List of ancient great powers

2021-11-01T07:07:20Z

138.9.171.234:

{{short description|Bharatpedia list article}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=June 2020}}
{{Very long|date=August 2015}}}}
{{See also|Ancient history}}
[[File:Colosseum in Rome-April 2007-1- copie 2B.jpg|350px|thumb|right|The exterior of the [[Colosseum]] at night, showing the partially intact outer wall (left) and the mostly intact inner wall (right), one of the best-known symbols of the [[Roman Empire]].]]

'''Recognized [[great power]]s''' came about first in [[Europe]] during the post-[[Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic]] era.<ref name="British Diplomacy 1813–1815">Webster, Charles K, Sir (ed), British Diplomacy 1813–1815: Selected Documents Dealing with the Reconciliation of Europe, G Bell (1931), p307.</ref> The formalization of the division between [[small powers]]<ref>Toje, A. (2010). The European Union as a small power: After the post-Cold War. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.</ref> and great powers came about with the signing of the [[Treaty of Chaumont]] in 1814. A great power is a [[nation]] or [[State (polity)|state]] that, through its great [[economic]], [[politics|political]] and [[military]] strength, is able to exert [[Power (philosophy)|power]] and [[Sphere of influence|influence]] over not only its own region of the world, but beyond to others.

The historical terms "'''Great Nation'''",<ref>Edward Sylvester Ellis, Charles F. Horne (1906). The story of the greatest nations: from the dawn of history to the twentieth century : a comprehensive history founded upon the leading authorities, including a complete chronology of the world and a pronouncing vocabulary of each nation, Volume 1. F. R. Niglutsch.</ref><ref>In Powell, T. (1888). Illustrated home book of the world's great nations: Being a geographical, historical and pictorial encyclopedia. Chicago: People's Pub. Co.</ref><ref>Yonge, C. M. (1882). A pictorial history of the world's great nations: From the earliest dates to the present time. New York: S. Hess.</ref> a distinguished aggregate of people inhabiting a particular country or territory, and "'''Great Empire'''",<ref>Harrison, T., & J. Paul Getty Museum. (2009). The great empires of the ancient world. Los Angeles, Calif: J. Paul Getty Museum.</ref> a considerable group of states or countries under a single supreme authority, are [[colloquial]] conversations (historical [[jargon]]).

{{TOC limit|limit=4}}

== Ancient Western Asia ==
{{main|Ancient Near East}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Ancient Near East]]
|-
|
[[File:14 century BC Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East.png|thumb|center|
Map of the ancient Near East during the [[Amarna Period]], showing the great powers of the period.
----
{|
|{{color box|orange}} [[Ancient Egypt]] 
{{color box|blue}} [[Hittite Empire]] 
{{color box|black}} [[Kassites]]
|
{{color box|yellow}} [[Assyria]] 
{{color box|brown}} [[Mitanni]] 
{{color box|purple}} [[Mycenaean Greece|Achaean/ Mycenaean]]
|}]]
|}

=== Sumer and Akkad ===
{{Main|Sumer|Akkadian Empire}}{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}

'''Sumer''' (or ''Šumer'') was one of the early civilizations of the [[Ancient Near East]], located in the southern part of [[Mesopotamia]] (modern-day [[Iraq]]) from the time of the earliest records in the mid [[4th millennium BC]] until the rise of [[Babylonia]] in the late 3rd millennium BC. The term "Sumerian" applies to all speakers of the [[Sumerian language]]. Sumer (together with [[Ancient Egypt]] and the [[Indus Valley Civilization]]) is considered the first settled society in the world to have manifested all the features needed to qualify fully as a "[[civilization]]", eventually expanding into the first [[empire]] in history, the [[Akkadian Empire]].

=== Mitanni ===
{{main|Hurrians}}
{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Hurrians]]
|-
|
[[File:Orientmitja2300aC.png|thumb|center|
{{color box|#c7699d}} Hurrian kingdom in 2300 BC. 
----
{{color box|#84c44a}} Akkad 
{{color box|#f8c301}} Elam ]]
|}
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
The [[Hurrians]] refer to a people who inhabited northern Mesopotamia beginning approximately 2500 BC. The ''Hurrian kingdoms'' of the Ancient Near East was in Northern Mesopotamia and its people lived in the adjacent regions during the [[Bronze Age]]. The largest and most influential Hurrian nation was the [[kingdom of Mitanni]]. The population of the [[Hittite Empire]] in Anatolia to a large part consisted of Hurrians, and there is significant Hurrian influence in Hittite mythology.

By the Early Iron Age, the Hurrians had been assimilated with other peoples, except perhaps in the [[kingdom of Urartu]]. The Hurrian peoples were not incredibly united, existing as quasi-feudal kingdoms. The kingdom of Mitanni was at its height towards the close of the 14th century BC. By the 13th century BC, the Hurrian kingdoms had been conquered by foreign powers, chiefly the Assyrians.{{clear}}

=== Babylonia ===
{{main|Babylon}}{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}

The profound political, social, and cultural influence imposed upon the Near East by the civilization known as the [[Babylonia|Ancient Babylonian Empire]] was the most pervasive in this historical period. The city itself, [[Babylon]], positioned itself as a center of pivotal historical developments for centuries. There were 3 major Babylonian Dynasties: Amorite, Kassite, and Chaldean. This political entity was most predominate within the southern portion of Mesopotamia. It existed as an unremitting rival of the northern Assyrian Mesopotamians. Although it was assaulted and militarily overcome on several occasions, it did exist as a stalwart presence from the later 3rd millennium BC to the middle of the 6th century BC. After the fall of the Assyrian Empire in 612 BC, the Babylonian Empire was the most powerful state in the ancient world. Its capital, Babylon, was beautifully adorned by King Nebuchadnezzar, who erected several famous buildings. Even after the Babylonian Empire had been overthrown by the Persian king Cyrus the Great in 539 BC, the city itself remained an important cultural center. This period would be considered the zenith of Babylon's dominance in its two-and-a-half millennium history. Ancient Babylon was officially conquered by the Achaemenid Persian Empire in the late 6th century BC.{{clear}}

=== Assyria ===
{{main|Assyria}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Neo-Assyrian Empire]]
|-
|[[File:Map of Assyria.png|thumb|center|
----
''Neo-Assyrian Empire'' 
{{Color box|#7bde84|border=darkgray}} [[Assyrian Empire]] - 824 BC 
{{Color box|#aced6b|border=darkgray}} [[Assyrian Empire]] - 671 BC 
----
''Other'' 
{{Color box|#ddee6c|border=darkgray}} [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] 
{{Color box|#fc9694|border=darkgray}} [[Phrygia|Phrygian Kingdom]] 
{{Color box|#dc9ec5|border=darkgray}} [[Lydia|Lydian Kingdom]] 
{{Color box|#fc9ab3|border=darkgray}} [[Ancient Greece|Greek City States]]
]]
|}
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
In the earliest historical times, the term [[Assyria]] referred to a region on the Upper [[Tigris]] river, named for its original capital, the ancient city of [[Assur]]. Later, as a nation and empire that came to control all of the [[Fertile Crescent]], [[Egypt]] and much of [[Anatolia]], the term "Assyria proper" referred to roughly the northern half of [[Mesopotamia]] (the southern half being [[Babylonia]]), with [[Nineveh]] as its capital. The Assyrian homeland was located near a mountainous region, extending along the Tigris as far as the high Gordiaean or Carduchian mountain range of
[[Armenia]], sometimes known as the "Mountains of Ashur". The Assyrian kings controlled a large kingdom at three different times in history. These are called the Old, Middle, and Neo-Assyrian kingdoms, or periods. The most powerful and best-known nation of these periods is the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]], 934–609 BC.

[[Shalmaneser III]] (858–823 BC) attacked and reduced [[Babylonia]] to vassalage, and defeated [[Aramea]], [[Israel]], [[Urartu]], [[Phoenicia]] and the neo [[Neo-Hittite|Hittite]] states, forcing all of these to pay tribute to Assyria. [[Shamshi-Adad V]] (822–811 BC) inherited an empire beset by civil war which he took most of his reign to quell. He was succeeded by [[Adad-nirari III]] who was merely a boy. The Empire was thus ruled by the famed queen [[Semiramis]] until 806 BC. In that year Adad-nirari III took the reins of power. After his premature death, Assyria failed to expand further during the reigns of [[Shalmaneser IV]] (782–773 BC), [[Ashur-dan III]] (772–755 BC) and [[Ashur-nirari V]] (754–746 BC).

Under [[Ashurbanipal]] (669–627 BC) its domination spanned from the [[Caucasus Mountains]] in the north to [[Nubia]], [[Egypt]] and [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] in the south, and from [[Cyprus]] and [[Antioch]] in the west to [[Persia]] in the east. Ashurbanipal destroyed [[Elam]] and smashed a rebellion led by his own brother Shamash-shum-ukim who was the Assyrian king of [[Babylon]], exacting savage revenge on the [[Chaldea]]ns, [[Nabateans]], [[Arabs]] and [[Elamites]] who had supported him. Persia and [[Median Empire|Media]] were regarded as vassals of Ashurbanipal. He built vast libraries and initiated a surge in the building of temples and palaces.{{clear}}

=== Hittite Empire ===
{{main|Hittite Empire}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Hittite Empire]]
|-
|
[[File:Map Hittite rule en.svg|right|thumb|Approximate extent of Hittite rule, c. 1350–1300 BC; [[Arzawa]] and the [[Lukka]] are to the west, with [[Mitanni]] to the southeast.]]
|}
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
The [[Hittites]] were an ancient people who spoke an [[Indo-European language]], and established a kingdom centered at [[Hattusa]] in north-central [[Anatolia]] from the 18th century BC. In the 14th century BC, the Hittite Empire was at its height, encompassing central Anatolia, northwestern [[Syria (region)|Syria]] as far as [[Ugarit]], and upper [[Mesopotamia]]. After 1180 BC, the empire disintegrated into several independent "[[Neo-Hittite]]" city-states, some surviving until as late as the 8th century BC.

[[File:Gok tanri.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Tarḫunna]], the [[storm god]] and the [[god of thunder]] in the [[Hittite religion]] (8th century BC)]]
The Hittites were also famous for their skill in building and using [[Chariot#Hittites|chariots]], as the [[Battle of Kadesh]] demonstrated. The Hittites were pioneers of the [[Iron Age]], manufacturing [[iron]] artifacts from as early as the 14th century BC, making them possibly even the first to do so. The Hittites passed much knowledge and lore from the [[Ancient Near East]] to the newly arrived [[Greeks]] in [[Europe]].

