941.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bristol Blenheim]] bombers of [[No. 62 Squadron RAF]] lined up at Tengah, Singapore, 8 February 1941.]]
Prior to the commencement of hostilities the Allies in Malaya and Singapore had four fighter squadrons: [[No. 21 Squadron RAAF|21]] and [[No. 453 Squadron RAAF|453 RAAF]], [[No. 243 Squadron RAF|243 RAF]], and [[No. 488 Squadron RNZAF|488 RNZAF]]. They were equipped with the [[Brewster F2A Buffalo|Brewster Buffalo B-399E]], a plane that aviation historian Dan Ford characterized as pathetic.<ref name=Harper1>[http://www.warbirdforum.com/secret.htm Squadron Leader W.J. Harper, 1946, "REPORT ON NO. 21 AND NO. 453 RAAF SQUADRONS" (UK Air Ministry)], p.1 (Source: UK Public Records Office, ref. AIR 20/5578; transcribed by Dan Ford for ''Warbird's Forum''.) Access date: 8 September 2007</ref><ref name=Harper2>{{cite web|url=http://www.warbirdforum.com/secret2.htm|title=RAAF 21/453 Squadrons: the secret report|access-date=27 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111054630/http://www.warbirdforum.com/secret2.htm|archive-date=11 November 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> Its engine had fuel starvation problems and poor supercharger performance at higher altitudes. Maneuverability was poor and the engine tended to overheat in the tropical climate, spraying oil over the windscreen.<ref name="Article">Rickard, J. [http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/weapons_F2A_british.html "Brewster Buffalo in British Service."] ''historyofwar.org'', 27 June 2007. Retrieved: 6 September 2009.</ref> In service, some effort was made to improve performance by removing the armour plate, armoured windshields, radios, gun camera, and all other unnecessary equipment, and by replacing the .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns with .303 in (7.7 mm) machine guns.<ref name="The Illustrated Directory of Fighting Aircraft of World War II">Gunston, Bill, "The Illustrated Directory of Fighting Aircraft of World War II", Salamander Books, 1988. {{ISBN|0-86288-672-4}}.</ref> The fuselage tanks were filled with a minimum of fuel and run on high-octane aviation petrol where available.<ref name="Harper1"/><ref name="Harper2"/>

The remaining offensive aircraft consisted of four RAF squadrons of [[Bristol Blenheim]] I and IV [[light bomber]]s ([[No. 27 Squadron RAF|27]], [[No. 34 Squadron RAF|34]], [[No. 60 Squadron RAF|60]], [[No. 62 Squadron RAF|62]] Squadrons), two RAAF squadrons ([[No. 1 Squadron RAAF|1]] and [[No. 8 Squadron RAAF|8]]) of [[Lockheed Hudson]]s, and two RAF squadrons of [[Vickers Vildebeest]] [[torpedo bomber]]s ([[No. 36 Squadron RAF|36]] and [[No. 100 Squadron RAF|100]]). The Vildebeests were considered obsolete for the European theatre of operations. No 36 Squadron had some [[Fairey Albacore]] biplanes. There were also two [[Consolidated PBY Catalina|PBY Catalina]] flying boats of [[No. 205 Squadron RAF]] and three Catalinas from the [[Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force]] at Singapore.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}

The squadrons were beset by numerous problems including inadequate spare parts and a lack of support staff, airfields that were difficult to defend against air attack with no early warning of impending attacks, a lack of a clear and coherent command structure, [[Patrick Stanley Vaughan Heenan|a Japanese spy in the Army air liaison staff]], and antagonism between RAF and RAAF squadrons and personnel. The Japanese through their network of informants knew the strength and disposition of Allied aircraft before they invaded.<ref name="Article" /><ref name="Harper p. 1-2">Harper 1946, pp. 1–2.</ref>

