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List of Indian inventions and discoveries

2026-05-25T05:25:06Z

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{{Short description|Indian inventions}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}
{{Science and technology in India}}

This''' list of Indian inventions and discoveries''' details the inventions, scientific discoveries and contributions of India, including those from the historic [[Indian subcontinent]] and the modern-day [[Republic of India]]. It draws from the whole [[culture of India|cultural]] and [[history of Indian science and technology|technological
of India|cartography]], [[History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent|metallurgy]], [[Indian logic|logic]], [[Indian mathematics|mathematics]], [[History of measurement systems in India|metrology]] and [[Mining in India|mineralogy]] were among the branches of study pursued by [[:Category:Indian academics|its scholars]].<ref>{{citation |first=Meera |last=Nanda |title=Hindutva's science envy |url=http://www.frontline.in/science-and-technology/hindutvas-science-envy/article9049883.ece |newspaper=Frontline |date=16 September 2016 |access-date=14 October 2016}}</ref> During recent times [[science and technology in the Republic of India]] has also focused on [[Automobile industry in India|automobile engineering]], [[Information technology in India|information technology]], [[Communications in India|communications]] as well as research into [[Indian Space Research Organisation|space]] and [[Indian Antarctic Programme|polar]] technology.

For the purpose of this list, the [[invention]]s are regarded as technological firsts developed within territory of India, as such does not include foreign technologies which India acquired through contact or any Indian origin living in foreign country doing any breakthroughs in foreign land. It also does not include not a new idea, indigenous alternatives, low-cost alternatives, technologies or discoveries developed elsewhere and later invented separately in India, nor inventions by Indian emigres or [[Indian diaspora]] in other places. Changes in minor concepts of design or style and artistic innovations do not appear in the lists.

== Ancient India ==
{{See also|History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent|List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilisation|Timeline of Indian innovation}}

=== Agriculture ===
* [[Indigo|Indigo dye]] – Indigo, a blue pigment and a dye, was used in India, which was also the earliest major, old world, centre for its production and processing.<ref name=k&c>Kriger & Connah (2006), page 120</ref> The ''Indigofera tinctoria'' variety of Indigo was domesticated in India.<ref name=k&c/> Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the [[ancient Greece|Greeks]] and the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] via various trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product.<ref name=k&c/>
* [[Jute|Jute cultivation]] – Jute has been cultivated in India since ancient times.<ref name=ebjute/> Raw jute was exported to the [[western world]], where it was used to make [[rope]]s and cordage.<ref name=ebjute>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''jute''.</ref> The Indian jute industry, in turn, was modernised during the British Raj in India.<ref name=ebjute/> The region of [[Bengal]] was the major centre for Jute cultivation, and remained so before the modernisation of India's jute industry in 1855, when [[Kolkata]] became a centre for jute processing in India.<ref name=ebjute/>
* [[Sugar]] – Sugarcane was originally from tropical [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]],<ref name=Kiple/> with different species originating in India, and ''S. edule'' and ''S. officinarum'' from [[New Guinea]].<ref name=Kiple>{{cite web |url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/books/kiple/sugar.htm|title=World history of Food – Sugar|author=Kenneth F.Kiple & Kriemhild Conee Ornelas|publisher=Cambridge University Press|access-date=9 January 2012}}</ref> The process of producing crystallised sugar from sugar cane, in India, dates to at least the beginning of the common era, with 1st century CE Greek and Roman authors writing on Indian sugar.<ref>Book Two of Dioscorides' ''Materia Medica''. The book is downloadable from links at the Wikipedia [[Dioscorides]] page.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/de-materia-medica|title=de materia medica|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> The process was soon transmitted to China with travelling Buddhist monks.<ref name=Kieschnick1>Kieschnick (2003)</ref> Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining.<ref name=Kieschnick11>Kieschnick (2003), page 258</ref> Each mission returned with results on refining sugar.<ref name=Kieschnick11/>

=== Construction, civil engineering and architecture ===
[[File:Sanchi2.jpg|thumb|The Great Stupa at [[Sanchi]] (4th–1st century BCE). The dome shaped stupa was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.]]
[[File:Hanuman and Ravana in Tholu Bommalata, the shadow puppet tradition of Andhra Pradesh, India.JPG|thumb|[[Hanuman]] and [[Ravana]] in ''Tolu Bommalata'', the [[shadow puppet]] tradition of [[Andhra Pradesh]], India]]
* [[Stepwell]] – While the early history of stepwells is poorly understood, water structures in Western India were their likely predecessor.<ref name=Livingston&Bach20>Livingston & Beach, 19</ref> The three features of stepwells in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BCE, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure.<ref name=Livingston&Bach20/>
* [[Stupa]] – The origin of the stupa can be traced to 3rd-century BCE India.<ref name=Ency>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''Pagoda''.</ref> It was used as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.<ref name=Ency/> The stupa architecture was adopted in [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]] and [[East Asia]], where it evolved into the [[pagoda]], a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.<ref name=Ency/>
* Residential [[University]] – [[Nalanda]] ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|Nālandā}}, {{IPA|sa|naːlən̪d̪aː|pron}}) was a renowned ''[[mahavihara]]'' ([[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monastic university) in ancient [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] (modern-day [[Bihar]]), eastern [[India]].{{sfn|Asher|2015|pp=1–5}}{{sfnp|Kumar|2018}}<ref name="nalandagoi">{{cite web |date=15 June 2023 |title=History {{!}} District Nalanda, Government of Bihar {{!}} India |url=https://nalanda.nic.in/en/history/ |access-date=2 June 2023 |website=nalanda.nic.in}}</ref> Considered by historians to be the world's first residential university<ref>{{cite web |title=UNESCO Nominations |url=https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/nominations/1502.pdf |website=UNESCO |access-date=2 June 2023}}</ref> and among the greatest centres of learning in the ancient world, it was located near the city of Rajagriha (now [[Rajgir]]) and about {{convert|90|km|mi|0}} southeast of Pataliputra (now [[Patna]]) and operated from 427 until 1197 CE.{{sfn|Pinkney|2015|pp=111–149}}

=== Finance and banking ===
* [[Cheque|Cheque/Check]] – There is early evidence of using cheques/checks. In India, during the [[Maurya Empire]] (from 321 to 185 BC), a commercial instrument called the "Adesha" was in use, which was an order on a banker desiring him to pay the money of the note to a third person (now known as or referred to as a "Negotiable Instrument").<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.rbi.org.in/Scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=155|title=Reserve Bank of India – Publications}}</ref>