Hittite prosperity was mostly dependent on control of the trade routes and metal sources. Because of the importance of northern Syria to the vital routes linking the [[Cilician Gates]] with Mesopotamia, defense of this area was crucial, and was soon put to the test by Egyptian expansion under Pharaoh Rameses II. The outcome of the Battle of Kadesh is uncertain, though it seems that the timely arrival of Egyptian reinforcements prevented total Hittite victory. The Egyptians forced the Hittites to take refuge in the fortress of [[Kadesh (Syria)|Kadesh]], but their own losses prevented them from sustaining a siege. This battle took place in the fifth year of Rameses II (c. 1274 BC by the most commonly used chronology).{{clear}}

=== Phoenicia ===
{{main|Phoenicia}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Ancient]] [[Phoenicia]]
|-
|
[[File:PhoenicianTrade.png|thumb|center|
Phoenicia Territory in the 3rd century BC]]
|}

[[Phoenicia]] was a major power over the Mediterranean between 1200 BC and 539 BC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spotlightongames.com/background/timeline.html|title=Timeline of Carthaginian History|access-date=5 October 2014}}</ref> This ancient [[Semitic people|Semitic]] [[thalassocracy|thalassocratic]] civilization was situated on the western, coastal part of the [[Fertile Crescent]] and centered on the coastline of modern [[Lebanon]]. All major Phoenician cities were on the coastline of the Mediterranean, some colonies reaching the Western Mediterranean. It was an enterprising [[thalassocracy|maritime trading culture]] that spread across the [[Mediterranean]] from 1550 BC to 300 BC. The Phoenicians used the [[galley]], a man-powered sailing vessel, and are credited with the invention of the [[bireme]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Casson | first = Lionel | title = Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World | publisher = The Johns Hopkins University Press | date = December 1, 1995 | pages = 57–58 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sDpMh0gK2OUC&q=+bireme+Assyrian+Casson&pg=PA3 | isbn = 978-0-8018-5130-8 }}</ref> They were famed in Classical Greece and Rome as 'traders in purple', referring to their monopoly on the precious purple dye of the ''[[Murex]]'' snail, used, among other things, for royal clothing, and for the spread of their [[Semitic alphabet|alphabets]], from which almost all modern phonetic alphabets are derived.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}}

=== Carthaginian Empire ===
{{main|Ancient Carthage}}

The '''Carthaginian Empire''', also known as the '''Carthaginian Republic''' (alternatively "'''Carthaginian hegemony'''", or simply "'''Carthage'''") was the [[Phoenicians|Phoenician]] [[city-state]] of [[Carthage]] and its sphere of influence, which included much of the coast of [[North Africa]] as well as substantial parts of coastal [[Carthaginian Iberia|Iberia]] and the islands of the western [[Mediterranean]] from 814 to 146 BC.<ref name="Markoe2000">{{cite book|author=Glenn Markoe|title=Phoenicians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smPZ-ou74EwC|access-date=11 February 2013|year=2000|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-22614-2|page=55}}</ref>

=== Ancient Iran ===
{{main|History of Iran}}

==== Elam ====
{{main|Elam}}

{| style="float:right; clear:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|Elamite Empire
|-
|
[[File:Elam Map.jpg|thumb|center|
{{color box|red}} Elamite Empire
----
The approximate [[Bronze Age]] Elamite Empire extension of the [[Persian Gulf]] is shown.
]]
|}
[[File:Elamite worshipper.jpg|upright|thumb|left|Elamite worshipper]]{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
[[Elam]] was situated just to the east of [[Mesopotamia]] and was one of the oldest recorded [[civilization]]s. Elam was centered in the far west and southwest of modern-day Iran, stretching from the lowlands of [[Khuzestan]] and [[Ilam Province]] (which takes its name from Elam), as well as a small part of southern Iraq. In the [[Old Elamite period]] ([[Middle Bronze Age]]), Elam consisted of kingdoms on the [[Iranian plateau]], centered in [[Anshan (Persia)|Anshan]], and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered in [[Susa]] in the Khuzestan lowlands.

Elam was part of the early [[cities of the Ancient Near East]] during the [[Chalcolithic]] ([[Copper Age]]). The emergence of written records from around 3000 BC also parallels Mesopotamian history where writing was used slightly earlier. Elamite strength was based on an ability to hold various areas together under a coordinated government that permitted the maximum interchange of the natural resources unique to each region. Traditionally, this was done through a federated governmental structure.

Elamite culture played a crucial role in the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]], especially during the [[Achaemenid dynasty]] that succeeded it, when the [[Elamite language]] remained among those in official use. The Elamite language is generally treated as a language isolate. As such, the Elamite period is considered a starting point for the [[history of Iran]].{{clear}}

==== Median Empire ====
;678–549 BC
{{main|Median Empire}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Median Empire]]
|-
|
[[File:Median empire map.png|266px|thumb|right|A map of the Median Empire at its greatest extent (6th century BC), according to [[Herodotus]]]]
|}
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}{{Update|type=section|date=June 2020|reason=More recent reassessment of the historical evidence, both archaeological and textual, has led modern scholars to question previous notions of the extent of the realm of the Medes and even its existence as a unified state. See [[Talk:Medes#Dated]]}}

The [[Median Empire]] was the first empire on the territory of Persia. By the 6th century BC, after having together with the [[Neo-Babylonian empire|Babylonians]] defeated the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]]. In Greek references to "Median" people there is no clear distinction between the "Persians" and the "Medians"; in fact for a Greek to become "too closely associated with Iranian culture" was "to become medianized, not persianized". The Median kingdom was a short-lived Iranian state and the textual and archaeological sources of that period are rare and little could be known from the Median culture which nevertheless made a "profound, and lasting, contribution to the greater world of Iranian culture". The Medes were able to establish their own empire, the largest of its day, lasting for about sixty years, from the [[Battle of Nineveh (612 BC)|sack of Nineveh]] in 612 BC until 549 BC when [[Cyrus the Great]] established the [[Achaemenid Empire]] by defeating his overlord and grandfather, [[Astyages]], king of Media.{{clear}}

==== Achaemenid Empire ====
;550 BC–330 BC
{{main|Achaemenid Empire}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Achaemenid Empire]]
|-
|
[[File:Map achaemenid empire en.png|thumb|center|
Achaemenid Persian Empire during its zenith
----
{{color box|#f4e2ba}} Outlying regions 
{{color box|#fff3e3}} Achaemenid imperial region 
----
{{color box|#e50b0c}} cities, {{color box|#f7ff22}} battles, {{color box|#81e954}} power centers
]]
|}
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2020}}
The [[Achaemenid Empire]] was the first of the [[History of Iran|Persian Empires]] to become a world empire. At the height of its power, the Empire spanned over three continents, namely [[Europe]], [[Asia]], and [[Africa]], and was the most powerful empire of its time. It also eventually, either quickly in its earliest days or steadily over time, incorporated the following territories: in the north and west all of [[Asia Minor]] (modern [[Turkey]]), parts of the [[Balkans|Balkan peninsula]] - [[Thracians|Thrace]], [[Macedon]] and [[Paeonia (kingdom)|Paeonia]], and most of the [[Black Sea]] coastal regions or present day southern and eastern [[Bulgaria]], northern Greece, and [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]; in the west and southwest the territories of modern [[Iraq]], northern [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Jordan]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Lebanon]], [[Syria]], all significant population centers of ancient [[Egypt]] and as far west as portions of [[Libya]]; in the east modern [[Afghanistan]] and beyond into central Asia, and parts of [[Pakistan]].

[[File:Persepolis 24.11.2009 11-29-30.jpg|thumb|left|175px|Achaemenids warriors]]
Encompassing approximately 5.5 million square kilometers at its height in 500 BC,<ref name="Taagepera121">{{cite journal|last1=Taagepera|first1=Rein|author-link=Rein Taagepera|date=1979|title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.|journal=[[Social Science History]]|volume=3|issue=3/4|page=121|doi=10.2307/1170959|jstor=1170959}}</ref><ref name="Turchin223">{{cite journal|last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D|date=December 2006|title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires|url=http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|journal=Journal of World-Systems Research|volume=12|issue=2|page=223|issn=1076-156X|access-date=2020-06-24}}</ref> the Achaemenid Empire was territorially the largest empire of [[Ancient history|antiquity]].{{Dubious|date=June 2020|reason=The sources for the area give higher estimates for both the Han dynasty and the Xiongnu.}} In its time it had political power over neighboring countries, and had high cultural and economic achievements during its lengthy rule over a vast region from its picturesque capital at [[Persepolis]].

[[Alexander the Great]] (Alexander III of Macedon) defeated the Persian armies at Granicus (334 BC), followed by Issus (333 BC), and lastly at Gaugamela (331 BC). Afterwards, he marched on Susa and [[Persepolis]] which surrendered in early 330 BC. From Persepolis, Alexander headed north to Pasargadae where he visited the tomb of [[Cyrus the Great]].{{clear}}

==== Parthian Empire ====
{{main|Parthian Empire}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Parthian Empire]]
|-
|
[[File:Parthianextentwithlines.png|266px|thumb|right|The Parthian empire at its greatest extent.]]
|}
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
The [[Parthian Empire]] was the third [[Iran]]ian Empire. At the height of its power, the empire ruled most of [[Greater Iran]], [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Armenia]]. But unlike most other Iranian monarchies, the Parthian followed a vassal system, which they adopted from the [[Seleucids]]. The [[List of Parthian kings|Arsacid]] culture was not a single coherent state, but instead made up of numerous tributary (but otherwise independent) kingdoms.

The Parthians largely adopted the art, architecture, religious beliefs, and royal insignia of their culturally heterogeneous empire, which encompassed Persian, Hellenistic, and regional cultures. For about the first half of its existence, the Arsacid court adopted elements of Greek culture, though it eventually saw a gradual revival of Iranian traditions. The Arsacid rulers were titled the 'King of Kings', as a claim to be the heirs to the Achaemenid Empire; indeed, they accepted many local kings as vassals where the Achaemenids would have had centrally appointed, albeit largely autonomous, satraps. The court did appoint a small number of satraps, largely outside Iran, but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates. With the expansion of Arsacid power, the seat of central government shifted from Nisa, Turkmenistan to [[Ctesiphon]] along the Tigris (south of modern Baghdad, Iraq), although several other sites also served as capitals. Although the Parthian Arsacids made way for a new Iranian dynasty, the Arsacid family continued to exist through the [[Arsacid dynasty of Armenia]], the [[Arsacid dynasty of Iberia]], and the [[Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania]]; all eponymous branches of the Parthian Arsacids.{{clear}}

==== Sassanid Empire ====
{{main|Sassanid Empire}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Sassanid Empire]]
|-
|
[[File:SassanianEmpireHistoryofIran.png|266px|thumb|right|The Sassanid Empire around its greatest extent]]
|}
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
The [[Sassanid Empire]] is the name used for the fourth Iranian dynasty, and the second [[History of Iran|Persian Empire]] (226–651). The empire's territory encompassed all of today's [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Armenia]], [[Afghanistan]], eastern parts of [[Turkey]], and parts of [[Syria]], [[Pakistan]], and large parts of [[Caucasus|Caucasia]], [[Central Asia]] and [[Arabia]]. During [[Khosrow II]]'s rule in 590–628 [[Egypt]], [[Jordan]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Lebanon]] were also briefly annexed to the Empire, as well as far west as western [[Asia Minor]]. The Sassanid era, encompassing the length of the [[Late Antiquity]] period, is considered to be one of the most important and influential historical periods in Iran. In many ways the Sassanid period witnessed the highest achievement of [[Persian culture|Persian civilization]]. The empire is furthermore known for being the arch-rival of the neighboring [[Roman Empire|Roman]]–[[Byzantine Empire]] for a period of over 400 years. As the Parthians were replaced by the Sassanids, they carried on the already century long lasting [[Roman–Persian Wars]], which would eventually become the longest conflict in human history.

The empire constituted the last great Iranian Empire before the [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Muslim conquest]] and adoption of [[Islam]]. The climactic [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628]] had drastically exhausted both the Byzantines as well as the Sassanids, laying the way open for an easy conquest. The Sassanids, heavily weakened, never mounted a truly effective resistance to the pressure applied by the initial Arab armies. Ctesiphon fell after a prolonged siege. Yazdegerd fled eastward from Ctesiphon, leaving behind him most of the Empire's vast treasury. The Arabs captured Ctesiphon shortly afterward, leaving the Sassanid government strapped for funds and acquiring a powerful financial resource for their own use. A number of Sassanid governors attempted to combine their forces to throw back the invaders, but the effort was crippled by the lack of a strong central authority, and the governors were defeated at the Battle of Nihawānd. The empire, with its military command structure non-existent, its non-noble troop levies decimated, its financial resources effectively destroyed, and the Asawaran knightly caste destroyed piecemeal, was utterly helpless in the face of the invaders. Upon hearing the defeat, Persian nobilities fled further inland to the eastern province of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]].