Many of the pilots lacked adequate training and experience. For example, a total of 20 of the original 169 Buffalos were lost in training accidents during 1941. Those fighter pilots with experience had been trained in methods that were very effective against German and Italian fighters but suicide against the acrobatic Japanese [[Nakajima Ki-43]] "Oscar" and [[Mitsubishi A6M Zero|Mitsubishi A6M "Zero"]]. A counter tactic of avoiding dog fights with a ''slash and run'' attack was developed by Lieutenant-General [[Claire Lee Chennault]] of the [[Flying Tigers]] but was too late for the Allied pilots serving in this campaign.<ref>Smith 2015, pp. 146–149.</ref><ref name="Spick p.165">Spick 1997, p. 165.</ref>
Two days before the attack on Malaya, No 1 Squadron [RAAF] Hudsons spotted the Japanese invasion fleet but, given uncertainty about the ships' destination and instructions to avoid offensive operations until attacks were made against friendly territory, [[Robert Brooke-Popham|Sir Robert Brooke-Popham]], the Commander-in-Chief of [[British Far East Command]] did not allow the convoy to be bombed.<ref name="RAAFww2 p200-1">Gillison, ''Royal Australian Air Force'', pp. 200–201</ref><ref name="Bloody1 p74-5">Shores et al., ''Bloody Shambles Volume One'', pp. 74–75</ref>

===Air campaign===
[[File:453 Squadron RAAF Buffalo fighters scrambling.jpg|thumb|Pilots of [[No. 453 Squadron RAAF]] responding to a scramble order]]
On the first day, the focus of the Japanese air assault was on the Allied air bases. Mitsubishi Ki-21 ''Sally''s from the 7th Hikodan bombed the airfields at [[Sultan Abdul Halim Airport|Alor Star]], Sungai Petani, and [[RMAF Butterworth|Butterworth]]. A total of 60 Allied aircraft were lost on the first day, primarily on the ground.<ref name=Trueman/> Those Allied fighters that did manage to engage the Japanese performed adequately against the [[Nakajima Ki-27]] "Nate". However, the appearance of ever greater numbers of Japanese fighters, including markedly superior types such as the [[Nakajima Ki-43]] "Oscar" soon overwhelmed the Buffalo pilots, both in the air and on the ground.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}

While contesting the [[Japanese invasion of Malaya|Japanese landings on Malaya]], Hudsons from [[No. 1 Squadron RAAF]] based at Kota Bharu became the first aircraft to make an attack in the [[Pacific War]], sinking Japanese transport ship [[Japanese ship Awazisan Maru|''Awazisan Maru'']], while also damaging ''[[Ayatosan Maru]]'' and ''Sakura Maru'' off the coast of [[Kota Bharu]], for the loss of two Hudsons, at 0118h local time (an hour before the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]]).{{citation needed|date=January 2022}} The Squadron was transferred to Kuantan the following day.

By 9 December, Japanese fighters were operating out of Singora and Patani, Thailand, and [[Sultan Ismail Petra Airport|Kota Bharu airfield]] was in Japanese hands.<ref name=Bond/> The Allies tried to attack Singora airfield. The bombers were intercepted on take-off by a Japanese raid which disabled or shot down all but one. The sole surviving bomber, a [[Bristol Blenheim]] flown by [[Arthur Scarf]], did manage to bomb Singora.<ref name=VCref>{{London Gazette |issue=37623|date=21 June 1946 |page=3211|supp=y}}</ref> No 62 squadron had been moved from Alor Star to Butterworth, and on 10 December it was moved to Taiping.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}

On 10 December, No 21 Squadron RAAF was withdrawn from Sungai Petani to Ipoh, where it was joined on 13 December by No 453 Squadron RAAF. No 453 Squadron had been sent to protect Force Z on 10 December, but arrived after the warships were sinking. On 15 December both Squadrons were pulled back to Kuala Lumpur, receiving replacement aircraft for those shot down or destroyed. Within the first week of the campaign the Japanese had established air superiority. On 19 December the bombers were moved to Singapore, with No 62 Squadron being re-equipped with Hudsons.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