=== Games ===
{{Main|Traditional games of South Asia}}
* [[Atya-patya]] – This variation of tag was being played as early as 100 CE, and was possibly invented by farmers as a way of practicing driving away birds. It was later used as a form of military training in [[Kerala]] in close relation to the martial art of [[kalaripayattu]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Arasu |first=S. T. |date=2020-07-04 |title=Galah Panjang and its Indian roots |url=https://www.gosports.com.my/news/galah-panjang-and-its-indian-roots/ |access-date=2023-08-06 |website=On the sport. Be part of it }}</ref>
* [[Blindfold chess]] – [[List of games that Buddha would not play|Games prohibited by Buddha]] includes a variant of ashtapada game played on imaginary boards. ''Akasam astapadam'' was an ''ashtapada'' variant played with no board, literally "astapadam played in the sky". A correspondent in the [[American Chess Bulletin]] identifies this as likely the earliest literary mention of a blindfold chess variant.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CqJJAAAAYAAJ&dq=brahmajala+sutta+games&pg=RA2-PA104|title=American Chess Bulletin|first1=Hartwig|last1=Cassell|first2=Hermann|last2=Helms|date=28 May 1916|publisher=H. Cassell and H. Helms.|via=Google Books}}</ref>
* [[Carrom]] – The game of carrom originated in [[India]].<ref>History of Physical Education, p.209, SR Tiwari, APH Publishing</ref> One carrom board with its surface made of glass is still available in one of the palaces in [[Patiala, India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=All India Carrom Federation|url=http://www.indiancarrom.com/brief-of-the-game.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216055759/http://indiancarrom.com/brief-of-the-game.htm|archive-date=16 February 2015|access-date=2 February 2015}}</ref> It became very popular among the masses after [[World War I]]. State-level competitions were being held in the different states of India during the early part of the twentieth century. Serious carrom tournaments may have begun in [[Sri Lanka]] in 1935 but by 1958, both India and Sri Lanka had formed official federations of carrom clubs, sponsoring tournaments and awarding prizes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Carrom.org|url=http://www.carrom.org/game/?subcat=10/|access-date=2 February 2015|archive-date=1 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150201211242/http://www.carrom.org/game/?subcat=10%2F|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Chaturanga]] – The precursor of [[chess]] originated in India during the [[Gupta dynasty]] (c. 280{{ndash}}550 CE).<ref name=Murray1913>Murray (1913)</ref><ref name=Forbes1860>Forbes (1860)</ref><ref name=JonesAj121>Jones, William (1807). "On the Indian Game of Chess". pages 323{{ndash}}333</ref><ref name=LindeGM>Linde, Antonius (1981)</ref> Both the [[Persian people|Persians]] and [[Arab]]s ascribe the origins of the game of Chess to the Indians.<ref name=JonesAj121/><ref name=Wilkinson>Wilkinson, Charles K (May 1943)</ref><ref name=Bird48>Bird (1893), page 63</ref> The words for "chess" in [[Old Persian]] and [[Arabic]] are ''chatrang'' and ''[[shatranj]]'' respectively – terms derived from ''[[chaturanga|caturaṅga]]'' in [[Sanskrit]],<ref name=Whyld>Hooper & Whyld (1992), page 74</ref><ref name=SBI106>Sapra, Rahul (2000). "Sports in India". Students' Britannica India (Vol. 6). Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. p. 106. {{ISBN|0-85229-762-9}}.</ref> which literally means an ''army of four divisions'' or ''four corps''.<ref name=Meri>Meri (2005), page 148</ref><ref name=Basham208>Basham (2001), page 208</ref> Chess spread throughout the world and many variants of the game soon began taking shape.<ref name=Britannica1>Encyclopædia Britannica (2002). ''Chess: Ancient precursors and related games''.</ref> This game was introduced to the [[Near East]] from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education of [[Persian Empire|Persian]] nobility.<ref name=Meri/> [[Buddhist]] pilgrims, [[Silk Road]] traders and others carried it to the [[Far East]] where it was transformed and assimilated into a game often played on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares.<ref name=Britannica1/> Chaturanga reached Europe through Persia, the [[Byzantine empire]] and the expanding [[Arabian]] empire.<ref name=Basham208/><ref name=ChessEurope>Encyclopædia Britannica (2007). ''Chess: Introduction to Europe''.</ref> [[Muslims]] carried Shatranj to [[North Africa]], [[Sicily]], and Spain by the 10th century where it took its final modern form of chess.<ref name=Britannica1/>
* [[Kabaddi]] – The game of ''kabaddi'' originated in India during prehistory.<ref name=Alter88>Alter, page 88</ref> Suggestions on how it evolved into the modern form range from wrestling exercises, military drills, and collective self-defence but most authorities agree that the game existed in some form or the other in India during the period between 1500 and 400 BCE.<ref name=Alter88/>
* [[Kalaripayattu]] – One of the world's oldest form of martial arts is [[Kalaripayattu]] that developed in the southwest state of [[Kerala]] in India.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meera |first1=Sethumadhavan |last2=Vinodan |first2=A. |title=Attitude towards alternative medicinal practices in wellness tourism market |journal=Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights |date=23 September 2019 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=278–295 |doi=10.1108/JHTI-06-2018-0037 }}</ref> It is believed to be the oldest surviving martial art in India, with a history spanning over 3,000 years.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S. Anil |date=2021-01-10 |title=Kalaripayattu academy braces for action |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/kalaripayattu-academy-braces-for-action/article33539155.ece |access-date=2021-05-17 }}</ref>
* [[Kho-kho]] – This is one of the oldest variations of [[Tag (game)|tag]] in the world, having been played since as early as the fourth century BCE.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-29 |title=The Evolution of Kho Kho Mats in India: A Historical Overview |url=https://www.news18.com/sports/the-evolution-of-kho-kho-mats-in-india-a-historical-overview-7947775.html |access-date=2023-08-06 |website=News18 }}</ref>
* [[Ludo (board game)|Ludo]] – [[Pachisi]] originated in India by the 6th century.<ref name=EncartaP>MSN Encarta (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20150115060615/http://encarta.co.uk/encyclopedia_781530306/Pachisi.html ''Pachisi''].</ref> The earliest evidence of this game in India is the depiction of boards on the caves of Ajanta.<ref name=EncartaP/> A variant of this game, called Ludo, made its way to England during the British Raj.<ref name=EncartaP/>
* [[Mallakhamba]] – It is a traditional sport, originating from the [[Indian subcontinent]], in which a [[gymnast]] performs aerial [[yoga]] or [[gymnastic]] postures and [[wrestling]] grips in concert with a vertical stationary or hanging wooden pole, cane, or rope.The earliest literary known mention of Mallakhamb is in the 1135 CE Sanskrit classic ''[[Manasollasa]]'', written by [[Someshvara III]]. It has been thought to be the ancestor of [[Pole dance|Pole Dancing]].
* [[Nuntaa (game)|Nuntaa]], also known as Kutkute.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://justnewsbd.com/details_archive.php?jnewsbd=MTIwNjM= |script-title=bn:মজার খেলা নুনতা |language=bn |date=19 September 2012 |access-date=2013-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623164335/http://justnewsbd.com/details_archive.php?jnewsbd=MTIwNjM= |archive-date=23 June 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Seven stones]] – An Indian subcontinent game also called Pitthu is played in rural areas has its origins in the Indus Valley Civilization.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Terra cotta discs {{!}} Harappa|url=https://www.harappa.com/slide/terra-cotta-discs|access-date=2021-03-07|website=harappa.com}}</ref>
* [[Snakes and ladders]] – Vaikunta pali Snakes and ladders originated in India as a game based on morality.<ref name=Augustyn>Augustyn, pages 27{{ndash}}28</ref> During British rule of India, this game made its way to England, and was eventually introduced in the United States of America by game-pioneer [[Milton Bradley]] in 1943.<ref name=Augustyn/>
* [[Suit (cards)|Suits]] game: Kridapatram is an early [[Suit (cards)|suits]] game, made of painted rags, invented in Ancient India. The term ''kridapatram'' literally means "painted rags for playing."<ref name="McManus">{{cite book|author=James McManus|title=Cowboys Full: The Story of Poker|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=drHJelHmhsgC&pg=PA34|date=27 October 2009|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0-374-29924-8|page=34}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Carlisle| first = Rodney| title = Encyclopedia of Play in Today's Society| publisher = [[SAGE Publications]]| year = 2009| page = 31| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7DiB3z2fBpAC&pg=PA31| isbn = 978-1-4129-6670-2}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Quackenbos| title = Illustrated History of Ancient Literature, Oriental and Classical| publisher = READ BOOKS| year = 2010| page = 60| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GzgsRtvtp_gC&pg=PA60| isbn = 978-1-4455-7978-8}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Kapoor| first = Subodh| title = The Indian encyclopaedia: biographical, historical, religious, administrative, ethnological, commercial and scientific – Vol 6| publisher = Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd| year = 2002| page = 1786| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=q5ZM0nZXZEkC&pg=PA1786| isbn = 978-81-7755-257-7}}</ref><ref name="Townsend">{{Citation | last = Townsend| first = George| title = The manual of dates: a dictionary of reference to all the most important events in the history of mankind to be found in authentic records| publisher = Routledge, Warne, & Routledge| year = 1862| page = 184| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HKQZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA184}}</ref> Paper playing cards first appeared in East Asia during the 9th century.<ref name="McManus"/><ref>{{Cite book | last =Needham | first =Joseph | author-link =Joseph Needham | year =2004 | title =Science & Civilisation in China | publisher =Cambridge University Press | volume =V:1 | isbn =978-0-521-05802-5|pages=131{{ndash}}132}}</ref> The medieval Indian game of ''[[ganjifa]]'', or playing cards, is first recorded in the 16th century.<ref name="Schwartz">{{cite book|author=David G. Schwartz|title=Roll the bones: the history of gambling|date=5 October 2006|publisher=Gotham Books|isbn=978-1-59240-208-3|url=https://archive.org/details/rollboneshistory00schw}}</ref>
* [[Vajra-mushti]] – refers to a wrestling where [[knuckleduster]] like weapon is employed.The first literary mention of vajra-musti comes from the ''Manasollasa'' of the [[Chalukya]] king Someswara III (1124–1138), although it has been conjectured to have existed since as early as the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya dynasty]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vajra-musti Indian Sport |url=https://www.topendsports.com/sport/list/vajramushti.htm |access-date=2022-07-21 |website=www.topendsports.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kesting |first=Stephan |date=2012-03-13 |title=The Ancient Vale Tudo of India: Vajramushti |url=https://www.grapplearts.com/the-ancient-vale-tudo-of-india-vajramushti/ |access-date=2022-07-21 |website=Grapplearts }}</ref>