== Ancient Africa ==

=== Ancient Egypt ===
{{main|Ancient Egypt}}

{| style="float:left; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Ancient Egypt]]
|-
|
[[File:Ancient Egypt map-en.svg|upright|thumb|center|major ancient Egyptian cities during the Dynastic period]]
|}

Ancient Egypt was one of the world's first civilizations, with its beginnings in the fertile Nile valley around 3150 BC. [[Ancient Egypt]] reached the zenith of its power during the [[New Kingdom]] (1570–1070 BC) under great pharaohs. Ancient Egypt was a great power to be contended with by both the ancient Near East, the Mediterranean and sub-Saharan Africa. The empire expanded far south into [[Nubia]] and held wide territories across the ancient [[Near East]]. The combination of a fertile river valley, natural borders that made an invasion unfeasible, and a [[Military history of Ancient Egypt|military]] able to [[Battle of the Delta|rise to the challenge when needed]], turned Egypt into a major power.[[File:AkhnatonCairoCast.png|thumb|upright|right|128px|Drawing of Akhnaton Cairo Cast]] It was one of the first nations to have a system of writing and large scale construction projects. However, as neighboring civilizations developed militaries capable of crossing Egypt's natural barriers, the Egyptian armies were not always able to repel them and so by 1000 BC Egyptian influence as an independent civilization waned.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://saxakali.com/COLOR_ASP/historymafe1.htm|title=Math in Ancient Egypt|access-date=5 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006161148/http://www.saxakali.com/COLOR_ASP/historymafe1.htm/|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====Early Dynastic Period====
{{main|Early Dynastic Period of Egypt}}

The Archaic or Early Dynastic Period of [[Egypt]] is the era immediately following the unification of [[Upper and Lower Egypt]] ''c.'' 3100 BC. It is generally taken to include the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First]] and [[Second Dynasty of Egypt|Second Dynasties]], lasting from the end of the [[Naqada III]] archaeological period until about 2686 BC, or the beginning of the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Shaw |editor-first=Ian |title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-815034-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhisto00shaw/page/479 479] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhisto00shaw/page/479 }}</ref> With the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]], the capital moved from [[Thinis]] to [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] with a unified Egypt ruled by an Egyptian [[Imperial cult|god-king]]. [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] remained the major holy land in the south. The hallmarks of [[ancient Egypt]]ian civilization, such as [[Art of ancient Egypt|art]], [[Ancient Egyptian architecture|architecture]] and many aspects of [[Ancient Egyptian religion|religion]], took shape during the Early Dynastic period. During the Early Dynastic period, the pharaohs established the earliest Central Government in the world.

====Old Kingdom====
{{main|Old Kingdom of Egypt}}

The Old Kingdom is the period spanning c. 2686–2181 BC. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid builders of the [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]]—King [[Sneferu]] perfected the art of [[pyramid]]-building and the [[pyramids of Giza]] were constructed under the kings [[Khufu]], [[Khafra|Khafre]] and [[Menkaure]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt/|title=Old Kingdom of Egypt|encyclopedia=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|access-date=2017-12-04}}</ref> [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] attained its first sustained peak of civilization—the first of three so-called "Kingdom" [[Egyptian chronology|periods]] (followed by the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] and [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]]) which mark the high points of civilization in the lower [[Nile Valley]].

[[File:Saqqara BW 5.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Pyramid of Djoser]] at [[Saqqara]].]]

During the Old Kingdom, the pyramid building in ancient Egypt began during the [[Third Dynasty of Egypt|Third Dynasty]] under the rule of king [[Djoser]] when he built the [[Step Pyramid of Djoser]] (Egypt's first Pyramid) and peaked during [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dyansty]] during the construction of the [[Giza Pyramids]].

[[File:Cairo, Gizeh, Sphinx and Pyramid of Khufu, Egypt, Oct 2004.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Great Sphinx of Giza]] in front of the [[Great Pyramid of Giza|Great Pyramid]] of [[Giza]].]]

During the [[Fifth Dynasty of Egypt|Fifth Dynasty]] the pyramid building declined in Egypt. The [[Pyramid Texts]], the oldest ritual texts from ancient Egypt first appeared in the late fifth Dynasty.

====Middle Kingdom====
{{main|Middle Kingdom of Egypt}}

[[File:Ancient Egypt old and middle kingdom-en.svg|thumb|center]]{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}

The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (also known as "The Period of Reunification") is the period in the history of [[ancient Egypt]] following a period of political division known as the [[First Intermediate Period of Egypt|First Intermediate Period]]. The Middle Kingdom lasted from around 2050 BC to around 1710 BC, stretching from the reunification of Egypt under the reign of [[Mentuhotep II]] of the [[Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt|Eleventh Dynasty]] to the end of the [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]]. The Eleventh Dynasty ruled from Thebes and the Twelfth Dynasty ruled from el-Lisht.

The middle kingdom reached its peak under the pharaohs [[Senusret III]] and [[Amenemhat III]]. [[Senusret III]] was a great pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty and is considered to be the greatest pharaoh in the middle kingdom. However, The reign of [[Amenemhat III|Amenemhat]] III was the height of Middle Kingdom economic prosperity. His reign is remarkable for the degree to which Egypt exploited its resources.

====New Kingdom====
{{main|New Kingdom}}

[[File:Egypt NK edit.svg|upright|thumb|center|
The maximum territorial extent of Ancient Egypt (15th century BC)]]

{{color box|#abc937}} Core Regions 
{{color box|#dee9af}} Territorial control

{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}

The [[New Kingdom]] began around 1550 B.C when king [[Ahmose I]] became the king of Egypt, defeated the [[Hyksos]] and reunified Egypt. The pharaohs of the new kingdom established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbors. Military campaigns waged under [[Tuthmosis I]] and his grandson [[Tuthmosis III]] extended the influence of the pharaohs to the largest empire Egypt had ever seen. [[Tuthmosis III]] is recorded to have captured 350 cities during his rule and conquered much of the Near East from the Euphrates to Nubia during seventeen known military campaigns. During the reign of [[Amenhotep III]], Egypt entered a period of unprecedented prosperity and artistic splendour, Egypt reached the peak of its artistic and international power in his reign. [[Amenhotep IV]] ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic reforms. Changing his name to [[Akhenaten]], he touted the god [[Aten]] as the [[deity|supreme deity]], suppressed the worship of other deities, and attacked the power of the priestly establishment. Moving the capital to the new city of Akhetaten, he turned a deaf ear to foreign affairs and absorbed himself in his new religion and artistic style. After his death, the religion of the Aten was quickly abandoned, and the subsequent pharaohs erased all mention of Akhenaten's Egyptian heresy, now known as the [[Amarna Period]].

[[File:Seapeople.jpg|thumb|128px|Ramesses II's [[sea peoples]] of the [[Great Karnak Inscription]].]]
[[Ramesses II|Ramesses the Great]] ascended the throne, and went on to build more temples, erect more statues and obelisks, and sire more children than any other pharaoh in history. One of the greatest construction projects conducted by Ramesses was the city of [[Pi-Ramesses]]. The city covered an area of 18 km2 (as big as [[Rome]]). At its peak, The city was home to a population of 160,000-300,000. This would make Pi-Ramesses 2-4 times bigger than [[Yinxu]] (Second largest city at that time). Ramesses led his army against the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh and, after fighting to a stalemate, finally agreed to the first recorded peace treaty. Egypt's wealth, however, made it a tempting target for invasion, particularly by the Libyans and the Sea Peoples. Initially, the military was able to repel these invasions during the reign of [[Ramesses III]], but Egypt eventually lost control of Syria and Palestine. The impact of external threats was exacerbated by internal problems such as corruption, tomb robbery and civil unrest. The high priests at the temple of Amun in Thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth, and their growing power splintered the country during the [[Third Intermediate Period]].

====Third Intermediate Period====
{{main|Third Intermediate Period of Egypt}}{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}

The Third Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt began with the death of Pharaoh [[Ramesses XI]] in 1070 BC, ending the New Kingdom, and was eventually followed by the Late Period. Various points are offered as the beginning for the latter era, though it is most often regarded as dating from the foundation of the [[Twenty-Sixth Dynasty]] by [[Psamtik I]] in 664 BC.

The first Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian [[Third Intermediate Period]] is the [[Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-first Dynasty]]. Its first ruler is king [[Smendes]] who ruled only in [[Lower Egypt]]. The most powerful pharaohs of the Twenty-first dynasty were [[psusennes I]] and [[Siamun]] who built extensively compared to the other pharaohs of the dynasty. The Pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty transported all the old Ramesside temples, obelisks, stelae, statues and sphinxes from [[Pi-Ramesses]] to the new capital [[Tanis]]. The obelisks and statues, the largest weighing over 200 tons, were transported in one piece while major buildings were dismantled into sections and reassembled at Tanis.

The country was firmly reunited by the Twenty-Second Dynasty founded by [[Shoshenq I]] in 945 BC (or 943 BC), who descended from Meshwesh immigrants, originally from Ancient Libya. Upon unifying Egypt, king [[Shoshenq I]] started campaigning in the [[Levant]]e . This brought stability to the country for well over a century and made Egypt a superpower again, but after the reign of [[Osorkon II]], particularly, the country had effectively split into two states, with Shoshenq III of the Twenty-Second Dynasty controlling Lower Egypt by 818 BC while [[Takelot II]] and his son Osorkon (the future [[Osorkon III]]) ruled Middle and Upper Egypt.

====Late Period====
{{main|Late period of ancient Egypt}}{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}

The Late Period of ancient Egypt refers to the last flowering of native Egyptian rulers after the Third Intermediate Period beginning with the 26th Saite Dynasty founded by [[Psamtik I]]. The 26th Dynasty of Egypt managed to regain Egypt's power for a short time before the Achaemenid Persian conquest of Egypt lead by [[Cambyses II]] in 525 BC.

However, the Egyptians managed to gain independence from the Persians during a rebellion led by the rebel Pharaoh [[Amyrtaeus]] around 404 B.C who established the [[Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt]]. Egypt remained independent during the [[Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-ninth Dynasty]] and [[Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt|Thirtieth Dynasty]] until the Persians invaded it again in 343 B.C. During that time, the Egyptians managed to repel several attacks from the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. The most famous attack of them occurred in around 351 BC, when [[Artaxerxes III]] embarked on a campaign to recover Egypt, which had revolted under his father, [[Artaxerxes II]]. Levying a vast army, Artaxerxes marched into Egypt, and engaged [[Nectanebo II]] the founder of the [[Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt]]. After a year of fighting the Egyptian Pharaoh, Nectanebo inflicted a crushing defeat on the Persians with the support of mercenaries led by the Greek generals Diophantus and Lamius.

The Late period of ancient Egypt ends when [[Alexander the Great]] took Egypt from the Persians without war around 332 B.C.

====Legacy====
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying, surveying and construction techniques that facilitated the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks; a system of mathematics, a practical and effective system of medicine, irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques, the first known ships, Egyptian faience and glass technology, new forms of literature, and the earliest known peace treaty. Egypt left a lasting legacy. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travellers and writers for centuries. A new-found respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy, for Egypt and the world.

=== Kerma ===
{{main|Kingdom of Kerma}}
The Kerma culture was an early civilization which flourished from around 2500 BC to about 1600 BC in Nubia, present day Sudan, centered at Kerma. It seems to have been one of a number of Sudanese states during the Middle Kingdom period of Ancient Egypt. In its latest phase, lasting from about 1700–1500 BC, it absorbed the Sudanese kingdom of Sai and became a sizable, populous empire rivaling Egypt. Around 1500 BC, it was absorbed into the Egyptian Empire, but rebellions continued for centuries. By the 11th century BC, the more 'Egyptianized' Kingdom of Kush emerged, apparently from Kerma, and regained the region's independence from Egypt.<ref>[[Kerma culture]]</ref>

=== Kush ===
{{main|Kingdom of Kush}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Kingdom of Kush]]
|-
|
[[File:Kushite empire 700bc.jpg|thumb|center|
The maximum territorial extent of Kush circa 700 BC.]]
|}
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
The Kingdom of Kush was the earliest of the Subsaharan states in Africa as well as the first to implement iron weapons. It was heavily influenced by Egyptian colonists, but in 1070 BC it became not only independent of Egypt but a fierce rival. It successfully fought off attempts by Egypt to reconquer it, and it began to extend influence over Upper Egypt. By the end of King [[Kashta|Kashta's]] reign in 752 BC, Thebes was under Kushite control.