One pilot—Sergeant Malcolm Neville Read of No. 453 Squadron RAAF—sacrificed himself by ramming his Buffalo into an Oscar of 64th ''Sentai'' over Kuala Lumpur on 22 December.<ref name="Notable Brewster Buffalo pilots in Southeast Asia, 1941-42">{{Cite web |title= Notable Brewster Buffalo pilots in Southeast Asia, 1941–42 | url= http://www.warbirdforum.com/notable.htm}}</ref><ref name="Aeroprints">{{Cite web |title=Gallery |website=Aeroprints: The Aviation Art of Jon Field |url = http://www.aeroprints.co.uk/gallery.htm |access-date = 23 November 2022}}</ref>

Continued Japanese dominance eventually forced both Squadrons back to Singapore on 24 December, where they were merged until more replacement aircraft could be obtained. No 64 Squadron had run out of aircraft and its surviving ground-crew and airmen were shipped to Burma. RAAF No 1 and No 8 squadrons were amalgamated due to aircraft losses. This left the Allied ground troops and shipping completely open to air attack and further weakened the defensive position.<ref>Milan Vego. ''Maritime Strategy and Sea Control: Theory and Practice''. In Cass Series: ''Naval Policy and History''. Routledge, 2016. page 229, {{ISBN|1317439848}}, 9781317439844</ref> The [[Genzan Air Group]] [[Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse|sank ''Prince of Wales'' and ''Repulse'']] on 10 December, which also established Japanese naval supremacy.<ref>Frank Owen. ''The Fall of Singapore''. Penguin Books, 2001, {{ISBN|0-14-139133-2}}</ref> In comparison, the Japanese army enjoyed close air support from the start of the campaign, and sought to capture bases for their air support to operate from.<ref>Thomas B. Buell, John H. Bradley, Jack W. Dice; Editor Thomas E. Griess. ''The Second World War: Asia and the Pacific''. Volume 2 of ''The Second World War'' - West Point military history series. United States Military Academy - Department of History; Square One Publishers, Inc., 2002. {{ISBN|0757001629}}, 9780757001628. page 69</ref>

On 25 December, the [[2-VLG-V (ML-KNIL)|Second division of Squadron 5]], [[Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force]] was deployed to Singapore, contributing to the Allied cause before being recalled to [[Java]] on 18 January. Several Dutch pilots—including [[Jacob van Helsdingen]] and [[August Deibel]]—responded to a number of air raids over Singapore while stationed at [[Kallang Airport]]. They claimed a total of six aircraft, particularly the [[Nakajima Ki-27]] Nate, which fared poorly in Malaya.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

On 3 January 1942, 51 disassembled Hurricane Mk IIBs arrived in Singapore along with 24 pilots (many of whom were veterans of the Battle of Britain) who had been transferred to there with the intention of forming the nucleus of five squadrons.<ref>Cull, Brian and Brian and Paul Sortehaug. ''Hurricanes Over Singapore: RAF, RNZAF and NEI Fighters in Action Against the Japanese Over the Island and the Netherlands East Indies, 1942 ''. London: Grub Street, 2004. {{ISBN|1-904010-80-6}}</ref> The 151st Maintenance unit assembled the 51 Hurricanes within two days and of these, 21 were ready for operational service within three days. The Hurricanes were fitted with bulky 'Vokes' dust filters under the nose and were armed with 12, rather than eight, machine guns. The additional weight and drag made them slow to climb and unwieldy to maneuver at altitude, although they were more effective bomber killers.<ref>Shores 1992, p. 297.</ref>

The recently arrived pilots were formed into [[No. 232 Squadron RAF|232 Squadron]]. In addition, [[No. 488 Squadron RNZAF|488 (NZ) Squadron]], a Buffalo squadron, converted to Hurricanes. On 18 January, the two squadrons formed the basis of [[No. 226 Group RAF|226 Group]]. The following day 453 squadron provided an escort of eight aircraft for five Wirraways and four NEI [[Martin B-10|Glenn Martin bombers]], attacking Japanese troops on the Maur River. All the Martins and one of the Wirraways were lost.<ref>[http://www.historyofwar.org/air/units/RAAF/453_wwII.html No. 453 Squadron (RAAF): Second World War], retrieved 6 May 2016</ref>