=== Textile and material production ===
* [[Button (clothing)|Button]] – Ornamental buttons—made from [[seashell]]—were used in the [[Indus Valley civilization]] for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.<ref name=Hesse&Hesse>Hesse, Rayner W. & Hesse, Rayner W. Jr. (2007). ''Jewelrymaking Through History: An Encyclopedia''. Greenwood Publishing Group. 35. {{ISBN|0-313-33507-9}}.</ref> Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing by using a thread.<ref name=Hesse&Hesse/> Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the [[Indus Valley]]. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."<ref>McNeil, Ian (1990). ''An encyclopaedia of the history of technology''. Taylor & Francis. 852. {{ISBN|0-415-01306-2}}.</ref>
[[File:Nepali charka in action.jpg|thumb|A [[w:Demographics of Nepal|Nepali]] [[w:Spinning wheel|Charkha]] in action]]
* [[Calico (textile)|Calico]] – Calico had originated in the subcontinent by the 11th century and found mention in Indian literature, by the 12th-century writer Hemachandra. He has mentioned calico fabric prints done in a lotus design.<ref name=eb-calico>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''calico''</ref> The Indian textile merchants traded in calico with the Africans by the 15th century and calico fabrics from [[Gujarat]] appeared in [[Egypt]].<ref name=eb-calico/> Trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onward.<ref name=eb-calico/> Within India, calico originated in [[Kozhikode]].<ref name=eb-calico/>
* [[Carding|Carding devices]] – Historian of science [[Joseph Needham]] ascribes the invention of bow-instruments used in textile technology to India.<ref name=Baber1/> The earliest evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE).<ref name=Baber1/> These carding devices, called ''kaman'' and ''dhunaki'' would loosen the texture of the fibre by the means of a vibrating string.<ref name=Baber1/>
* [[Cashmere wool|Cashmere]] – The fibre cashmere fibre also known as ''pashm'' or ''pashmina'' for its use in [[Kashmir shawl|the handmade shawls of Kashmir, India]].<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''cashmere''.</ref> The woolen shawls made from wool in Indian administered [[Kashmir]] find written mention between the 3rd century BCE and the 11th century CE.<ref name=ebpasm>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''kashmir shawl''.</ref>
* [[Spinning wheel#Charkha|Charkha]] (Spinning wheel): invented in India, between 500 and 1000 CE.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Smith | first1 = C. Wayne | last2 = Cothren | first2 = J. Tom | title = Cotton: Origin, History, Technology, and Production | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | volume = 4 | date = 1999 | pages = viii | url = http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0471180459.html | isbn = 978-0471180456 | quote = The first improvement in spinning technology was the spinning wheel, which was invented in India between 500 and 1000 A.D. | archive-date = 1 April 2017 | access-date = 8 April 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170401042540/http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0471180459.html | url-status = dead }}</ref>
* [[Chintz]] – The origin of Chintz is from the printed all cotton fabric of calico in India.<ref name=eb-chintz>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''chintz''</ref> The origin of the word ''chintz'' itself is from the [[Hindi language]] word चित्र् (chitr), which means an image.<ref name=eb-chintz/><ref name="Hāṇḍā">Hāṇḍā (1998), page 133</ref>
* [[Cotton|Cotton cultivation]] – Cotton was cultivated by the inhabitants of the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] by the [[5th millennium BCE]]{{snd}}[[4th millennium BCE]].<ref>Stein (1998), page 47</ref> The Indus cotton industry was well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be practised until the modern industrialisation of India.<ref>Wisseman & Williams (1994), page 127</ref> Well before the [[Common Era]], the use of cotton textiles had spread from India to the [[Mediterranean]] and beyond.<ref>The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. ''cotton''.</ref>
* [[Cotton gin|Single roller cotton gin]] – The [[Ajanta Caves]] of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century.<ref>Angela Lakwete: ''Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America'', The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|0-8018-7394-0}}, p. 5</ref> This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in form of foot powered gins.<ref name=Babergin>Baber (1996), page 56</ref> The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as ''charkhi'', more technically the "wooden-worm-worked roller". This mechanical device was, in some parts of India, driven by water power.<ref name=Baber1>Baber (1996), page 57</ref>
* [[Worm drive]] [[cotton gin]] – The worm drive later appeared in the [[Indian subcontinent]], for use in roller [[cotton gin]]s, during the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries.<ref name="india">[[Irfan Habib]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'', page 53], [[Pearson Education]]</ref>
* [[Crank (mechanism)|Crank]] Handle [[Cotton Gin]] – The incorporation of the [[Crank (mechanism)|crank]] handle in the cotton gin, first appeared in either the late [[Delhi Sultanate]] or the early [[Mughal Empire]] (15-16th century CE).<ref>[[Irfan Habib]] (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'', pp. 53–54], [[Pearson Education]]</ref>
* [[Palampore]] – {{lang|hi|पालमपोर्}} (Hindi language) of Indian origin<ref name=eb-interior-design>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''interior design''</ref> was imported to the western world—notable England and [[Colonial America]]—from India.<ref name=eb-crewel-work>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''crewel work''</ref><ref name=eb-quilting >Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''quilting''</ref> In 17th-century England these hand painted cotton fabrics influenced native crewel work design.<ref name=eb-crewel-work/> Shipping vessels from India also took palampore to colonial America, where it was used in [[quilting]].<ref name=eb-quilting/>
* [[Prayer flags]] – The [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[sūtra]]s, written on cloth in India, were transmitted to other regions of the world.<ref name=Baker1>Barker, page 13</ref> These sutras, written on banners, were the origin of prayer flags.<ref name=Baker1/> Legend ascribes the origin of the prayer flag to the [[Shakyamuni Buddha]], whose prayers were written on battle flags used by the ''[[Deva (Buddhism)|devas]]'' against their adversaries, the ''[[Asura (Buddhism)|asuras]]''.<ref name=Beer60>Beer, page 60</ref> The legend may have given the Indian ''[[bhikku]]'' a reason for carrying the 'heavenly' banner as a way of signyfying his commitment to ''[[ahimsa]]''.<ref name=wise-11-12>Wise, page 11{{ndash}}12</ref> This knowledge was carried into [[Tibet]] by 800 CE, and the actual flags were introduced no later than 1040 CE, where they were further modified.<ref name=wise-11-12/> The Indian monk [[Atisha]] (980{{ndash}}1054 CE) introduced the Indian practice of printing on cloth prayer flags to Tibet.<ref name=Beer60/>
* [[Shellac]] - a biopolymer resin that is secreted by an insect called [[Kerria lacca|lac bug]] onto tree trunks, it has multiple uses such as wood polishing, drug coating, candies etc. its name is derived from [[lakh]] word.
* Roller [[sugar mill]] – Geared sugar [[Roller mill|rolling mills]] first appeared in Mughal India, using the principle of rollers as well as [[worm gear]]ing, by the 17th century.<ref name="K8kO4J3mXUAC page 53">[[Irfan Habib]] (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'', p. 53], [[Pearson Education]]</ref>