A slew of able successors took the rest of Egypt and reigned as the [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt]] stretching Kushite control from central Sudan to modern-day Israel. The Kushites did not maintain this empire for long and were beaten back by the Assyrians in 653 BC. However, Kush remained a powerful entity in the region. It continued to meddle in Egyptian affairs and control trade resources originating in Subsaharan Africa. It waged a hard-fought campaign against the [[Roman Empire]] (27 BC - 22 BC) under the leadership of Queen [[Amanirenas]], and achieved a more than amicable peace with the young [[Augustus Caesar]]. The two states worked as allies, with Kush lending cavalry support to Rome in its conquest of Jerusalem in 70 AD.

The kingdom of Kush maintained its status as a regional power until its conquest by the [[Aksumite Empire]] in 350.

=== Aksumite Empire ===
{{main|Aksumite Empire}}

[[File:LocationAksumiteEmpire.png|thumb|Aksumite Empire based in Ethiopia]]{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
The [[Aksumite Empire]] was an important trading nation originating from Northern Ethiopia in northeastern [[Africa]], growing from the proto-Aksumite period ca. 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD. It was a major player in the commerce between the [[Roman Empire]] and [[History of India|Ancient India]] and the Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own [[Aksumite currency|currency]]. The state established its [[hegemony]] over the declining [[Kingdom of Kush]] and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the [[Arabian peninsula]], and would eventually extend its rule over the region with the conquest of the [[Himyarite Kingdom]]. At its peak it controlled Much of [[Ethiopia]], [[Eritrea]], [[Djibouti]], [[Sudan]], [[Somalia]], [[Yemen]], [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Egypt]]. It was considered by historians as one of the most powerful military powers in the world.

== Ancient India ==
{{main|History of India}}{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}

Ancient India, which consisted of the [[Indian subcontinent]] (the modern-day states of [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]], [[Burma]], [[Tibet]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Bangladesh]]) was unified under many emperors and governments in history. Several Indian empires including the mighty [[Chola dynasty|Chola Empire]] were able to expand across southern Asia, incorporating much of the region, as well as sometimes beyond.

The history of India begins with evidence of human activity of ''Homo sapiens'', as long as 75,000 years ago, or with earlier hominids including ''Homo erectus'' from about 500,000 years ago. The Indus Valley Civilisation, which spread and flourished in the northwestern part of the [[Indian subcontinent]] from c. 3300BC to 1300 BC in present-day [[Pakistan]] and northwest [[India]], was the first major civilisation in South Asia. A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the Mature Harappan period, from 2600 to 1900 BC.
This Bronze Age civilisation collapsed before the end of the second millennium BC and was followed by the Iron Age [[Vedic Civilisation]], which extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plain and which witnessed the rise of major polities known as the Mahajanapadas. In one of these kingdoms (Magadha), Gautama Buddha and Mahavira were born in the 6th or 5th century BC and propagated their Shramanic philosophies.

Most of the subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. Various parts of India ruled by numerous Middle kingdoms for the next 1,500 years, among which the Gupta Empire stands out. Southern India saw the rule of the [[Chalukyas]], [[Cholas]], [[Pallavas]], [[Pandyas]] and [[Cheras]]. This period, witnessing a [[Hindu]] religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or "Golden Age of India". During this period, aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion (Hinduism and Buddhism) spread to much of Asia, while kingdoms in [[South India]] had maritime business links with the [[Roman Empire]] from around 77 AD.

=== Indus ===
{{main|Indus Valley Civilization}}

The '''Indus Valley Civilization''' was a [[Bronze Age]] [[civilization]] (3300–1300 BC). Along with Mesopotamia and Pharaonic Egypt, it was a cradle of early civilization in the Old World (Childe 1950). Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, covering an area of 1.25 million km2<ref>{{cite web|last1=Blanc De La|first1=Paul|title=Indus Epigraphic Perspectives: Exploring Past Decipherment Attempts & Possible New Approaches 2013 Pg 11|url=http://www.ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/26166/1/Leblanc_Paul_2013_thesis.pdf|website=University of Ottawa Research|publisher=University of Ottawa|access-date=11 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904103021/http://ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/26166/1/Leblanc_Paul_2013_thesis.pdf|archive-date=4 September 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{Dubious|date=June 2020|reason=Per Size and duration of empires: Systematics of size by R. Taagepera 1978 (https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8vx325vq), it was never anywhere near that size but rather at most 0.3 million square kilometers.}} and encompassing what is today most of [[Pakistan]], parts of [[Afghanistan]], and north west [[India]]. It flourished in the basins of the [[Indus River]], one of the major rivers of [[Asia]], and the [[Ghaggar-Hakra River]], which once coursed through northwest India and eastern Pakistan. At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a population of over five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft ([[carnelian]] products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin). The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings.{{Sfn|Wright|2010|pp=115–125}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nath Sen|first1=Sailendra|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&q=sapta+sindhu+civilization&pg=PA3|website=Google Books September 1999|year=1999|publisher=New Age International Publishers|isbn=9788122411980|access-date=11 August 2014}}</ref>

=== Nanda Empire ===
{{main|Nanda Empire}}{{More citations needed section|date=June 2020}}

The [[Nanda Empire]] originated from [[Magadha]] in [[History of India|Ancient India]] during the 5th and 4th centuries BC. At its greatest extent, the Nandas ruled much of [[Hindustan|Northern India]].<ref>Radha Kumud Mookerji, ''Chandragupta Maurya and His Times'', 4th ed. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1988 [1966]), 31, 28–33.</ref> The Nandas are sometimes described as the first empire builders in the recorded history of India. They inherited the large kingdom of Magadha. They built up a vast army.

The Nandas never had the opportunity to see their army up against Alexander the Great, who invaded India at the time of [[Dhana Nanda]], since Alexander had to confine his campaign to the plains of [[Punjab]], for his forces, at the prospect of facing a further mighty Magadha army, mutinied at the [[Hyphasis River]] (the modern [[Beas River]]) refusing to march any further. There had been confluence of Indian, Persian and Greek civilization in those period.

Continuing the early Hindu [[Vedas]] and [[Upanishads]] texts, Nanda had an influence on [[Indian history|Indian social]], [[Indian legal system|legal]] and [[Indian politics|political]] systems. In addition, the region of [[Gandhara]], or present-day eastern Afghanistan and northwest Pakistan, became a mixture of various cultures, including Greek and Indian ones, and gave rise to a [[Hybridity|hybrid culture]], Greco-Buddhism, which influenced the artistic development of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism.

=== Maurya Empire ===
{{main|Maurya Empire}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Maurya Empire]]
|-
|
[[File:Maurya empire in 265 BCE.jpg|thumb|center|
[[Maurya Empire]] at its greatest extent under [[Ashoka the Great]].
]]
|}
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2020}}
The [[Mauryan Empire]] was the first political entity to unite most of the Indian subcontinent and expand into Central Asia. Its cultural influence also extended west into [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]], and east into [[Thailand]], [[China]] and [[Burma]].

The Empire was founded in 322 BC by [[Chandragupta Maurya]]. Chandragupta waged a war against the nearby [[Greeks|Greek]] powers and won, forcing the Greeks to surrender large amounts of land. Under the reign of [[Ashoka the Great]], the empire became pacifist and turned to spreading its soft power in the form of [[Buddhism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indohistory.com/maurya_empire.html|title=Ancient India - Chandragupta Maurya|access-date=5 October 2014}}</ref> [[File:Buddhism Growth in Hellenic World.png|alt=|left|thumb|175x175px|Buddhist [[proselytism]] during the reign of Maurya Empire.]]
The Empire was divided into four provinces, which one of the four, look like a giant crescents. with the imperial capital at [[Pataliputra]]. From Ashokan edicts, the names of the four provincial capitals are [[Tosali]] (in the east), [[Ujjain]] in the west, [[Suvarnagiri]] (in the south), and [[Taxila]] (in the north). The head of the provincial administration was the ''Kumara'' (royal prince), who governed the provinces as king's representative. The ''kumara'' was assisted by Mahamatyas and council of ministers. This organizational structure was reflected at the imperial level with the Emperor and his ''Mantriparishad'' (Council of Ministers).

Historians theorize that the organization of the Empire was in line with the extensive bureaucracy described by [[Kautilya]] in the [[Arthashastra]]: a sophisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. According to [[Megasthenes]], the empire wielded a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants. A vast [[espionage]] system collected intelligence for both internal and external security purposes. Having renounced offensive warfare and expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless continued to maintain this large army, to protect the Empire and instill stability and peace across West{{citation needed|date=February 2019}} and South Asia.{{clear}}

=== Shunga Empire ===
{{main|Shunga Empire}}
{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Shunga Empire]]
|-
|
[[File:Sunga-Border.jpg|thumb|center|
Shunga Empire
]]
|}
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2020}}
The [[Shunga Empire]] is a [[Magadha]] dynasty that controlled North-central and Eastern India as well as parts of the northwest (now [[Pakistan]]) from around 185 to 73 BC. It was established after the fall of the Indian [[Maurya Empire]]. The capital of the Shungas was [[Pataliputra]]. Later kings such as [[Bhagabhadra]] also held court at [[Vidisha]], modern [[Besnagar]] in Eastern [[Malwa]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Wilber | first1 = D. N. | last2 = Ettinghausen | first2 = R. | title = From Byzantium to Sasanian Iran and the Islamic World. Three Modes of Artistic Influence | journal = Artibus Asiae | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 162 | year = 1975 | doi = 10.2307/3250228| jstor = 3250228 }}</ref> The Shunga Empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers.

While there is much debate on the religious politics of the Shunga dynasty, it is recognized for a number of contributions. Art, education, philosophy, and other learning flowered during this period. Most notably, Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and Mahabhasya were composed in this period, Panini composed the first Sanskrit grammarian Ashtadayai. It is also noted for its subsequent mention in the Malavikaagnimitra. This work was composed by Kalidasa in the later Gupta period, and romanticized the love of Malavika and King Agnimitra, with a background of court intrigue.
Artistry on the subcontinent also progressed with the rise of the Mathura school, which is considered the indigenous counterpart to the more Hellenistic Gandhara school of Afghanistan and Pakistan. During the historical Shunga period (185 to 73 BC), Buddhist activity also managed to survive somewhat in central India (Madhya Pradesh) as suggested by some architectural expansions that were done at the stupas of Sanchi and Barhut, originally started under Emperor Ashoka. It remains uncertain whether these works were due to the weakness of the control of the Shungas in these areas, or a sign of tolerance on their part.

The last of the Shunga emperor was Devabhuti (83–73 BC). He was assassinated by his minister (Vasudeva Kanva) and is said to have been overfond of the company of women. The Shunga dynasty was then replaced by the subsequent Kanvas.{{clear}}

=== Chola Empire ===
{{main|Chola Empire}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Chola Empire]]
|-
|
[[File:Rajendra map new.svg|thumb|center|
[[Chola Empire]] under [[Rajendra Chola]] c. 1030 AD.
]]
|}

[[File:Chola Ganesha.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Ganesha]] statue of the late Chola period.]]
The [[Chola Empire]] ruled much of [[India]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. The [[Tamil people|Tamil]] [[dynasty]] which was one of the longest-ruling dynasties in [[southern India]]. The earliest datable references to this [[Tamil people|Tamil]] dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by [[Ashoka]], of [[Maurya Empire]]; as one of the [[Three Crowned Kings]], the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until the 13th century AD. By the 9th century, under [[Rajaraja Chola]] and his son [[Rajendra Chola]], the Cholas rose as a notable power in south [[Asia]]. The Chola Empire stretched as far as [[Bengal]]. At its peak, the empire spanned almost {{convert|3,600,000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}} Rajaraja Chola conquered all of peninsular [[South India]] and parts of the [[Sri Lanka]]. [[Rajendra Chola]]'s navies went even further, occupying coasts from Burma (now [[Myanmar]]) to [[Vietnam]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.en.articlesgratuits.com/the-last-years-of-cholas-the-decline-and-fall-of-a-dynasty-id1804.php|title=The Last Years of Cholas: The decline and fall of a dynasty|access-date=5 October 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100120085302/http://www.en.articlesgratuits.com/the-last-years-of-cholas-the-decline-and-fall-of-a-dynasty-id1804.php|archive-date=20 January 2010}}</ref> the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]], [[Lakshadweep]], [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Malay Peninsula|Malaya]] in South East Asia and Pegu islands. He defeated [[Mahipala]], the king of the Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new capital and named it [[Gangaikonda Cholapuram]].