No 243 Squadron RAF, equipped with Buffalo fighters, was disbanded on 21 January and 232 Squadron became operational on 22 January, the same day the Genzan Air Group attacked Kallang Airport. 232 Squadron thus had the first losses and victories for the Hurricane in Southeast Asia that day.<ref name="Your Planes and Your Work Defend Your Empire">[http://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/32022 "Your Planes and Your Work Defend Your Empire (Poster)."] ''Imperial War Museum'' (Printer: Fosh and Cross Ltd, London). Retrieved: 17 November 2011.</ref> Most of the bombers were moved to Sumatra midway through January.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}

Aircraft from [[No. 36 Squadron RAF|36]], [[No. 62 Squadron RAF|62]], and [[No. 100 Squadron RAF|100 Squadrons]] unsuccessfully attacked the Japanese invasion fleet at Endau on 26 January, suffering heavy losses. The surviving aircraft were evacuated to Sumatra on 31 January.<ref>Clayton, Graham (2008). ''Last Stand in Singapore: The Story of 488 Squadron RNZAF''. Auckland, New Zealand: Random House. {{ISBN|978-1-86979-033-2}}</ref>

In mid-January, the three Sentai of the 5th Air Corps returned to Thailand to participate in the [[Burma Campaign]] and the 3rd Air Corps turned its attention to the Netherlands East Indies.<ref name=Intro/> In the end, more than 60 Brewster aircraft were shot down in combat, 40 destroyed on the ground, and approximately 20 more destroyed in accidents. Only about 20 Buffalos survived to reach India or the Dutch East Indies.<ref name="Huggins 2007, pp. 35–36">Huggins 2007, pp. 35–36.</ref> The last airworthy Buffalo in Singapore flew out on 10 February, five days before [[Battle of Singapore|the island fell]].<ref name="Stenman & Thomas 2010, p. 67.">Stenman and Thomas 2010, p. 67.</ref> The RAAF and RNZAF fighter squadrons left for Sumatra and Java at the beginning of February.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}

It is not entirely clear how many Japanese aircraft the Buffalo squadrons shot down, although RAAF pilots alone managed to shoot down at least 20.<ref name="Dennis115">Dennis et al. 2008, p. 115.</ref> Eighty were claimed in total, a ratio of kills to losses of just 1.3 to 1. Additionally, most of the Japanese aircraft shot down by the Buffalos were bombers.<ref name="Article"/> The [[Hawker Hurricane]], which fought in Singapore alongside the Buffalo from 20 January, also suffered severe losses from ground attack; most were destroyed.<ref>Wixey 2003, pp. 38–39.</ref>

==Advance down the Malayan Peninsula==
[[File:Pacific War - Malaya 1941-42 - Map.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Map of the Malayan campaign]]
The defeat of Allied troops at the [[Battle of Jitra]] by Japanese forces, supported by tanks moving south from Thailand on 11 December 1941 and the rapid advance of the Japanese inland from their Kota Bharu beachhead on the north-east coast of Malaya overwhelmed the northern defences. Without any real naval presence, the British were unable to challenge Japanese naval operations off the Malayan coast, which proved invaluable to the invaders. With virtually no remaining Allied planes, the Japanese also had mastery of the skies, leaving the Allied ground troops and civilian population exposed to air attack.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NbXccb3rkSUC&pg=PA69|title=The Second World War: Asia and the Pacific|first1=Thomas E.|last1=Griess|first2=Thomas B.|last2=Buell|first3=John H.|last3=Bradley|first4=Jack W.|last4=Dice|date=10 October 2018|publisher=Square One Publishers, Inc.|isbn=9780757001628|via=Google Books}}</ref>