=== Well-being ===
{{See also|Indian physical culture}}
* [[Indian club]]s: The Indian club—which appeared in Europe during the 18th century—was used long by India's native soldiery before its introduction to Europe.<ref name=tadd95>Todd, Jan (1995). [http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/IGH/IGH0306/IGH0306c.pdf ''From Milo to Milo: A History of Barbells, Dumbells, and Indian Clubs''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120731101012/http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/IGH/IGH0306/IGH0306c.pdf |date=31 July 2012 }}. Accessed in September 2008. Hosted on the [[LA84 Foundation|LA84 Foundation Sports Library]].</ref> During the [[British Raj]] the British officers in India performed [[calisthenic]] exercises with clubs to keep in physical condition.<ref name=tadd95/> From Britain the use of club swinging spread to the rest of the world.<ref name=tadd95/>
* [[Shampoo]] – The word ''[[wikt:Shampoo|shampoo]]'' in English is derived from [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] {{Transliteration|hi|ISO|cā̃po}} ({{lang|hi|चाँपो}} {{IPA|hns|tʃãːpoː|ipa}}),<ref>{{Transliteration|hi|ISO|cā̃po}} ({{lang|hi|चाँपो}} {{IPA|hns|tʃãːpoː|ipa}}) is the [[imperative mood|imperative]] of {{Transliteration|hi|ISO|cā̃pnā}} ({{lang|hi|चाँपना}} {{IPA|hns|tʃãːpnaː|ipa}}), "to smear, knead the muscles, massage the head and hair"</ref> and dates to 1762.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Online Etymology Dictionary
| url = http://www.etymonline.com/
| author = Douglas Harper
| access-date = 14 July 2007
}}</ref> A variety of herbs and their extracts were used as shampoos since ancient times in India, evidence of early herbal shampoo have been discovered from Indus Valley Civilization site of Banawali dated to 2750–2500 BCE.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bisht|date=1993|title=Paleobotanical and pollen analytical investigations|url=http://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%201993-94%20A%20Review.pdf|journal=Indian Archaeology a Review 1993–1994|pages=143–144}}</ref> A very effective early shampoo was made by boiling [[Sapindus]] with dried [[Indian gooseberry]] (aamla) and a few other herbs, using the strained extract. Sapindus, also known as soapberries or soapnuts, is called ''Ksuna'' (Sanskrit: क्षुण)<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/tamil/recherche kSuNa], Sanskrit Lexicon, Monier-Williams Dictionary (1872)</ref> in ancient Indian texts and its fruit pulp contain saponins, a natural surfactant. The extract of Ksuna, creates a lather which Indian texts identify as ''phenaka'' (Sanskrit: फेनक),<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=phenaka&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes phenaka], Spoken Sanskrit, University of Koeln, Germany</ref> leaves the hair soft, shiny and manageable. Other products used for hair cleansing were shikakai ([[Acacia concinna]]), soapnuts ([[Sapindus]]), [[hibiscus]] flowers,<ref name=rahman>Rahman, {{Google books|4bnaAAAAMAAJ|History of Indian Science, Technology and Culture}}, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195646528}}, page 145</ref><ref>[http://www.tnsmpb.tn.gov.in/images/HIBISCUS%20ROSA%20SINENSIS.pdf Tamil Nadu Medicinal plants board] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721161928/http://www.tnsmpb.tn.gov.in/images/HIBISCUS%20ROSA%20SINENSIS.pdf |date=21 July 2011 }}</ref> ritha ([[Sapindus mukorossi]]) and arappu (Albizzia amara).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://agritech.tnau.ac.in/forestry/forestry_nursery_albizzia_amara.html|title=Forestry :: Nursery Technologies|website=agritech.tnau.ac.in}}</ref> [[Guru Nanak]], the founding prophet and the first [[Sikh Guru|Guru]] of [[Sikhism]], made references to soapberry tree and soap in 16th century.<ref>Khushwant Singh, Hymns of Guru Nanak, Orient Longman, {{ISBN|978-8125011613}}</ref> Washing of hair and body massage (champu) during a daily strip wash was an indulgence of early colonial traders in India. When they returned to Europe, they introduced their newly learnt habits, including the hair treatment they called shampoo.<ref>Virginia Smith (2007), Clean: A History of Personal Hygiene and Purity, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199297795}}</ref>
* [[Yoga]] – Yoga as a physical, mental, and spiritual practice originated in [[ancient India]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/varun_ag/www/bose_real_inventor.pdf|title=bose real inventor|access-date=3 November 2015|archive-date=13 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313052106/http://web.mit.edu/varun_ag/www/bose_real_inventor.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Medicine ===
[[File:A statue of Sushruta at RACS, Melbourne.jpg|thumb|A statue of [[Sushruta]] (600 BCE), author of [[Sushruta Samhita]] and the founding father of [[History of surgery#India|surgery]], at [[Royal Australasian College of Surgeons]] (RACS) in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]]]]
* [[Angina pectoris]] – The condition was named "hritshoola" in ancient India and was described by [[Sushruta]] (6th century BCE).<ref name="Dwivedi&Dwivedi07">{{cite journal|last1=Dwivedi |first1=Girish |last2=Dwivedi |first2=Shridhar |year=2007 |url=http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf |title=Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence |journal=The Indian Journal of Chest Diseases and Allied Sciences |volume=49 |pages=243{{ndash}}4 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010045900/http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf |archive-date=10 October 2008 }}</ref>
* [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic]] and [[Siddha medicine]] – Ayurveda and Siddha are ancient systems of medicine practised in South Asia. Ayurvedic ideas can be found in the Hindu text<ref>{{Cite book|title = Asceticism and Healing|last = Zysk|first = K. G.|publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 1991|isbn = 978-0-19-505956-4|location = London, New York, Delhi}}</ref> (mid-first millennium BCE). Ayurveda has evolved over thousands of years, and is still practised today. In an internationalised form, it can be thought of as a [[complementary and alternative medicine]]. In village settings, away from urban centres, it is simply "medicine." The Sanskrit word आयुर्वेदः (''āyur-vedaḥ'') means "knowledge ''(veda'') for longevity (''āyur'')".<ref name="Chopra75">{{Harvnb|Chopra|2003|p = 75}}</ref> Siddha medicine is mostly prevalent in South India, and is transmitted in Tamil, not Sanskrit, texts. Herbs and minerals are basic raw materials of the Siddha therapeutic system whose origins may be dated to the early centuries CE.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Siddha Quest for Immortality|last = Zvelebil|first = Kamil V.|publisher = Mandrake of Oxford|year = 1996|isbn = 978-1-869928-43-8|location = Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|jstor = 604837|title = The Doctrine of the Three Humors in Traditional Indian Medicine and the Alleged Antiquity of Tamil Siddha Medicine|last = Scharf|first = Hartmut|date = 1999|journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society|doi = 10.2307/604837|volume=119|issue = 4|pages=609{{ndash}}629}}</ref>
* [[Caesarian section]] – The [[Sanskrit]] medical treatise ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'', composed in the early 1st millennium CE, mentions post-mortem caesarean sections.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lurie |first1=Samuel |title=The changing motives of cesarean section: from the ancient world to the twenty-first century |journal=Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics |date=April 2005 |volume=271 |issue=4 |pages=281–285 |doi=10.1007/s00404-005-0724-4 |pmid=15856269 }}</ref> The first available non-mythical record of a C-section is the mother of [[Bindusara]] (born {{circa|320 BC}}, ruled 298 – {{circa|272 BC}}), the 2nd [[Mauryan empire|Mauryan]] ''Samrat'' ([[emperor]]) of India, accidentally consumed poison and died when she was close to delivering him. [[Chanakya]], Chandragupta's teacher and adviser, made up his mind that the baby should survive. He cut open the belly of the queen and took out the baby, thus saving the baby's life.<ref name="Lurie">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lurie S | title = The changing motives of cesarean section: from the ancient world to the twenty-first century | journal = Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics | volume = 271 | issue = 4 | pages = 281–285 | date = April 2005 | pmid = 15856269 | doi = 10.1007/s00404-005-0724-4 | s2cid = 26690619 }}</ref>
*[[Diabetes]]: Physicians [[Sushruta]] and [[Charaka]] distinguished the two different types of diabetes, which is latter dubbed as [[Type 1 diabetes|Type I]] and [[Type 2 diabetes|Type II]] diabetes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Roy|first1=CK|last2=Ojha|first2=JK|last3=Bajpai|first3=HS|date=Jan 1993|title=A review of the history of prameha and diabetes mellitus|journal=Ancient Science of Life|volume=12|issue=3–4|pages=394–398|pmc=3336561|pmid=22556618}}</ref>
*[[Ganja]] was used as herb for ayurverdic medicine development for last 2,000 years. The Sushruta Samhita, an ancient medical treatise, recommends cannabis plant extract for treating respiratory ailments and diarrhoea.
* [[Leprosy]]: Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention of leprosy is described in the Indian medical treatise ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' (6th century BCE).<ref name="k&n08">Kearns & Nash (2008)</ref> However, ''The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine'' holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in the ''[[Atharva-veda]]'' (1500{{ndash}}1200 BCE), written before the ''Sushruta Samhita''.<ref>Lock; Last & Dunea (2001), page 420</ref>
* [[Calculus (medicine)|Lithiasis treatment]] – The earliest operation for treating lithiasis, or the formations of stones in the body, is also given in the ''Sushruta Samhita'' (6th century BCE).<ref name=Lock836/> The operation involved exposure and going up through the floor of the bladder.<ref name=Lock836>Lock; Last & Dunea (2001), page 836</ref>
* [[Otoplasty]] – Ear surgery was developed in [[History of India|ancient India]] and is described in the medical compendium, the {{Transliteration|sa|[[Sushruta Samhita]]}} (Sushruta's Compendium, {{circa|500 AD}}). The book discussed otoplastic and other [[plastic surgery]] techniques and procedures for correcting, repairing and reconstructing ears, [[Rhinoplasty|noses]], lips, and genitalia that were amputated as criminal, religious, and military punishments. The ancient Indian [[Medicine|medical]] knowledge and plastic surgery techniques of the {{Transliteration|sa|Sushruta Samhita}} were practiced throughout Asia until the late 18th century; the October 1794 issue of the contemporary British ''[[Gentleman's Magazine]]'' reported the practice of [[rhinoplasty]], as described in the {{Transliteration|sa|Sushruta Samhita}}. Moreover, two centuries later, contemporary practices of otoplastic praxis were derived from the techniques and procedures developed and established in antiquity by Sushruta.{{sfn|Rinzler|2009|p=151}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wujastyk |first=Dominik |title=The Roots of Ayurveda |publisher=Penguin |year=2003 |isbn=0-140-44824-1 |edition=3 |pages=63–100}}</ref>
* [[Tonsillectomy]] – Tonsillectomies have been practiced for over 2,000 years, with varying popularity over the centuries.<ref name="McNeill1960">{{cite journal | vauthors = McNeill RA | title = A History of Tonsillectomy: Two Millennia of Trauma, Haemorrhage and Controversy | journal = The Ulster Medical Journal | volume = 29 | issue = 1 | pages = 59–63 | date = June 1960 | pmid = 20476427 | pmc = 2384338 }}</ref> The earliest mention of the procedure is in "Hindu medicine" from about 1000 [[BCE]]
* [[Turmeric]] used for wound healing. Analyses of pots discovered near New Delhi uncovered residue from turmeric, ginger and garlic that dates back as early as 2500 BCE. It was around 500 BCE that turmeric emerged as an important part of Ayurvedic medicine.<ref>{{cite web | title=What is the History of Turmeric? | Stories | website=[[PBS]] | url=https://www.pbs.org/food/stories/turmeric-history }}</ref>