The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the [[Kaveri River]], but they ruled a significantly larger area at the height of their [[Great power|power]] from the later half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th century.<ref name=sastri>[[K.A. Nilakanta Sastri]], ''A History of South India'', p 5</ref> The whole country south of the [[Tungabhadra]] was united and held as one state for a period of two centuries and more.<ref name="sastri5">[[K.A. Nilakanta Sastri]], ''A History of South India'', p 157</ref> Under [[Rajaraja Chola I]] and his son [[Rajendra Chola I]], the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in [[South Asia]] and [[South-east Asia]].<ref name=kulke115>Kulke and Rothermund, p 115</ref><ref name=keay215>Keay, p 215</ref> The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the celebrated expedition to the [[Ganges]] which [[Rajendra Chola I]] undertook and by the overthrow after an unprecedented naval war of the maritime empire of [[Srivijaya]], as well as by the repeated embassies to China.<ref name="sastri158">[[K.A. Nilakanta Sastri]], ''A History of South India'', p 158</ref>

During the period 1010–1200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the [[Maldives]] in the south to as far north as the banks of the [[Godavari River]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref name=majumdar407>Majumdar, p 407</ref> Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular [[South India]], annexed parts of what is now [[Sri Lanka]] and occupied the islands of the Maldives.<ref name=keay215/> Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river [[Ganges]] and defeated the [[Pala Empire|Pala]] ruler of [[Pataliputra]], [[Mahipala]]. He also successfully invaded kingdoms of the [[Malay Archipelago]].<ref name="srivijaya">The kadaram campaign is first mentioned in Rajendra's inscriptions dating from his 14th year. The name of the Srivijaya king was Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. [[K.A. Nilakanta Sastri]], ''The CōĻas'', pp 211–220</ref><ref name=meyer73>Meyer, p 73</ref> The Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the [[Pandyas]], who ultimately caused their downfall.<ref name=sastri192>[[K.A. Nilakanta Sastri]], ''A History of South India'', p 192</ref><ref name=sastri195>[[K.A. Nilakanta Sastri]], ''A History of South India'', p 195</ref><ref name=sastri196>[[K.A. Nilakanta Sastri]], ''A History of South India'', p 196</ref>

The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of [[Chola literature|Tamil literature]] and their zeal in building temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture.<ref name=keay215/> The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity.<ref name=geeta20>Vasudevan, pp 20–22</ref><ref>Keay, pp 217–218</ref> They pioneered a centralised form of [[Chola Government|government]] and established a disciplined bureaucracy.{{clear}}

=== Gupta Empire ===
{{main|Gupta Empire}}

{{see also|Origin of the Gupta dynasty}}
{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Gupta Empire]]
|-
|
[[File:Map for Gupta Empire and tributaries.svg|thumb|center|
[[Gupta Empire]]
]]
|}
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
In the 4th and 5th centuries, the [[Gupta Empire]] unified much of India. This period is called the [[Golden Age of India]] and was marked by extensive achievements in [[Science and technology in ancient India|science, technology]], [[List of Indian inventions and discoveries|engineering]], [[Indian art|art]], [[dialectic#Indian continental debate: an intra- and inter-Dharmic dialectic|dialectic]], [[Indian literature|literature]], [[Indian logic|logic]], [[Indian mathematics|mathematics]], [[Indian astronomy|astronomy]], [[Indian religion|religion]] and [[Indian philosophy|philosophy]] that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture. [[Chandragupta I]], [[Samudragupta]], and [[Chandragupta II]] were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty.

The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architectures, sculptures and paintings. The Gupta period produced scholars such as [[Kalidasa]], [[Aryabhata]], [[Varahamihira]], [[Vishnu Sharma]], and [[Vatsyayana]] who made great advancements in many academic fields. Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in [[Burma]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Indonesian Archipelago]] and [[Indochina]].{{clear}}

== Ancient China ==
{{main|History of China}}

===Shang dynasty===
{{main|Shang dynasty}}

The '''Shang dynasty''' ({{zh|c=[[wiktionary:商|商]][[wiktionary:朝|朝]]|p=Shāng cháo}}) or '''Yin dynasty''' ({{zh|links=no|c=[[wiktionary:殷|殷]][[wiktionary:代|代]]|p=Yīn dài}}), according to [[Chinese historiography|traditional historiography]], ruled in the [[Yellow River]] valley in the second millennium BC, succeeding the [[Xia dynasty]] and followed by the [[Zhou dynasty]]. The classic account of the Shang comes from texts such as the ''[[Classic of History]]'', ''[[Bamboo Annals]]'' and ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]''. According to the traditional chronology based upon calculations made approximately 2,000 years ago by [[Liu Xin (scholar)|Liu Xin]], the Shang ruled from 1766 BC to 1122 BC, but according to the chronology based upon the "current text" of ''Bamboo Annals'', they ruled from 1556 BC to 1046 BC. The [[Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project]] dated them from c. 1600 BC to 1046 BC. At its peak 1122 BC it covered an area of 1,250,000 km2.<ref name="Taagepera189">{{Cite journal|last=Taagepera|first=Rein|date=1978|title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 3000 to 600 B.C.|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6wf6m5qg|journal=Social Science Research|volume=7|issue=2|page=189|doi=10.1016/0049-089x(78)90010-8|issn=0049-089X|access-date=2020-06-24}}</ref><ref name="Turchin222" />

===Zhou dynasty===
{{main|Zhou dynasty}}{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}

The '''Zhou dynasty''' ({{circa|lk=no|1046}}–256 BC; {{zh|c=周朝|p=Zhōu Cháo|w=Chou1 Ch'ao2}} {{IPA-cmn|tʂóʊ tʂʰɑ̌ʊ|}}) was a [[Dynasties in Chinese history|Chinese dynasty]] that followed the [[Shang dynasty]] and preceded the [[Qin dynasty]]. Although the Zhou dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in [[History of China|Chinese history]], the actual political and military control of [[China]] by the dynasty, surnamed [[Ji (surname)|Ji]] ({{zh|c=姬}}), lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as the [[Western Zhou]].

This period of Chinese history produced what many consider the zenith of Chinese [[bronze]]-ware making. The dynasty also spans the period in which the written script evolved into its modern form with the use of an archaic clerical script that emerged during the late [[Warring States period]].

=== Qin dynasty ===
{{main|Qin dynasty}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|Qin Dynasty
|-
|[[File:Qin empire 210 BCE.png|thumb|center|
Qin Empire in 210 BC
----
{{color box|#574c46}} Qin region 
{{color box|#8f8279}} Outlying regions
]]
|}
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
The Qin dynasty was preceded by the [[feudal]] [[Zhou dynasty]] and followed by the [[Han dynasty]] in China. The unification of China in 221 BC under the [[Qin Shi Huang|First Emperor Qin Shi Huang]] marked the beginning of Imperial China, a period which lasted until the fall of the [[Qing dynasty]] in 1912.

[[File:Epang-Palast.jpg|thumb|upright|left|128px|[[Epang Palace]].]]
In 214 BC Qin Shihuang secured his boundaries to the north with a fraction (100,000 men) of his large army, and sent the majority (500,000 men) south to seize still more land. Prior to the events leading to Qin dominance over China, they had gained possession of much of Sichuan to the southwest. The Qin army was unfamiliar with the jungle terrain, and it was defeated by the southern tribes' guerrilla warfare tactics with over 100,000 men lost. However, in the defeat Qin was successful in building a canal to the south, which they used heavily for supplying and reinforcing their troops during their second attack to the south. Building on these gains, the Qin armies conquered the coastal lands surrounding Guangzhou, and took the provinces of Fuzhou and Guilin. They struck as far south as Hanoi. After these victories in the south, Qin Shihuang moved over 100,000 prisoners and exiles to colonize the newly conquered area. In terms of extending the boundaries of his empire, the First Emperor was extremely successful in the south.

Despite its military strength, the Qin dynasty did not last long. When the first emperor died in 210 BC, his son was placed on the throne by two of the previous emperor's advisers, in an attempt to influence and control the administration of the entire country through him. The advisors squabbled among themselves, however, which resulted in both their deaths and that of the second Qin emperor. Popular revolt broke out a few years later, and the weakened empire soon fell to a Chu lieutenant, who went on to found the Han dynasty. Despite its rapid end, the Qin dynasty influenced future Chinese regimes, particularly the Han, and the European name for China is derived from it.{{clear}}

{{See also|Sinae|Sino-Roman relations}}

=== Han dynasty ===
{{main|Han dynasty}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Han Dynasty]]
|-
|
[[File:Han map.jpg|thumb|center|
Han Empire in 87 BC
----
{{color box|#5f472b}} Han region 
{{color box|#9b8b7e}} Outlying regions
]]
|}
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
The Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220), lasting 400 years, is commonly considered within China to be one of the greatest periods in the [[history of China]]. At its height, the Han empire extended over a vast territory of 6 million km2 and housed a population of approximately 55 million. During this time period, [[China]] became a military, economic, and cultural powerhouse. The empire extended its political and [[Chinese culture|cultural influence]] over [[Korea]], [[Japan]], [[Mongolia]], [[Vietnam]], and [[Central Asia]] before it finally collapsed under a combination of domestic and external pressures.

[[File:Cernuschi Museum 20060812 069.jpg|thumb|upright|128px|left|Servant (Shinü Yong). Terra Cotta statue.]]
The Han Empire was divided into areas directly controlled by the central government, known as commanderies, and a number of semi-autonomous kingdoms. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the [[Rebellion of the Seven States]]. The [[Xiongnu]], a nomadic confederation which dominated the eastern Eurasian Steppe, defeated the Han army in battle in 200 BC. Following the defeat, a political marriage alliance was negotiated in which the Han became the de facto inferior partner. When, despite the treaty, the Xiongnu continued to raid Han borders, [[Emperor Wu of Han]] (r. 141–87 BC) launched several military campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries. These campaigns expanded Han sovereignty into the Tarim Basin of Central Asia and helped establish the vast trade network known as the [[Silk Road]], which reached as far as the Mediterranean world. Han forces managed to divide the Xiongnu into two competing nations, the Southern and Northern Xiongnu, and forced the Northern Xiongnu across the Ili River. Despite these victories, the territories north of Han's borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic [[Xianbei|Xianbei confederation]]. The Han Dynasty was arguably one of the strongest's empires in the world during the reign of Emperor Wu, though was established as the largest.{{clear}}

===Jin dynasty===
{{main|Jin dynasty (266–420)}}{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}

The Jin dynasty ({{zh|s={{linktext|晋|朝}}|t={{linktext|晉|朝}}|p=Jìn Cháo|w=Chin⁴-ch'ao²}}, {{IPA-cmn|tɕîn tʂʰɑ̌ʊ|IPA}};), was a dynasty in Chinese history, lasting between the years 265 and 420 [[Common Era|AD]]. There are two main divisions in the history of the dynasty, the first being [[Western Jin]] ({{lang|zh-hant|西晉}}, 265–316) and the second [[Eastern Jin]] ({{lang|zh-hant|東晉}}, 317–420). Western Jin was founded by [[Emperor Wu of Jin|Sima Yan]], with its capital at [[Luoyang]], while Eastern Jin was begun by [[Emperor Yuan of Jin|Sima Rui]], with its capital at [[Jiankang]]. The two periods are also known as ''Liang Jin'' ({{lang|zh-hant|兩晉}}; literally: two Jin) and ''Sima Jin'' ({{lang|zh-hant|司馬晉}}) by scholars, to distinguish this dynasty from other dynasties that use the same Chinese character, such as the [[Later Jin (Five Dynasties)|Later Jin dynasty]] ({{lang|zh-hant|後晉}}).