The Malayan island of [[Penang]] was bombed daily by the Japanese from 8 December and abandoned on 17 December. Arms, boats, supplies and a working radio station were left in haste to the Japanese. The evacuation of Europeans from Penang, with local inhabitants being left to the mercy of the Japanese, caused much embarrassment for the British and alienated them from the local population. Historians judge that "the moral collapse of British rule in Southeast Asia came not at Singapore, but at Penang".<ref>Bayly/Harper, p. 119</ref> However, many who were present during the evacuation did not experience it as a scramble. It was a response to an order from British High Command which had come to the conclusion that Penang should be abandoned as it had no tactical or strategic value in the rapidly changing military scheme of things at that time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fepow-community.org.uk/arthur_lane/Percivals_Report/html/withdrawal_from_nth___malaya.htm |title=Withdrawal from North Malaya |access-date=18 October 2022}}</ref>

[[File:Indian troops march in Malaya 1941.jpg|thumb|left|Indian troops march in Malaya]]

On 23 December, Major-General [[David Murray-Lyon]] of the [[Indian 11th Infantry Division]] was removed from command to little effect. By the end of the first week in January, the entire northern region of Malaya had been lost to the Japanese. At the same time, Thailand officially signed a Treaty of Friendship with Imperial Japan, which completed the formation of their loose military alliance. Thailand was then allowed by the Japanese to resume sovereignty over several sultanates in northern Malaya, thus consolidating their occupation.

The [[Indian 11th Infantry Division|11th Indian Division]] managed to delay the Japanese advance at [[Battle of Kampar|Kampar]] for a few days, in which the Japanese suffered severe casualties in terrain that did not allow them to use their tanks or their air superiority to defeat the British. The 11th Indian Division was forced to retreat when the Japanese landed troops by sea south of the Kampar position. The British retreated to prepared positions at [[Slim River]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVxPFh4RVlUC&q=The+British+retreated+to+prepared+positions+at+Slim+river&pg=PA43 |title=World War II Japanese Tank Tactics |isbn=9781780961446 |access-date=27 December 2014|last1=Rottman |first1=Gordon L. |date=20 October 2011 }}</ref>

At the [[Battle of Slim River]], in which two Indian brigades were practically annihilated, the Japanese used surprise and tanks to devastating effect in a risky night attack. The success of this attack forced Percival into replacing the 11th Indian Division with the 8th Australian Division.{{citation needed|date = January 2022}}, and cleared the route to the city of Kuala Lumpur.

It did not take long for the Japanese army's next objective, the city of [[Kuala Lumpur]], to fall. The Japanese entered and occupied the city unopposed on 11 January 1942. Singapore Island was now less than {{convert|200|mi|km|abbr=on}} away for the invading Japanese army.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zosKzAoocu8C&q=japanese+Japanese+entered+kuala+lumpur&pg=PA150 |title=Britain's Greatest Defeat |isbn=9781852855970 |access-date=27 December 2014|last1=Warren |first1=Alan |date=January 2006 }}</ref>

==Defence of Johor==
{{Main article|Battle of Muar}}
[[File:Royal Engineers prepare to blow up a bridge in Malaya.jpg|thumb|[[Royal Engineers]] preparing to blow up a bridge near [[Kuala Lumpur]] during the retreat]]
By mid-January, the Japanese had reached the southern Malayan state of [[Johore]] where, on 14 January, they encountered troops from the [[Australian 8th Division]], commanded by [[Major-General]] [[Henry Gordon Bennett|Gordon Bennett]], for the first time in the campaign. During engagements with the Australians, the Japanese experienced their first major tactical setback, due to the stubborn resistance put up by the Australians at [[Gemas]]. The [[Battle of Gemas|battle]]—centred around the [[Gemencheh Bridge]]—proved costly for the Japanese, who suffered up to 600 casualties. However, the bridge itself (which had been demolished during the fighting) was repaired within six hours.<ref name="The Battle of Muar">{{cite web|url=http://www.awm.gov.au/cms_images/histories/20/chapters/12.pdf|title=The Japanese Thrust|last=Wigmore|first=Lionel|year=1957|publisher=Australian War Memorial|access-date=17 April 2022}}</ref>