=== Equestrianism ===
* [[Stirrup|Toe stirrup]] – The earliest known manifestation of the stirrup, which was a toe loop that held the big toe was used in India in as early as 500 BCE<ref name=Chamberlin80>Chamberlin (2007), page 80</ref> or perhaps by 200 BCE according to other sources.<ref name=Hobson103>Hobson (2004), page 103</ref><ref name=woods2p52>Woods & Woods (2000), pages 52{{ndash}}53</ref> This ancient stirrup consisted of a looped rope for the big toe which was at the bottom of a saddle made of fibre or leather.<ref name=woods2p52/> Such a configuration made it suitable for the warm climate of most of India where people used to ride horses barefoot.<ref name=woods2p52/> A pair of megalithic double bent iron bars with curvature at each end, excavated in [[Stone circles of Junapani|Junapani]] in the central Indian state of [[Madhya Pradesh]] have been regarded as stirrups although they could as well be something else.<ref name=EIA336>"16.17.4: Stirrups". ''Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology'' (Vol. 1). Edited by Amalananda Ghosh (1990). page 336</ref> Buddhist carvings in the temples of Sanchi, [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]] and the [[Bhaja Caves|Bhaja caves]] dating back between the 1st and 2nd century BCE figure horsemen riding with elaborate saddles with feet slipped under girths.<ref name=Azzaroli156>Azzaroli (1985), page 156</ref><ref name=Addington45>Addington (1990), page 45</ref><ref name=Barua17>Barua (2005), pages 16{{ndash}}17</ref> [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|Sir John Marshall]] described the Sanchi relief as "the earliest example by some five centuries of the use of stirrups in any part of the world".<ref name=Barua17/> In the 1st century CE horse riders in northern India, where winters are sometimes long and cold, were recorded to have their booted feet attached to hooked stirrups.<ref name=Hobson103/> However the form, the conception of the primitive Indian stirrup spread west and east, gradually evolving into the stirrup of today.<ref name=woods2p52/><ref name=Addington45/>