== Ancient Europe ==
===Ancient Greece===
{{main|Ancient Greece}}{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}

[[File:Magna Graecia ancient colonies and dialects-en.svg|thumb|Magna Graecia ancient colonies]]
Ancient Greece is the civilization belonging to the period of Greek history lasting from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to 146 BC and the Roman conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth. At the center of this time period is Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC, at first under Athenian leadership successfully repelling the military threat of Persian invasion. The [[Athenian Golden Age]] ends with the defeat of Athens at the hands of Sparta in the [[Peloponnesian War]] in 404 BC. Following the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]], Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe, for which reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of Western civilization.

Athens, after a tyranny in the second half of the 6th century, established ancient Europe's first democracy as a radical solution to prevent the aristocracy from regaining power. A citizens' assembly (the Ecclesia), for the discussion of city policy, had existed since the reforms of Draco; all citizens were permitted to attend after the reforms of Solon, but the poorest citizens could not address the assembly or run for office. With the establishment of the democracy, the assembly became the de jure mechanism of government; all citizens had equal privileges in the assembly. However, non-citizens, foreigners living in Athens, slaves and women had no political rights at all. After the rise of the democracy in Athens, other city-states founded democracies. However, many retained more traditional forms of government. As so often in other matters, Sparta was a notable exception to the rest of Greece, ruled through the whole period by not one, but two hereditary monarchs. This was a form of diarchy.{{clear}}

==== Athens ====
{{main|Ancient Athens}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Ancient Athens]]
|-
|
[[File:Map athenian empire 431 BC-en.svg|thumb|center|
Map of Ancient Greece in 431 BC.]]
|}
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
[[Ancient Athens]] was inhabited around 3,000 years ago. [[Athens]] has one of the longest histories of any city in [[Europe]] and in the world. It became the leading city of Ancient Greece in the first millennium BC. Its cultural achievements during the 5th century BC laid the foundations of [[western world|western civilization]]. During the [[Middle Ages]], Athens experienced decline and then a recovery under the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Athens was relatively prosperous during the [[Crusades]], benefiting from medieval Italian trade.

[[File:Acropolis architectural model.jpg|left|thumb|175px|[[Acropolis of Athens]] (architectural model)]]
[[Fifth-century Athens]] refers to the Greek city-state Athens in the period of roughly 480 BC-404 BC. This was a period of Athenian political hegemony, economic growth and cultural flourishing known as the [[Golden Age of Athens]] or [[Age of Pericles]]. The period began in 480 BC when an Athenian-led coalition of city-states, known as the Delian League, defeated the Persians at Salamis. As the fifth century wore on, what started as an alliance of independent city-states gradually became an Athenian empire. Eventually, Athens abandoned the pretense of parity among its allies and relocated the Delian League treasury from Delos to Athens, where it funded the building of the Athenian Acropolis. With its enemies under its feet and its political fortunes guided by legendary statesman and orator Pericles, Athens as a center of literature, philosophy (see [[Greek philosophy]]) and the arts (see [[Greek theatre]]). Some of the most important figures of Western cultural and intellectual history lived in Athens during this period: the dramatists [[Aeschylus]], [[Aristophanes]], [[Euripides]] and [[Sophocles]], the philosophers [[Aristotle]], [[Plato]] and [[Socrates]].{{clear}}

==== Sparta ====
{{main|Sparta}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Lacedaemon]]
|-
|
[[File:Sparta territory.jpg|thumb|center|
Territory of ancient Sparta]]
|}
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2020}}
[[Sparta]] was a [[Dorian Greeks|Dorian]] Greek [[militarist|military]] state, originally centered in [[Laconia]]. As a [[city-state]] devoted to military training, Sparta possessed the most formidable army in the Greek world, and after achieving notable victories over the [[Athenian Empire|Athenian]] and [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] Empires, regarded itself as the natural protector of Greece.<ref name="bost">The Macedonian Empire: the era of warfare under Philip II and Alexander the Great, 359–323 BC. - James R.</ref> [[Laconia]] or [[Lacedaemon]] ({{lang|grc|Λακεδαίμων}}) was the name of the wider [[city-state]] centered at the city of Sparta, though the name "Sparta" is now used for both.

Following the victories in the Messenian Wars (631 BC), Sparta's reputation as a land-fighting force was unequaled.<ref>"A Historical Commentary on Thucydides" - David Cartwright, p. 176</ref> In 480 BC a small Spartan unit under King [[Leonidas I|Leonidas]] made a legendary [[last stand]] against a massive, invading Persian army at the [[Battle of Thermopylae]]. One year later, Sparta assembled at full strength and led a Greek alliance against the Persians at [[Battle of Plataea|Plataea]]. There, a decisive Greek victory put an end to the [[Greco-Persian War]] along with Persian ambition of expanding into Europe. Even though this war was won by a pan-Hellenic army, credit was given to Sparta, who, besides being the protagonist at Thermopylae and Plataea, had been the nominal leader of the entire Greek expedition.<ref>Britannica ed. 2006, "Sparta"</ref>

In later Classical times, Sparta along with [[Athens]], [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] and [[Persia]] had been the main regional powers fighting for supremacy against each other. As a result of the [[Peloponnesian War]], Sparta, a traditionally continental culture, became a naval power. At the peak of her power, she subdued many of the key Greek states and even managed to overpower the powerful Athenian navy. By the end of the 5th century, she stood out as a state which had defeated at war both the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] and [[Athenian Empire]]s, a period which marks the [[Spartan hegemony|Spartan Hegemony]].
Sparta was, above all, a militarist state, and emphasis on military fitness began virtually at birth.{{clear}}

=== Macedon ===
{{main|Macedon}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Macedon]]
|-
|
[[File:MacedonEmpire.jpg|
thumb|center|
Map of Alexander the Great's empire.]]
|}
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
[[Macedon]] was the name of an ancient kingdom in the northernmost part of [[ancient Greece]], bordering [[Epirus]] to the west and the ancient thracian [[Odrysian kingdom]] to the east. For a brief period it became the most powerful state in the world after [[Alexander the Great]] conquered most of the known world, including the entire Achaemenid Empire, inaugurating the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic period]] of [[Greek history]].

The [[rise of Macedon]], from a small kingdom at the periphery of Classical Greek affairs, to one which came to dominate the entire Hellenic world (and beyond), occurred in the space of just 25 years, between 359–336 BC. This ascendancy is largely attributable to the personality and policies of [[Philip II of Macedon]]. Philip's military skills and expansionist vision of Macedonian greatness brought him early success. He had however first to re-establish a situation which had been greatly worsened by the defeat against the Illyrians in which King Perdiccas himself had died. The Paionians and the [[Odrysian kingdom|Thracians]] had sacked and invaded the eastern regions of the country, while the Athenians had landed, at Methoni on the coast, a contingent under a Macedonian pretender called Argeus. Using diplomacy, Philip pushed back Paionians and [[Thracians]] promising tributes, and crushed the 3,000 Athenian hoplites (359). Momentarily free from his opponents, he concentrated on strengthening his internal position and, above all, his army. His most important innovation was doubtless the introduction of the phalanx infantry corps, armed with the famous sarissa, an exceedingly long spear, at the time the most important army corps in Macedonia.

[[File:NAMABG-Colored Alexander Sarcophagus 1.JPG|thumb|left|256px|Polychrome decoration of the [[Alexander Sarcophagus]].]]
Philip's son, [[Alexander the Great]], managed to briefly extend Macedonian power not only over the central Greek city-states, but also to the Persian empire, including Egypt and lands as far east as the fringes of India. Alexander's adoption of the styles of government of the conquered territories was accompanied by the spread of Greek culture and learning through his vast empire. Although the empire fractured into multiple Hellenic regimes shortly after his death, his conquests left a lasting legacy, not least in the new Greek-speaking cities founded across Persia's western territories, heralding the Hellenistic period. In the partition of Alexander's empire among the Diadochi, Macedonia fell to the Antipatrid dynasty, which was overthrown by the Antigonid dynasty after only a few years.{{clear}}

=== Hellenistic States ===
{{main|Hellenistic civilization}}

[[File:Diadochi satraps babylon.png|thumb|250px|The distribution of satrapies in the Macedonian empire after the [[Partition of Babylon]].
----
{| class="toccolours" style="float:center; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; width:222px; text-align:left; clear:right;"
| style="background:#f8eaba; text-align:center;"|
<div class="center">
[[Hellenistic civilization]]
</div>
|-
|
<div class="center">
{{nowrap|[[Antigonid dynasty|Antigony]]}}{{·}}
{{nowrap|[[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemy]]}}{{·}}
{{nowrap|[[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucidae]]}}{{·}}
{{nowrap|[[Attalid dynasty|Attaly]]}}
</div>
|}
]]{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}

Alexander had made no special preparations for his succession in his newly founded empire and the Apocrypha of his death state that on his death-bed he willed it to those that performed actions well and powerfully. The result was the [[wars of the Diadochi]] between his generals (the [[Diadochi]], or 'Successors'), which lasted for forty years before a more-or-less stable arrangement was established, consisting of four major domains:
* The [[Antigonid dynasty]] in [[Macedon]] and central Greece;
* The [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] in [[Egypt]] based at [[Alexandria]];
* The [[Seleucid dynasty]] in [[Syria]] and [[Mesopotamia]] based at [[Antioch]];
* The [[Attalid dynasty]] in [[Anatolia]] based at [[Pergamon|Pergamum]].
A further two kingdoms later emerged, the so-called [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom|Greco-Bactrian]] and [[Indo-Greek kingdom]]. Hellenistic culture thrived in its preservation of the past. The states of the Hellenistic period were deeply fixated with the past and its seemingly lost glories. Athens retained its position as the most prestigious seat of higher education, especially in the domains of philosophy and rhetoric, with considerable libraries. Alexandria was a center of Greek learning and the Library of Alexandria had 700,000 volumes. The city of Pergamon became a major center of book production, possessing a library of some 200,000 volumes, second only to Alexandria's. The island of Rhodes boasted a famous finishing school for politics and diplomacy. Antioch was founded as a metropolis and center of Greek learning which retained its status into the era of Christianity. Seleucia replaced Babylon as the metropolis of the lower Tigris.{{clear}}

=== Ancient Rome and the Roman Empire ===
{{main|Ancient Rome|Roman Kingdom|Roman Republic|Roman Empire}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Roman Empire]]
|-
|
[[File:Roman Empire-117AD.png|thumb|center|The [[Roman Empire]] under [[Trajan]] in 117 AD, at the peak of its territorial power.]]
|}
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
[[Ancient Rome]] is widely known as ancient [[Europe]]'s largest and most powerful [[civilization]]. After the [[Punic Wars]] Rome was already one of the biggest empires on the planet but its expansion continued with the invasions of Greece and Asia Minor. By 27 BC Rome had control over half of [[Europe]] as well as Northern Africa and large amounts of the Middle East. Rome also had a developed culture, building on the earlier [[Greek culture]]. From the time of [[Augustus]] to the [[Decline of the Roman Empire|Fall of the Western Empire]], Rome dominated [[Europe|Western Eurasia]], comprising the majority of its population.

Roman expansion began long before the state was changed into an [[Empire]] and reached its zenith under emperor [[Trajan]] with the conquest of [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Armenia]] in AD 113. The period of the "Five Good Emperors" saw a successions of peaceful years and the Empire was prosperous. Each emperor of this period was adopted by his predecessor. The [[Nerva–Antonine dynasty]] was a dynasty of seven consecutive Roman Emperors who ruled over the Roman Empire from 96 to 192. These Emperors are Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, and Commodus.

[[File:Roman army in nashville.jpg|thumb|left|175px|Roman army soldiers (historical reenactment)]]
The last two of the "[[Five Good Emperors]]" and [[Commodus]] are also called [[Antonines]]. After his accession, Nerva, who succeeded Domitian, set a new tone: he restored much confiscated property and involved the [[Roman Senate]] in his rule. Starting in 101, [[Trajan]] undertook two military campaigns against the gold rich Dacia, which he finally conquered in 106 (see [[Trajan's Dacian Wars]]). In 112, Trajan marched on Armenia and annexed it to the Roman Empire. Then he turned south into Parthia, taking several cities before declaring Mesopotamia a new province of the empire, and lamenting that he was too old to follow in the steps of Alexander the Great. During his rule, the Roman Empire expanded to its largest extent, and would never again advance so far to the east. Hadrian's reign was marked by a general lack of major military conflicts, but he had to defend the vast territories that Trajan had acquired.