As the Japanese attempted to outflank the Australians to the west of Gemas,<ref>{{YouTube|7PFJe2rRXwM}}</ref> one of the bloodiest battles of the campaign began on 15 January on the peninsula's West coast near the [[Muar River]]. Bennett allocated the 45th Indian Brigade—a new and half-trained formation—to defend the river's South bank but the unit was outflanked by Japanese units landing from the sea and the Brigade was effectively destroyed with its commander, [[Brigadier]] [[H. C. Duncan]], and all three of his battalion commanders killed.<ref name="The Battle of Muar"/> Two Australian infantry battalions—which had been sent to support the 45th Brigade—were also outflanked and their retreat cut off, with one of the Australian battalion commanders killed in the fighting around the town of [[Bukit Bakri|Bakri]], south-east of Muar. During the fighting at Bakri Australian anti-tank gunners had destroyed nine Japanese tanks,<ref name="The Battle of Muar"/> slowing the Japanese advance long enough for the surviving elements of the five battalions to attempt an escape from the Muar area.<ref name="The Battle of Muar"/>

[[File:UmpCABKYXM0.jpg|thumb|left|Australian anti-tank gunners firing on Japanese tanks at the Muar-Parit Sulong Road]]

Led by Australian [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] [[Charles Groves Wright Anderson|Charles Anderson]], the surviving Indian and Australian troops formed the "Muar Force" and fought a desperate four-day withdrawal,<ref name="The Battle of Muar"/> allowing remnants of the Commonwealth troops withdrawing from northern Malaya to avoid being cut off and to push past the Japanese to safety. When the Muar Force reached the bridge at [[Parit Sulong]] and found it to be firmly in enemy hands, Anderson, with mounting numbers of dead and wounded, ordered "every man for himself". Those who could took to the jungles, swamps and rubber plantations in search of their division headquarters at [[Yong Peng]]. The wounded were left to the mercy of the Japanese, and all but two out of 135 were tortured and killed in the [[Parit Sulong massacre|Parit Sulong Massacre]]. Anderson was awarded a [[Victoria Cross]] for his fighting withdrawal.<ref name="The Battle of Muar"/> The Battle of Muar cost the allies an estimated 3,000 casualties including one brigadier and four battalion commanders.<ref name="The Battle of Muar"/>

On 20 January, further Japanese landings took place at [[Endau]], in spite of an air attack by Vildebeest bombers. The final Commonwealth defensive line in Johore of [[Batu Pahat]]–[[Kluang]]–[[Mersing]] was now being attacked along its full length. In the face of repeated requests from his Chief Engineer, Brigadier [[Ivan Simson]], Percival had resisted the construction of fixed defences in Johore, as on the North shore of Singapore, dismissing them with the comment, "Defences are bad for morale." On 27 January, Percival received permission from the commander of the [[American-British-Dutch-Australian Command]], General [[Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Archibald Wavell]], to order a retreat across the [[Johore Strait]] to the island of [[Singapore]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}

==Retreat to Singapore==
{{Main article|Fall of Singapore}}
[[File:Singapore causeway blown up.jpg|thumb|A view of the causeway, blown up after the Allied retreat, with the visible gap in the middle]]
On 31 January, the last organised Allied forces left Malaya, and Allied engineers blew a {{convert|70|ft|m|abbr=on}}-wide hole in the [[Johor Causeway|causeway]] that linked [[Johore]] and Singapore; a few stragglers would wade across over the next few days. Japanese raiders and infiltrators, often disguised as Singaporean civilians, began to cross the [[Straits of Johor]] in inflatable boats soon afterwards.{{citation needed|date = January 2022}}

In less than two months, the Battle for Malaya had ended in comprehensive defeat for the Commonwealth forces and their retreat from the [[Malay Peninsula]] to the fortress of Singapore. Nearly 50,000 Commonwealth troops had been captured or killed during the battle. The Japanese Army invaded the island of Singapore on 7 February and completed their conquest of the island on 15 February, capturing 80,000 more prisoners out of the 85,000 allied defenders.{{citation needed|date = January 2022}} The final battle before the surrender was with the [[Royal Malay Regiment|Malay Regiment]] at Bukit Candu on 14 February.