=== Metallurgy, gems and other commodities ===
* [[Crucible steel]] by the [[Wootz steel|Wootz process]] – Perhaps as early as 300 BCE—although certainly by 200 BCE—high quality steel was being produced in southern India, by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique.<ref name=Juleff>{{cite journal | last1 = Juleff | first1 = G | year = 1996 | title = An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka | doi = 10.1038/379060a0 | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 379 | issue = 6560| pages = 60{{ndash}}63 | bibcode = 1996Natur.379...60J | s2cid = 205026185 }}</ref> Wootz steel is an ultra-high carbon steel, with a natural inclusion of carbide forming [[Vanadium]] (~0.005%), resulting in the formation of [[nanomaterials]] in its microstructure and characterised by exhibiting properties such as superplasticity and high impact hardness.<ref>{{cite web|title=WOOTZ STEEL: AN ADVANCED MATERIAL OF THE ANCIENT WORLD|url=http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/WOOTZ.htm|website=materials.iisc.ernet.in|access-date=23 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211082829/http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/WOOTZ.htm|archive-date=11 February 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Archaeological and [[Tamil language]] [[Sangam literature|literary]] evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the common era, with [[wootz steel]] exported from the [[Chera]] dynasty and called ''Seric Iron'' in Rome, and later known as [[Damascus steel]] in Europe.<ref name=Srinivasan>Srinivasan 1994</ref><ref name=Griffiths>Srinivasan & Griffiths</ref><ref name="dli">{{cite journal |last1=Sasisekaran |first1=B |last2=Raghunatha Rao |first2=B |title=Technology of Iron and Steel in Kodumanal – An Ancient Industrial Centre in Tamilnadu |journal=Indian Journal of History & Science |volume=34 |issue=4 |date=1999 |pages=263–272 |url=http://www.dli.gov.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923215550/http://www.dli.gov.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b66_263.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=A great past in bright colours |url=http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2720/stories/20101008272006400.htm |newspaper=Frontline |date=8 October 2010 |location=India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110203113057/http://frontlineonnet.com/fl2720/stories/20101008272006400.htm |archive-date= 3 February 2011 }}</ref> Reproduction research undertaken by Prof. J.D Verhoeven and Al Pendray identified the role of impurities within the local ore, in carbide formation, and repeated thermal cycling of blades, in the pattern creation, and reproduced Wootz steel blades with patterns microscopically and visually identical to ancient blade patterns.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sherby |first1=Oleg D. |last2=Wadsworth |first2=Jeffrey |title=Ancient blacksmiths, the Iron Age, Damascus steels, and modern metallurgy |journal=Journal of Materials Processing Technology |date=November 2001 |volume=117 |issue=3 |pages=347–353 |doi=10.1016/S0924-0136(01)00794-4 |osti=790393 |url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc718386/ }}</ref>
* [[Diamond cut|Diamond cutting and polishing]] – The technology of cutting and polishing diamonds was invented in India, Ratnapariksha, a text dated to 6th century talks about diamond cutting and Al-Beruni speaks about the method of using lead plate for diamond polishing in the 11th century CE.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Keene|first=Manuel|date=1981|title=THE LAPIDARY ARTS IN ISLAM|url=https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the-lapidary-arts-in-islam/|access-date=31 July 2020|website=Penn Museum}}</ref>
* [[Diamond cut|Diamond drills]] – in the 12th century BCE or 7th century BCE, Indians not only innovated use of diamond tipped drills but also invented double diamond tipped drills for bead manufacturing.<ref name=":0" />
* [[Dockyard]] – The world's earliest enclosed dockyard was built in the Harappan port city of [[Lothal]] circa 2600 BC in Gujarat, India.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Archaeological remains of a Harappa Port-Town, Lothal |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5918/ |access-date=2022-02-10 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=9 March 2020 |title=This is Modi govt's plan for India's first National Maritime Museum in Gujarat's Lothal |website=[[ThePrint]] |url=https://theprint.in/india/governance/this-is-modi-govts-plan-for-indias-first-national-maritime-museum-in-gujarats-lothal/376488/}}</ref>
* [[Draw bar]] – The draw bar was applied to sugar-milling, with evidence of its use at [[Delhi]] in the [[Mughal Empire]] by 1540, but possibly dating back several centuries earlier to the [[Delhi Sultanate]].<ref name="Habib53">[[Irfan Habib]] (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53 ''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'', page 53], [[Pearson Education]]</ref>
* [[Etched carnelian beads]] – are a type of ancient decorative beads made from [[carnelian]] with an etched design in white. They were made according to a technique of alkaline-etching developed by the [[Harappa|Harappans during the 3rd millennium BCE]] and were widely disperced from China in the east to Greece in the west.<ref>For the etching technique, see {{cite journal|last1=MacKay|first1=Ernest|date=1925|title=Sumerian Connexions with Ancient India|journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|issue=4|pages=699|jstor=25220818}}</ref><ref name="FeniXX réédition numérique">{{cite book|last1=Guimet|first1=Musée|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-HpYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA355|title=Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan|date=2016|publisher=FeniXX réédition numérique|isbn=9782402052467|page=355|language=fr}}</ref><ref>"Such beads occur fairly largely on all the principal sites of the Harappan civilisation." in {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532513/page/n49/mode/2up|title=Pakistan Archaeology No.2|date=1965|page=21}}</ref>
* [[Glassblowing]] – Rudimentary form of glass blowing from [[Indian subcontinent]] is attested earlier than Western Asian counterparts(where it is attested not earlier than 1st century BCE) in the form of [[Indo-Pacific beads]] which uses glass blowing to make cavity before being subjected to [[Tube drawing|tube drawn technique]] for bead making dated more than 2500 BP.<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 November 2020|first=M. T.|last=Saju|title=Indians made glass blown beads 2,500 years ago|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/indians-made-glass-blown-beads-2500-years-ago/articleshow/79256112.cms|access-date=2021-03-06|website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Francis |first1=Peter |title=Glass Beads in Asia Part Two. Indo-Pacific Beads |journal=Asian Perspectives |date=1990 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=1–23 |jstor=42928207 }}</ref> Beads are made by attaching molten glass gather to the end of a blowpipe, a bubble is then blown into the gather.<ref name="Wood 2012 248"/> The glass blown vessels were rarely attested and were imported commodity in 1st millennium CE though.
* [[History of ferrous metallurgy|Iron working]] – Iron works were developed in India, around the same time as, but independently of, [[Anatolia]] and the [[Caucasus]]. Archaeological sites in India, such as [[Malhar]], Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present-day [[Uttar Pradesh]] show iron implements in the period between 1800 BCE—1200 BCE.<ref name="Tewari">{{cite web|url=http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/tewari/tewari.pdf |title=The origins of Iron Working in India: New evidence from the Central Ganga plain and the Eastern Vindhyas by Rakesh Tewari (Director, U.P. State Archaeological Department) |publisher=antiquity.ac.uk|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref> Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BCE by employing the method of [[radiocarbon dating]]. [[Nail (fastener)|Spikes]], [[knife|knives]], [[dagger]]s, [[arrow]]-heads, [[bowl (vessel)|bowls]], [[spoon]]s, [[saucepan]]s, [[axe]]s, [[chisel]]s, tongs, door fittings etc. ranging from 600 BCE to 200 BCE have been discovered from several archaeological sites of India.<ref name="Ceccarelli">Marco Ceccarelli (2000). ''International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings HMM Symposium''. Springer. {{ISBN|0-7923-6372-8}}. pp 218</ref> Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BCE, iron smelting was practised on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology's inception may be placed earlier.<ref name="Tewari" /> In [[Southern India]] (present day [[Mysore]]) iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BCE; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.<ref name="UCP">I. M. Drakonoff (1991). ''Early Antiquity''. University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|0-226-14465-8}}. pp 372</ref> In the time of [[Chandragupta II]] Vikramaditya (375{{ndash}}413 CE), corrosion-resistant iron was used to erect the [[Iron pillar of Delhi]], which has withstood corrosion for over 1,600 years.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Balasubramaniam | first1 = R. | year = 2000 | title = On the Corrosion Resistance of the Delhi Iron Pillar | url = http://home.iitk.ac.in/%7Ebala/journalpaper/journal/journalpaper_17.pdf | journal = Corrosion Science | volume = 42 | issue = 12| pages = 2103{{ndash}}29 | doi=10.1016/s0010-938x(00)00046-9| bibcode = 2000Corro..42.2103B }}</ref>
* [[Lost-wax casting]] – Metal casting by the [[Indus Valley civilization]] began around 3500 BC in the [[Mohenjodaro]] area,<ref name=Kuppuram>{{cite book |first=Govindarajan |last=Kuppuram |title=Ancient Indian Mining, Metallurgy, and Metal Industries |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GAnVuQAACAAJ |year=1989 |publisher=Sundeep Prakashan |isbn=978-81-85067-28-5}}</ref> which produced one of the earliest known examples of lost-wax casting, a bronze figurine named the "[[Dancing Girl (prehistoric sculpture)|dancing girl]]"(c. 2300–1751 BCE).<ref name=Kuppuram/><ref name=Krishnan>{{cite book |first=M.V. |last=Krishnan |title=Cire perdue casting in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VxhUAAAAMAAJ |year=1976 |publisher=Kanak Publications}}</ref> Other examples include the buffalo, bull and dog found at Mohenjodaro and [[Harappa]],<ref name="Agrawal">{{cite book |last=Agrawal |first=D. P. |title=Ancient Metal Technology and Archaeology of South Asia. A Pan-Asian Perspective |year=2000 |publisher=Aryan Books International |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-7305-177-7}}</ref><ref name=Krishnan/><ref name=Kenoyer>Kenoyer, J. M. & H. M.-L. Miller, (1999). Metal Technologies of the Indus Valley Tradition in Pakistan and Western India., in ''The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World''., ed. V. C. Pigott. Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania Museum.</ref> two [[copper]] figures found at the Harappan site [[Lothal]] in the district of Ahmedabad of Gujarat,<ref name=Kuppuram/> and likely a covered cart with wheels missing and a complete cart with a driver found at [[Chanhudaro]].<ref name=Agrawal/><ref name=Kenoyer/>
* [[Rain gauge]] – People living in [[India]] began to record rainfall in 400 BCE.<ref name="Strangeways">Ian Strangeways, A History of rain gauges, TerraData, 2010</ref> The readings were correlated against expected growth. In the [[Arthashastra]], used for example in [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]], precise standards were set as to grain production. Each state storehouse was equipped with a rain gauge to classify land for taxation purposes.<ref>Kosambi (1982) The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in Historical Outline, p. 153, {{ISBN|978-0-7069-1399-6}}</ref>
* Seamless [[celestial globe]] – Considered one of the most remarkable feats in [[metallurgy]], it was invented in India in between 1589 and 1590 CE.<ref name=Kamarustafa48>Kamarustafa (1992), page 48</ref><ref name=Emilie/> Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any [[wikt:seam|seams]], even with modern technology.<ref name=Emilie>{{Cite book|first=Emilie|last=Savage-Smith|author-link =Emilie Savage-Smith|title=Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their history, Construction, and Use|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.|year=1985}}</ref>
* [[Stoneware]] – bangles have been excavated at Indus Valley Civilization sites of [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro|Mohenjo Daro]]; kiln fired, at a temperature, above {{convert|1150|C}}, several hundred decrees above the temperature necessary for earthenware, these are the earliest known stoneware ceramics.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Satyawadi|first1=Sudha|title=Proto-Historic Pottery of Indus Valley Civilization; Study of Painted Motif|date=1 July 1994|publisher=D.K. Printworld|isbn=978-8124600306|pages=324}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Blackman |first1= M. James |display-authors=etal. |title=The Production and Distribution of Stoneware Bangles at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa as Monitored by Chemical Characterization Studies|date=1992|publisher=Prehistory Press|location=Madison, WI, USA|pages=37–44}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Mark Kenoyer|first1=Jonathan|title=Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=260}}</ref>
* [[Touchstone (assaying tool)|Touchstone]] – The touchstone was used during the [[Indus Valley civilization#Chronology|Harappa period of the Indus Valley civilization]] ca. 2600–1900 BC for testing the purity of soft metals.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gold: A Cultural Encyclopedia|last=Venable|first=Shannon L.|publisher=ABC-CLIO, LLC|year=2011|isbn=978-0313-384318|location=Santa Barbara, CA|pages=264}}</ref>
* [[Tube drawing|Tube drawn]] technology: Indians used tube drawn technology for glass bead manufacturing which was first developed in the 2nd century BCE.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Marilee |first2=Laure |last2=Dussubieux |first3=Peter |last3=Robertshaw |title=The Glass of Chibuene, Mozambique: New Insights into Early Indian Ocean Trade |journal=South African Archaeological Bulletin |volume=67 |issue=195 |date=2012 |pages=59–74 |url=https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.617320154390031 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Marilee |last2=Panighello |first2=Serena |last3=Orsega |first3=Emilio F. |last4=Robertshaw |first4=Peter |last5=van Elteren |first5=Johannes T. |last6=Crowther |first6=Alison |last7=Horton |first7=Mark |last8=Boivin |first8=Nicole |title=Zanzibar and Indian Ocean trade in the first millennium CE: the glass bead evidence |journal=Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences |date=August 2017 |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=879–901 |doi=10.1007/s12520-015-0310-z |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017ArAnS...9..879W |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0029-7CD9-0 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Wood 2012 248">{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Marilee |title=Interconnections: glass beads and trade in southern and eastern Africa and the Indian Ocean - 7th to 16th centuries AD |journal=Azania |date=June 2012 |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=248 |doi=10.1080/0067270X.2012.680307 |url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-162650 }}</ref>
* [[Tumble finishing|Tumble polishing]] – Indians innvoted polishing method in the 10th century BCE for mass production of polished stone beads.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kenoyer |first1=J. Mark |last2=Vidale |first2=Massimo |title=A New Look at Stone Drills of the Indus Valley Tradition |journal=MRS Proceedings |date=1992 |volume=267 |article-number=495 |doi=10.1557/PROC-267-495 }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Gwinnett |first1=A. John |last2=Gorelick |first2=Leonard |title=Bead Manufacture at Hajar Ar-Rayhani, Yemen |journal=The Biblical Archaeologist |date=1991 |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=187–196 |doi=10.2307/3210280 |jstor=3210280 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gwinnett |first1=A. John |last2=Gorelick |first2=L. |title=Beads, Scarabs, and Amulets: Methods of Manufacture in Ancient Egypt |journal=Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt |date=1993 |volume=30 |pages=125–132 |doi=10.2307/40000232 |jstor=40000232 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bellina |first1=B. |title=The elaboration of political models in maritime Southeast Asia and of pan-regional culture: Contribution from Khao Sek stone ornament craft system study |journal=Archaeological Research in Asia |date=March 2018 |volume=13 |pages=13–24 |doi=10.1016/j.ara.2017.06.002 }}</ref>