At its territorial peak in the year 117, the Roman Empire controlled approximately {{Convert|5000000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} of land surface.<ref name="Taagepera125">{{cite journal|last1=Taagepera|first1=Rein|author-link=Rein Taagepera|date=1979|title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.|journal=[[Social Science History]]|volume=3|issue=3/4|page=125|doi=10.2307/1170959|jstor=1170959}}</ref><ref name="Turchin222">{{cite journal|last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D|date=December 2006|title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires|url=http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|journal=Journal of World-Systems Research|volume=12|issue=2|page=222|issn=1076-156X|access-date=2020-06-24}}</ref> [[Ancient Rome]]'s influence upon the culture, law, technology, arts, language, religion, government, military, and architecture of [[western culture|Western civilization]] continues to this day.

{{See also|Daqin|Sino-Roman relations}}{{clear}}

===Thracian States===
{{main|Odrysian Kingdom|Thracians|Getae|Seuthes III|Seuthopolis|Dacians|Dacia|Burebista|Sapaean kingdom}}

The [[Odrysian Kingdom]] proper was a [[Thracians|Thracian]] kingdom that existed from the early 5th century BC at least until the mid-3rd century BC. It consisted mainly of present-day [[Bulgaria]] and parts of Southeastern [[Romania]] ([[Northern Dobruja]]), [[Northern Greece]] and [[Eastern Thrace|European Turkey]]. Dominated by the eponymous Odrysian people, it was the largest and most powerful Thracian realm and the first larger political entity of the eastern [[Balkans]]. Before the foundation of [[Seuthopolis]] in the late 4th century it had no fixed capital.

The Odrysian kingdom was founded by king [[Teres I]], exploiting the collapse of the [[Achaemenid Persia|Persian]] presence in Europe due to [[Second Persian invasion of Greece|failed invasion of Greece in 480-79]]. Teres and his son [[Sitalces]] pursued a policy of expansion, making the kingdom one of the most powerful of its time. Throughout much of its early history it remained an ally of Athens and even joined the [[Peloponnesian War]] on its side. By 400 the state showed first signs of fatigue, although the skilled [[Cotys I (Odrysian)|Cotys I]] initiated a brief renaissance that lasted until his murder in 360.

The [[Getae]], a northern Thracian people{{sfn|Strobel|2019|p=132, note 6}}{{sfn|Delev|2000|p=399}}{{sfn|Archibald|1998|p=6}} located between the northeastern foothills of the Haemus range and the lower Danube and the Black Sea, had been part of the Odrysian realm since Teres I, even though it is not clear how tightly they were actually incorporated into the state. When and how the Getae became independent is not discussed in the available sources.{{sfn|Delev|2000|pp=393–394}} Perhaps they became independent during the rule of Cotys I{{sfn|Archibald|1998|p=225}} or after his death in 360.{{sfn|Stoyanov|2015a|p=254}} Rich funeral treasures from the second half of the 4th century, like those of [[Agighiol]], [[Peretu]] or [[Borovo Treasure|Borovo]], attest to the increasing wealth of the Getic elite.{{sfn|Stoyanov|2015a|p=254}} Several artefacts seem to have originated in the Odrysian kingdom and may well have been prestige gifts.{{sfn|Archibald|1998|p=225}}

By the middle of the 4th century there existed a Getic kingdom that was to thrive for a century.{{sfn|Stoyanov|2015b|p=430}} The Getic capital was Helis, which has been identified with the archaeological site of [[Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari|Sboryanovo]], which was founded in the 330s{{sfn|Delev|2000|p=396}} or early 320s{{sfn|Stoyanov|2015a|p=254}} and housed around 10.000 inhabitants.{{sfn|Stoyanov|2015a|p=255}} It seems that the Getae also became active in [[Muntenia]] north of the Danube,{{sfn|Delev|2000|pp=395–396, 399}}{{sfn|Strobel|2019|pp=149-150}} a region that would come to constitute a part of the "[[Dacia]]" of imperial [[Roman historiography]].{{sfn|Strobel|2019|pp=136–143}} The first Getic king to appear in the sources was [[Cothelas]], who married his daughter [[Meda of Odessos|Meda]] to Philip II,{{sfn|Stoyanov|2015a|p=254}} thus concluding an alliance between the two states.{{sfn|Archibald|1998|p=237}} This probably happened during{{sfn|Delev|2000|p=395}} or shortly after Philip's conquest of the Odrysians.{{sfn|Worthington|2014|p=76}} The kingdom survived two wars with [[Lysimachus]]{{sfn|Delev|2000|pp=386–392}} and the [[Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe|Celtic invasion in around 280]], but eventually disintegrated a few decades later.{{sfn|Delev|2015b|p=63}} Helis/Sboryanovo was completely destroyed by an earthquake in the middle of the 3rd century.{{sfn|Stoyanov|2015a|p=255}}

With Alexander's absence in Asia, the ''Strategoi'' of Thrace engaged in rebellions and failed expeditions against the Getae, greatly unsettling the country in the process.{{sfn|Lund|1992|p=20}} At the end of the 330s or in the mid-320s (the dating is not entirely clear), a certain Seuthes, later known as [[Seuthes III]], instigated a Thracian rebellion.{{sfn|Delev|2015a|pp=53–54}} He seems to have been an Odrysian{{sfn|Delev|2018|p=192}} and may have been associated with the royal house of Cersebleptes, although his social background must remain speculation.{{sfn|Delev|2015a|p=53}}{{sfn|Lund|1992|p=22}} Seuthes' goal seems to have been the revival of an independent Odrysian state.{{sfn|Lund|1992|pp=23–24}} Seuthes ruled in the interior, what is Thrace north of the [[Rhodope mountains|Rhodopes]], but not the coastal regions of the Aegean and Black Sea.{{sfn|Delev|2015a|p=54}}{{sfn|Archibald|1998|p=316}} Probably after the death of Alexander in 323,{{sfn|Sobotkova|2013|pp=136–137}} he founded the capital town of Seuthopolis, on the [[Tundzha|Tonzos river]], near modern [[Kazanlak]], and named after himself.{{sfn|Delev|2015|p=54}} {{sfn|Delev|2015|p=54}}{{sfn|Delev|2018|p=192}}

The [[Dacia|Dacian Kingdom]] reached its greatest territorial extent under [[Burebista]]'s rule (82BC-44BC). During his rule, he conquered territories from [[Central Europe]] to the [[Balkans]], reaching the [[Aegean sea]]. He is well known by the Greek scholars as the "Celtic Slayer", because he defeated and killed many Celtic tribes from the Balkans ([[Scordisci]]) and the Central Europe ([[Boii]] & [[Taurisci]]). In 48BC Burebista tried to influence the Roman politics, during the [[Caesar's civil war|Roman civil war]] by allying with [[Pompey Magnus]] against the victorious [[Julius Caesar]]. But [[Pompey]] was defeated and later killed in [[Ptolemaic Egypt]]. After all of that, Julius Caesar viewed Burebista's Empire as a threat and he planned to invade it alongside with the [[Parthian Empire]]. But he was assassinated in 44 BC. Burebista’s state collapsed into various kingdoms. It will never be unified until [[Decebalus]] becomes the last King in 87AD.

The Thracian kingdom, also known as the [[Sapaean kingdom]], was the continuation of the Thracian state from the middle of the 1st century BC to 46 AD. It was dominated by the [[Sapaeans|Sapaean]] tribe, who ruled from their capital [[Vize|Bizye]] in what is now northwestern [[Turkey]]. Initially only of limited relevance, its power grew significantly after the [[battle of Actium]] in 31 BC, when Emperor [[Augustus]] installed a new dynasty that proved to be highly loyal and expansive. Conquering and ruling much of Thrace on [[Roman Empire|Roman]] behalf, it lasted until 46 AD, when Emperor [[Claudius]] annexed the kingdom and made Thrace a Roman [[Thracia|province]].

=== Seleucid Empire ===
{{main|Seleucid Empire}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Seleucid Empire]]
|-
|
[[File:Diadochen1.png|thumb|center|
Seleucid Empire amongst other Hellenistic kingdoms.
]]
|}
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
The [[Seleucid Empire]] was a [[Hellenistic empire]], and the eastern remnant of the former Achaemenid Persian Empire following its breakup after Alexander the Great's invasion. The Seleucid Empire was centered in the near East. It was a center of Hellenistic culture which maintained the Greek customs and Greek-speaking Macedonian elite.

Seleucid expansion into Greece was abruptly halted after decisive defeats at the hands of the Roman army. Much of the eastern part of the empire was conquered by the Parthians under Mithridates I of Parthia in the mid-2nd century BC, yet the Seleucid kings continued to rule a rump state from Syria until the invasion by Armenian king [[Tigranes the Great]] and their ultimate overthrow by the Roman general [[Pompey]].{{clear}}

=== Ptolemaic Empire ===
{{main|Ptolemaic Egypt|Ptolemaic dynasty}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Ptolemaic empire]]
|-
|
[[File:Ptolemaic-Empire-300BC.png|thumb|center|
Ptolemaic Empire in 300 BC.
]]
|}
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2020}}
The [[Ptolemaic dynasty]], sometimes also known as the [[Lagids]], was a Greek<ref>Cleopatra: A Sourcebook (Oklahoma Series in Classical Culture) by Prudence J. Jones (Author) page14 (cf., "They were members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Macedonian Greeks, who ruled Egypt after the death of its conqueror, Alexander the Great.")</ref><ref>Women in Hellenistic Egypt By Sarah B. Pomeroy page 16 "while Ptolemaic Egypt was a monarchy with a Greek ruling class."</ref><ref>the Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. ", Cleopatra VII was born to Ptolemy XII Auletes (80–57 BC, ruled 55–51 BC) and Cleopatra, both parents being Macedonian Greeks.</ref><ref>Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt by Kathryn Bard. page 488. (cf., "Ptolemaic kings were still crowned at Memphis and the city was popularly regarded as the Egyptian rival to Alexandria, founded by the Macedonian Greeks.") Page 687. (cf., "During the Ptolemaic period, when Egypt was governed by rulers of Greek descent…")</ref> royal family which ruled the [[Ptolemaic Empire]] in Egypt during the Hellenistic period.

Ptolemy, one of the seven somatophylakes (bodyguards) who served as Alexander the Great's generals and deputies, was appointed satrap of Egypt after Alexander's death in 323 BC. In 305 BC, he declared himself King Ptolemy I, later known as "Soter" (saviour). The Egyptians soon accepted the Ptolemies as the successors to the pharaohs of independent Egypt. Ptolemy's family ruled Egypt until the Roman conquest of 30 BC. All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name Ptolemy.