By the end of January, Heenan had been court-martialled for spying for the Japanese and sentenced to death. On 13 February, five days after the invasion of Singapore Island, and with Japanese forces approaching the city centre, he was taken by military police to the waterside and was hastily executed. His body was thrown into the sea.<ref>Elphick, Peter; Smith, Michael (1994). Odd Man Out, the Story of the Singapore Traitor (2nd ed.). Trafalgar Square. {{ISBN|9780340617014}}</ref>

==Battles of the campaign==
* [[Battle of Kota Bharu]] (8 December 1941) Three transports landed some 5,200 troops at Kota Bharu (Malaysia's NE corner). The beaches had been prepared with wire and pillboxes, and were defended with artillery and aircraft. One Japanese transport was sunk, with two damaged. But after heavy fighting the Japanese succeeded in landing most of their troops with about 800 casualties.
* [[Bombing of Singapore (8 December 1941)|Bombing of Singapore (December 1941)]]
* [[Operation Krohcol|Operation Krohcol (8 December 1941)]] This was an advance by commonwealth forces into Thailand to destroy the main road at "The Ledge". The operation failed due to delays in authorisation by Percival and resistance by Thai police.
* [[Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse|Sinking of ''Prince of Wales'' and ''Repulse'' (10 December 1941)]] The British battleship Prince of Wales and battlecruiser Repulse were sunk by Japanese aircraft after relying on false intelligence as to the location of the landings. They had no air support. This was the first time any capital ships at sea had been sunk by aircraft.
* [[Battle of Jitra|Battle of Jitra (11–13 December 1941)]]
* [[Battle of Kampar|Battle of Kampar (1941)]]
* [[Battle of Slim River|Battle of Slim River (1942)]]
* [[Battle of Gemas|Battle of Gemas (1942)]]
* [[Battle of Muar|Battle of Muar (1942)]]
* [[Battle off Endau|Battle off Endau (1942)]]
* [[Battle of Singapore|Battle of Singapore (1942)]]

==See also==
* [[Far East prisoners of war]]
* [[Japanese invasion of Thailand]]
* [[Japanese occupation of Malaya]]
* [[Japanese order of battle during the Malayan Campaign]]
* [[Malaya Command]]: Order of Battle