=== Metrology ===
* [[Standardisation]] – The oldest applications and evidence of standardisation come from the Indus Valley Civilisation in the 5th millennium BCE characterised by the existence of weights in various standards and categories as<ref name=Kenoyer265/> well as the Indus merchants usage of a centralised weight and measure system. Small weights were used to measure luxury goods, and larger weights were used for buying bulkier items, such as food grains etc.<ref name=Kenoyer265>Kenoyer, 265</ref> The weights and measures of the Indus civilisation also reached [[Persia]] and [[Central Asia]], where they were further modified.<ref name=Iwata2254_quote>In the third millennium BCE the Indus measuring system was further developed in the ancient regions of Iran and Afghanistan – Iwata, 2254.</ref>
<blockquote> A total of 558 weights were excavated from Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and [[Chanhudaro|Chanhu-daro]], not including defective weights. They did not find statistically significant differences between weights that were excavated from five different layers, each about 1.5 m in thickness. This was evidence that strong control existed for at least a 500-year period. The 13.7-g weight seems to be one of the units used in the Indus valley. The notation was based on the [[Binary numeral system|binary]] and [[decimal]] systems. 83% of the weights which were excavated from the above three cities were cubic, and 68% were made of [[chert]].<ref name=Iwata2254>Iwata2254</ref> </blockquote>
* [[Technical standards]] – Technical standards were being applied and used in the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] since the 5th millennium BCE to enable gauging devices to be effectively used in [[angular measurement]] and [[measurement]] in construction.<ref name=Baber_b>Baber, 23</ref> Uniform units of length were used in the planning and construction of towns such as [[Lothal]], [[Surkotada]], [[Kalibangan]], [[Dholavira]], [[Harappa]], and [[Mohenjo-daro]].<ref name=Iwata2254/> The weights and measures of the Indus civilisation also reached [[Persia]] and [[Central Asia]], where they were further modified.<ref name=Iwata2254_quote/>

=== Weapons ===
* Metal cylinder [[rocket]]: In the 16th century, [[Akbar]] was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as ''bans'', particularly against [[war elephant]]s, during the Battle of Sanbal.<ref>{{cite web |author=MughalistanSipahi |date=19 June 2010 |title=Islamic Mughal Empire: War Elephants Part 3 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lbzr26t8H2U |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/Lbzr26t8H2U |archive-date=2021-12-13 |access-date=28 November 2012 |via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=History channel is low reliability source. Textx sources also preferred over video|date=May 2024}}
* [[Mysorean rockets]] – One of the first iron-cased [[rocket]]s were deployed by [[Hyder Ali]]'s army, ruler of the South Indian [[Kingdom of Mysore]].<ref>Roddam Narasimha (1985), [http://nal-ir.nal.res.in/2382/01/tr_pd_du_8503_R66305.pdf Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750{{ndash}}1850 A.D.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927182042/http://nal-ir.nal.res.in/2382/01/tr_pd_du_8503_R66305.pdf |date=27 September 2007 }}, National Aeronautical Laboratory and Indian Institute of Science"Hyder Ali, prince of Mysore, developed war rockets with an important change: the use of metal cylinders to contain the combustion powder. Although the hammered soft iron he used was crude, the bursting strength of the container of black powder was much higher than the earlier paper construction. Thus a greater internal pressure was possible, with a resultant greater thrust of the propulsive jet. The rocket body was lashed with leather thongs to a long bamboo stick. Range was perhaps up to three-quarters of a mile (more than a kilometre). Although individually these rockets were not accurate, dispersion error became less important when large numbers were fired rapidly in mass attacks. They were particularly effective against cavalry and were hurled into the air, after lighting, or skimmed along the hard dry ground. Hyder Ali's son, [[Tippu Sultan]], continued to develop and expand the use of rocket weapons, reportedly increasing the number of rocket troops from 1,200 to a corps of 5,000. In battles at [[Seringapatam]] in 1792 and 1799 these rockets were used with considerable effect against the British." – Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''rocket and missile''.</ref>
* [[Rocket artillery]] - The first true rocket artillery was developed by [[Tipu Sultan]] and was notably in use during the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]].<ref name="Riper2007">{{cite book |author=A. Bowdoin Van Riper |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k8CxJeFzCdQC&pg=PA14 |title=Rockets and Missiles: The Life Story of a Technology |date=29 October 2007 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-8792-5 |pages=14–}}</ref><ref name="Roddam">{{cite report |last=Narasimha |first=Roddam |date=27 July 2011 |title=Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750–1850 A.D. |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/37179995 |publisher=National Aeronautical Laboratory and Indian Institute of Science }}</ref>