Ptolemaic Egypt began when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt in 305 BC and ended with the death of queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt and the Roman conquest in 30 BC. The Ptolemaic Kingdom was a powerful Hellenistic state, extending from southern Syria in the east, to Cyrene to the west, and south to the frontier with Nubia. Alexandria became the capital city and a center of Greek culture and trade. To gain recognition by the native Egyptian populace, they named themselves as the successors to the Pharaohs. The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life. Hellenistic culture continued to thrive in Egypt well after the Muslim conquest. The Ptolemies faced rebellions of native Egyptians often caused by an unwanted regime and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and its annexation by Rome.{{clear}}

== Ancient Eurasian Steppe ==

===Scythia===
{{Main|Scythia}}

Ancient Greeks gave the name Scythia (or Great Scythia) to all the lands north-east of Europe and the northern coast of the [[Black Sea]]. According to Oxford University author's Samuel Arrowsmith, B Fellowes and Luke Graves Hansard in their 1832 book ''A Grammar of Ancient Geography'', Scythia had two parts, Scythia Intra Imaum and Scythia Extra Imaum<ref>{{cite book|last1=Arrowsmith, Fellowes, Graves Hansard|first1=S, B & L|title=A Grammar of Ancient Geography: Compiled for the Use of King's College School|date=3 Apr 2006|publisher=S. Arrowsmith, and B. Fellowes, 1832|location=Oxford University|page=14|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X1iwAuAJSOcC&q=Scythia+square+miles|access-date=20 August 2014}}</ref> both covering a combined area of 1,129,000 mi² or 2,924,096 km2.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Arrowsmith, Fellowes, Graves Hansard|first1=S, B & L|title=A Grammar of Ancient Geography: Compiled for the Use of King's College School|date=3 Apr 2006|publisher=S. Arrowsmith, and B. Fellowes, 1832|location=Oxford University|page=15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X1iwAuAJSOcC&q=Scythia+square+miles|access-date=20 August 2014}}</ref>

The [[Scythians]] – the Greeks' name for this nomadic people – inhabited Scythia from at least the 11th century BC to the 2nd century AD.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lessman|first=Thomas|title=World History Maps|url=http://www.worldhistorymaps.info/maps.html|work=2004|publisher=Thomas Lessman|access-date=23 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208201313/http://worldhistorymaps.info/maps.html|archive-date=8 December 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> Its location and extent varied over time but usually extended farther to the west than is indicated on the map opposite.<ref>Giovanni Boccaccio’s ''Famous Women'' translated by Virginia Brown 2001, p. 25; Cambridge and London, Harvard University Press; {{ISBN|0-674-01130-9}} ''".....extending from the [[Black Sea]] in a northerly direction towards Ocean."'' In Boccaccio's time the [[Baltic Sea]] was known also as '''Oceanus Sarmaticus.'''</ref>

=== Sarmatia ===
{{Main|Sarmatians}}

The '''Sarmatians''' (Latin: ''Sarmatæ'' or ''Sauromatæ'', [[Ancient Greek|Greek]]: {{lang|grc|Σαρμάται, Σαυρομάται}}) were an [[Iranian peoples|Iranian people]] during [[classical antiquity]], flourishing from about the 5th century BC to the 4th century AD.<ref name="UNESCO">J.Harmatta: "Scythians" in UNESCO Collection of History of Humanity – Volume III: From the Seventh Century BC to the Seventh Century AD. Routledge/UNESCO. 1996. pg. 182</ref><ref>(2007). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', ''s.v.'' "Sarmatian". Retrieved May 20, 2007, from [Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9065786]</ref> They spoke [[Scythian language|Scythian]], an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language from the [[Eastern Iranian languages|Eastern Iranian]] family.

Originating in [[Central Asia]], the Sarmatians started their westward migration around the 6th century bc, coming to dominate the closely related [[Scythians]] by the 2nd century bc.<ref name="EBSarmatian">{{cite web |url=http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/524377/Sarmatian |title=Sarmatian |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |access-date=31 December 2014}}</ref> The Sarmatians differed from the Scythians in their veneration of the god of fire rather than god of nature, and their [[Women in ancient warfare|women's prominent role]] in warfare, which possibly served as the inspiration for the [[Amazons]].<ref name="EBSarmatian"/> At their greatest reported extent, around 1st century AD, these tribes ranged from the [[Vistula River]] to the mouth of the [[Danube]] and eastward to the [[Volga]], bordering the shores of the [[Black Sea|Black]] and [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] seas as well as the [[Caucasus]] to the south.<ref>[[Apollonius of Rhodes|Apollonius]] (''[[Argonautica]]'', iii) envisaged the ''Sauromatai'' as the bitter foe of King [[Aietes]] of [[Colchis]] (modern Georgia).</ref> Their territory, which was known as Sarmatia to [[Greco-Roman ethnographers]], corresponded to the western part of greater [[Scythia]] (mostly modern [[Ukraine]] and [[Southern Federal District|Southern Russia]], also to a smaller extent north eastern [[Balkans]] around [[Moldova]]). According to authors Arrowsmith, Fellowes and Graves Hansard in their book ''A Grammar of Ancient Geography'' published in 1832, Sarmatia had two parts, Sarmatia Europea<ref>{{cite book|last1=Arrowsmith, Fellowes, Hansard|first1=A, B & G L|title=A Grammar of Ancient Geography,: Compiled for the Use of King's College School|date=1832|publisher=Hansard London|page=9|edition=3 April 2006|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X1iwAuAJSOcC&q=Scythia+square+miles|access-date=20 August 2014}}</ref> and Sarmatia Asiatica<ref>{{cite book|last1=Arrowsmith, Fellowes, Hansard|first1=A, B & G L|title=A Grammar of Ancient Geography,: Compiled for the Use of King's College School|date=1832|publisher=Hansard London|page=15|edition=3 April 2006|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X1iwAuAJSOcC&q=Scythia+square+miles|access-date=20 August 2014}}</ref> covering a combined area of 503,000 sq mi or 1,302,764 km2.

=== Xiongnu ===
{{Main|Xiongnu}}
{{See also|Serica}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Xiongnu]]
|-
|
[[File:XiongnuMap.png|thumb|center|
Xiongnu c.174
----
{{color box|#23b14d}} Xiongnu Region 
{{color box|#ffffff}} Outlying regions]]
|}
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
Xiongnu (Hsiung nu) was a [[nomadic empire]] that flourished in the central Asia. Their origin is debatable, but they probably spoke either an [[Iranian language|Iranian]], [[Proto-Turkic language|Proto-Turkic]], [[Mongolic languages|Proto-Mongolic]], or [[Yeniseian]] language. They conquered most of modern [[Mongolia]] under their leader [[Toumen]] (220–209 BC) in the 3rd century BC. During [[Modu]]'s reign (209–174 BC) they defeated both the [[Donghu District|Donghu]] in the east and [[Yuezhi]] in the west and they began threatening [[Han China]].

The [[Great Wall of China]] had been constructed to protect Chinese towns from the Xiongnu attacks. While the Chinese were trying to bring the Xiongnu under control, something of high significance happened: cross-cultural encounters. A large variety of people (such as traders, ambassadors, hostages, parents in cross-cultural marriages, etc.) served as helpers that passed on ideas, values, and techniques across cultural boundary lines. These encounters helped cultures learn from other cultures. The Xiongnu Empire disintegrated into two parts during the 1st century; eventually the Xiongnu fell due to their defeat in the [[Han–Xiongnu War]].

=== Hunnic Empire ===
{{Main|Huns}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Huns#Unified Empire under Attila|Hunnic Empire]]
|-
|
[[File:Huns empire.png|thumb|center|
The [[Huns#Unified Empire under Attila|Hunnic Empire]]
----
{{color box|#65ff00}} Attila's imperial capital (approximate) 
{{color box|#26b758}} Attila's empire (approximate) 
{{color box|#ffffcf}} Non-Hunnic Regions ]]
|}
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2020}}
Huns were nomadic people who were known for their hordes of [[mounted archer]]s. Their language seems to be [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]; but [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]], [[Yeniseian]], [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] etc., are also postulated. After 370 under a certain [[Balamber]] they founded an empire in the East Europe defeating [[Alans]] and [[Goths]]. They triggered the [[Migration period|great migration]] which eventually caused the collapse of the [[West Roman Empire]].<ref>Migrations of peoples, although not strictly part of the Migration, continued beyond the period usually referred to as the Migration Period.</ref>

The death of Rugila in 434 left the sons of his brother Mundzuk, Attila and Bleda, in control of the united Hun tribes. [[Attila the Hun]] ruled of the Huns from 434 until his death in 453. Under his rule and leader of the Hunnic Empire, the empire stretched from Germany to the Ural River and from the Danube River to the Baltic Sea. Hunnic khagan Atilla invaded Europe. The rise of the Huns around 370 overwhelmed the [[Gothic kingdoms]]. Many of the Goths migrated into Roman territory in the Balkans, while others remained north of the Danube under Hunnic rule.

During Attila the Hun's rule, he was one of the most fearsome enemies of the Western and Eastern Roman Empire. He invaded the Balkans twice and marched through Gaul (modern France) as far as Orléans before being defeated at the [[Battle of Châlons]]. Although his invasion of [[Gaul]] was checked at Chalons, he appeared in [[North Italy]] in the next year. After Atilla's death in 453, the Hunnic Empire collapsed.the Huns seem to have been absorbed by other ethnic groups such as the [[Bulgars]].{{sfn|Maenchen-Helfen|1973|p=168}} Kim, however, argues that the Huns continued under Ernak, becoming the [[Kutrigurs|Kutrigur]] and [[Utigurs|Utigur]] Hunno-[[Bulgars]].{{sfn|Kim|2013|p=123}} This conclusion is still subject to some controversy. Some scholars also argue that another group identified in ancient sources as Huns, the [[North Caucasian Huns]], were genuine Huns.{{sfn|Kim|2015|p=136}}{{sfn|Sinor|2005|p=4228}} The rulers of various post-Hunnic steppe peoples are known to have claimed descent from Attila in order to legitimize their right to the power, and various steppe peoples were also called "Huns" by Western and Byzantine sources from the fourth century onward.{{sfn|Róna-Tas|1999|p=309}}{{clear}}

== See also ==
* [[List of medieval great powers]]
* [[List of modern great powers]]
* [[Great power]]
* [[Middle power]]
* [[Superpower]]
;General topics: [[History of warfare]]
;Political science: [[Power in international relations]], [[Expansionism]] ([[List of examples of expansionism]])
;General Lists: [[List of largest empires]], [[List of countries spanning more than one continent]], [[List of historical countries and empires spanning more than one continent]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* Cooper, F. (2008). ''Empires and Political Imagination in World History''. Princeton [u.a.]: Princeton University Press.
* Doyle, M. W. (1986). ''Empires''. Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press.
* Ellis, Edward Sylvester and Charles F. Horne (1906). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=s1QNAQAAMAAJ The story of the greatest nations: from the dawn of history to the twentieth century : a comprehensive history founded upon the leading authorities, including a complete chronology of the world and a pronouncing vocabulary of each nation, Volume 1]''. F. R. Niglutsch.
* Farrington, K. (2003). ''Historical Atlas of Empires''. London: Mercury.
* Harrison, T., & J. Paul Getty Museum. (2009). ''The Great Empires of the Ancient World''. Los Angeles, Calif: J. Paul Getty Museum.
* Khan, A. (2004). ''A Historical Atlas of India''. New York: Rosen Pub.
* Labberton, R. H. (1874). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZpsBAAAAMAAJ An Historical Atlas Containing a Chronological Series of One Hundred Maps]''. Philadelphia: Claxton, Remsen & Haffelfinger.
* Labberton, R. H. (1884). ''[https://archive.org/details/anhistoricalatl00labbgoog An historical atlas: A chronological series of one hundred and twelve maps at successive periods]''. New York.
* Morris, I., & Scheidel, W. (2009). ''The Dynamics of Ancient Empires: State power from Assyria to Byzantium''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Petitjean, P., [[Catherine Jami|Jami, C.]], Moulin, A. M., & Equipe REHSEIS (Centre national de la recherche scientifique (France)). (1992). ''Science and Empires: Historical Studies about Scientific Development and European Expansion''. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
* Powell, T. (1888). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Nyc6AQAAIAAJ Illustrated Home Book of the World's Great Nations: Being a Geographical, Historical and Pictorial Encyclopedia]''. Chicago: People's Pub. Co.
* Ringmar, Erik. [http://www.irhistory.info/ History of International Relations Open Textbook Project], Cambridge: Open Book, forthcoming.
* Shepherd, W. R., & C.S. Hammond & Company. (1911). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GBjSAAAAMAAJ Historical Atlas]''. New York: Henry Holt and Co.
* Worcester, J. E. (1834). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mKIXAAAAYAAJ Elements of History, Ancient & Modern: With Historical Charts]''. Boston: Hilliard.
* Yonge, C. M. (1882). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=MwNQAAAAYAAJ A Pictorial History of the World's Great Nations: From the Earliest Dates to the Present Time]'', Volume 3. New York: S. Hess.

{{International power}}
{{Empires}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Historical Powers}}
[[Category:Power (international relations)|*]]
[[Category:History of international relations]]
[[Category:Lists of former countries]]

IndianPedia - User contributions [en]

List of ancient great powers