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
* Bayly, Christopher / Harper, Tim: ''Forgotten Armies. Britain's Asian Empire and the War with Japan.'' Penguin Books, London, 2005
* Bose, Romen, "Secrets of the Battlebox: The Role and history of Britain's Command HQ during the Malayan Campaign", Marshall Cavendish, Singapore, 2005
* {{cite book|last = Burton|first = John|year = 2006|title = Fortnight of Infamy: The Collapse of Allied Airpower West of Pearl Harbor|publisher = US Naval Institute Press |isbn = 978-1-59114-096-2}}
* {{cite book | last = Corfield | first = Justin & Robin | year = 2012 | title = The Fall of Singapore | publisher = Talisman Books | location = Singapore | isbn = 978-981-07-0984-6}}
* {{cite book | last = Cull | first = Brian | year = 2004 | title = Hurricanes Over Singapore: RAF, RNZAF and NEI Fighters in Action Against the Japanese over the Island and the Netherlands East Indies, 1942 | publisher = Grub Street | location = London | isbn = 978-1-904010-80-7}}
* {{cite book | last = Cull | first = Brian | year = 2008 | title = Buffaloes over Singapore: RAF, RAAF, RNZAF and Dutch Brewster Fighters in Action Over Malaya and the East Indies 1941–1942 | publisher = Grub Street | location = London | isbn = 978-1-904010-32-6}}
* Dixon, Norman F, ''[[On the Psychology of Military Incompetence]]'', London, 1976
* {{cite book |last = Falk |first = Stanley L. |year = 1975 |title = Seventy days to Singapore: The Malayan Campaign, 1941–1942 |publisher = Hale |location = London |isbn = 978-0-7091-4928-6}}
* {{cite book |last = Kelly |first = Terence | year = 2008 | title = Hurricanes Versus Zeros: Air Battles over Singapore, Sumatra and Java | publisher = Pen and Sword | location = Barnsley | isbn = 978-1-84415-622-1}}
* {{cite web|last=L. |first=Klemen |url=https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/index.html |title=Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942 |date=1999–2000 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726053035/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/index.html |archive-date=26 July 2011 }}
* Seki, Eiji. (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=u5KgAAAACAAJ&dq=Mrs.+Ferguson%27s+Tea-set,+Japan,+and+the+Second+World+War&client=firefox-a ''Mrs. Ferguson's Tea-Set, Japan and the Second World War: The Global Consequences Following Germany's Sinking of the SS Automedon in 1940.''] London: [[Global Oriental]]. {{ISBN|978-1-905246-28-1}} (cloth) [reprinted by [[University of Hawaii Press]], Honolulu, 2007 – [https://web.archive.org/web/20080603230645/http://www.uhpress.hawaii.edu/cart/shopcore/?db_name=uhpress&page=shop%2Fflypage&product_id=4475&PHPSESSID=75b7d372eb6f6c4d747ec0a150c42ead UH Press: Books and Journals published by the University of Hawaii Press] previously announced as ''Sinking of the SS Automedon and the Role of the Japanese Navy: A New Interpretation''.
* Shores, Christopher F; Cull, Brian; Izawa, Yasuho. ''Bloody Shambles, The First Comprehensive Account of the Air Operations over South-East Asia December 1941 – April 1942'' Volume One: ''Drift to War to the Fall of Singapore''. London: Grub Street Press. (1992) {{ISBN|978-0-948817-50-2}}
* Smith, Colin, ''Singapore Burning: Heroism and Surrender in World War II'', London, 2005.
* Smyth, John George Smyth, ''Percival and the Tragedy of Singapore'', MacDonald and Company, 1971.
* Thompson, Peter, ''The Battle for Singapore'', London, 2005, {{ISBN|978-0-7499-5068-2}} (HB)
* Warren, Alan, ''Singapore: Britain's Greatest Defeat'', Singapore, 2002.
* {{cite book |series=Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 1 – Army |volume=IV |work=The Japanese Thrust |title=Part II: South–East Asia Conquered |chapter=Chapter 8: Invasion of Malaya |pages=137–152 |year=1957 |last=Wigmore |first=Lionel |publisher=[[Australian War Memorial]] |location=Canberra, ACT |edition=online, 1st |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/RCDIG1070127/ |chapter-url=https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/RCDIG1070101/ |access-date=3 November 2016 |id=RCDIG1070203 |oclc=464084033}}
* Gurcharn Singh Sandhu, ''The Indian cavalry: history of the Indian Armoured Corps, Volume 2'', Vision Books, 1978 {{ISBN|978-81-7094-004-3}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Malayan Campaign}}
* [http://www.cofepow.org.uk/pages/armedforces_m_campaign.html COFEPOW – The Armed Forced – The Campaign in Malaya]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090503114041/http://www.remuseum.org.uk/corpshistory/rem_corps_part16.htm Royal Engineers and the Second World War – the Far East]: Royal Engineers Museum
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080201153314/http://www.ww2australia.gov.au/japadvance/malaya.html Australia's War 1939–1945: Battle of Malaya]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071012163058/http://historyanimated.com/pacificwaranimated/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=22&Itemid=34 Animated History of the Fall of Malaya and Singapore]

{{World War II}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malaya Campaign}}
[[Category:British Malaya in World War II]]
[[Category:Military history of Malaya during World War II| ]]
[[Category:Military history of Singapore during World War II]]
[[Category:Wars involving pre-independence Malaysia]]
[[Category:1941 in British Malaya]]
[[Category:1942 in British Malaya]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1941]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1942]]
[[Category:British Malaya]]
[[Category:Straits Settlements]]
[[Category:World War II operations and battles of the Southeast Asia Theatre]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Australia]]
[[Category:Military history of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Military history of Thailand during World War II]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving Japan]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving India]]
[[Category:Campaigns, operations and battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:December 1941 events]]
[[Category:January 1942 events]]

IndianPedia - User contributions [en]

Malayan campaign