=== Philosophy and logic ===
* [[Catuṣkoṭi|Catuskoti (Tetralemma)]] – The four-cornered system of logical argumentation with a suite of four distinct functions that refers to a logical proposition P, with four possibilities that can arise. The tetralemma has many [[Epistemology|logico-epistemological]] applications and has been made ample use of by the Indian philosopher [[Nagarjuna|Nāgarjuna]] in the [[Madhyamaka]] school. The tetralemma also features prominently in the Greek [[Skepticism|skepticist]] school of [[Pyrrhonism]], the teachings of which are based on Buddhism. According to [[Christopher I. Beckwith]], the founder of the Pyrrhonist school lived in India for 18 months and likely learned the language, which allowed him to carry these teachings to Greece.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Beckwith|first=Christopher I.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RlCUBgAAQBAJ|title=Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia|date=2015-06-09|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6632-8}}</ref> However, other scholars, such as [[Stephen Batchelor (author)|Stephen Batchelor]]<ref>[[Stephen Batchelor (author)|Stephen Batchelor]] "Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's encounter with early Buddhism in central Asia", ''Contemporary Buddhism'', 2016, pp 195–215</ref> and Charles Goodman<ref>Charles Goodman, "Neither Scythian nor Greek: A Response to Beckwith's Greek Buddha and Kuzminski's "Early Buddhism Reconsidered"", ''Philosophy East and West'', University of Hawai'i Press Volume 68, Number 3, July 2018 pp. 984–1006</ref> question Beckwith's conclusions about the degree of Buddhist influence on Pyrrho
* [[Trairūpya]] – Trairūpya is a logical argument that contains three constituents which a logical ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (linga) must fulfill to be 'valid source of knowledge' ([[pramana]]):
#It should be present in the case or object under consideration, the ‘subject-locus' (pakṣa)
#It should be present in a ‘similar case’ or a homologue (sapakṣa)
#It should not be present in any ‘dissimilar case’ or heterologue (vipakṣa)
:When a ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (linga) is identified, there are three possibilities: the sign may be present in all, some, or none of the sapakṣas. Likewise, the sign may be present in all, some or none of the vipakṣas. To identify a sign, we have to assume that it is present in the pakṣa, however; that is the first condition is already satisfied. Combining these, Dignaga constructed his ‘Wheel of Reason’ (Sanskrit: [[Hetucakra]]).<ref>Ganeri, Jonardon & Tiwari, Heeraman (eds.), (1988). ''The Character of Logic in India''. Albany, NY, USA: State University of New York Press. {{ISBN|0-7914-3739-6}} (HC:acid free), p.7-8</ref>
* [[Jaina seven-valued logic]] – The ''Saptabhangivada'', the seven predicate theory may be summarized as follows:<ref name=Ganeri>{{cite journal |last1=Ganeri |first1=Jonardon |title=Jaina Logic and the Philosophical Basis of Pluralism |journal=History and Philosophy of Logic |date=December 2002 |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=267–281 |doi=10.1080/0144534021000051505 |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/JONJLA }}</ref>

:The seven predicate theory consists in the use of seven claims about sentences, each preceded by "arguably" or "conditionally" ({{transliteration|sa|syat}}), concerning a single object and its particular properties, composed of assertions and denials, either simultaneously or successively, and without contradiction. These seven claims are the following.

# Arguably, it (that is, some object) exists ({{transliteration|sa|syad asty eva}}).
# Arguably, it does not exist ({{transliteration|sa|syan nasty eva}}).
# Arguably, it exists; arguably, it doesn't exist ({{transliteration|sa|syad asty eva syan nasty eva}}).
# Arguably, it is non-assertible ({{transliteration|sa|syad avaktavyam eva}}).
# Arguably, it exists; arguably, it is non-assertible ({{transliteration|sa|syad asty eva syad avaktavyam eva}}).
# Arguably, it doesn't exist; arguably, it is non-assertible ({{transliteration|sa|syan nasty eva syad avaktavyam eva}}).
# Arguably, it exists; arguably, it doesn't exist; arguably it is non-assertible ({{transliteration|sa|syad asty eva syan nasty eva syad avaktavyam eva}}).

=== Mathematics ===
{{See also|Indian mathematics}}
{| class="wikitable Unicode" border="1" style="text-align:left; font-size:100%;" align=right
|-
! rowspan=2 | Number System
! colspan=10 | Numbers
|-
! 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Tamil
| ೦ || ௧ || ௨ || ௩ || ௪ || ௫ || ௬ || ௭ || ௮ || ௯
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Gurmukhi
| o || ੧ || ੨ || ੩ || ੪ || ੫ || ੬ || ੭ || ੮ || ੯
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Odia
| ୦ || ୧ || ୨ || ୩ || ୪ || ୫ || ୬ || ୭ || ୮ || ୯
|-
! style="font-size: 75%;" | Bengali
| ০ || ১ || ২ || ৩ || ৪ || ৫ || ৬ || ৭ || ৮ || ৯
|-
! style="font-size: 75%;" | Assamese
| ০ || ১ || ২ || ৩ || ৪ || ৫ || ৬ || ৭ || ৮ || ৯
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Devanagari
| ० || १ || २ || ३ || ४ || ५ || ६ || ७ || ८ || ९
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Gujarati
| ૦ || ૧ || ૨ || ૩ || ૪ || ૫ || ૬ || ૭ || ૮ || ૯
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Tibetan
| ༠ || ༡ || ༢ || ༣ || ༤ || ༥ || ༦ || ༧ || ༨ || ༩
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Telugu
| ౦ || ౧ || ౨ || ౩ || ౪ || ౫ || ౬ || ౭ || ౮ || ౯
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Kannada
| ೦ || ೧ || ೨ || ೩ || ೪ || ೫ || ೬ || ೭ || ೮ || ೯

|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Malayalam
| ൦ || ൧ || ൨ || ൩ || ൪ || ൫ || ൬ || ൭ || ൮ || ൯
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Burmese
| ၀ || ၁ || ၂ || ၃ || ၄ || ၅ || ၆ || ၇ || ၈ || ၉
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Khmer
| ០ || ១ || ២ || ៣ || ៤ || ៥ || ៦ || ៧ || ៨ || ៩
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Thai
| ๐ || ๑ || ๒ || ๓ || ๔ || ๕ || ๖ || ๗ || ๘ || ๙
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Lao
| ໐ || ໑ || ໒ || ໓ || ໔ || ໕ || ໖ || ໗ || ໘ || ໙
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Balinese
| ᭐ || ᭑ || ᭒ || ᭓ || ᭔ || ᭕ || ᭖ || ᭗ || ᭘ || ᭙
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Santali
| ᱐ || ᱑ || ᱒ || ᱓ || ᱔ || ᱕ || ᱖ || ᱗ || ᱘ || ᱙
|-
!style="font-size: 75%;"| Javanese
| ꧐ || ꧑ || ꧒ || ꧓ || ꧔ || ꧕ || ꧖ || ꧗ || ꧘ || ꧙

|}
[[File:Trig functions on unit circle.svg|thumb|right|The half-chord version of the sine function was developed by the Indian mathematician [[Aryabhatta]].]]
[[File:Brahmaguptra's theorem.svg|thumb|Brahmagupta's theorem (598{{ndash}}668) states that ''AF'' = ''FD''.]]
* [[0 (number)|Zero]] – Zero and its operation are first defined by (Hindu astronomer and mathematician) Brahmagupta in 628.<ref>{{Cite web| first=Jessie | last=Szalay |title=Who Invented Zero?|url=https://www.livescience.com/27853-who-invented-zero.html|access-date=2021-05-18|website=livescience.com|date=18 September 2017}}</ref> The Babylonians used a space, and later a zero glyph, in their written [[Sexagesimal]] system, to signify the 'absent',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/zero.jsp|title=The History of Zero|author=Nils-Bertil Wallin|date=19 November 2002|publisher=Yale Center for the Study of Globalization|access-date=26 December 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160825124525/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/zero.jsp|archive-date=25 August 2016}}</ref> the Olmecs used a positional zero glyph in their [[Vigesimal]] system, the Greeks, from [[Ptolemy]]'s [[Almagest]], a ''ō'', in a [[Sexagesimal]] system. The Chinese used a blank, in the written form of their decimal [[Counting rods]] system. A dot, rather than a blank, was first seen to denote zero, in a decimal system, in the [[Bakhshali manuscript]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://home.ubalt.edu/ntsbarsh/zero/zero.htm|title=Zero in Four Dimensions|author=Dr. Hossein Arsham|publisher=University of Baltimore|access-date=26 December 2011}}</ref> The usage of the zero in the Bakhshali manuscript has been dated between the 8th and 11th centuries, making it the earliest known usage of a written zero, in a decimal place value system.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Devlin |first1=Hannah |title=Much ado about nothing: ancient Indian text contains earliest zero symbol |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/sep/14/much-ado-about-nothing-ancient-indian-text-contains-earliest-zero-symbol |work=The Guardian |date=13 September 2017 }}</ref>
* [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system|Hindu number system]] – With [[decimal]] place-value and a symbol for zero, this system was the ancestor of the widely used [[Arabic numeral]] system. It was developed in the Indian subcontinent between the 1st and 6th centuries CE.<ref name="st-and">{{cite web|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html|title=Indian numerals|publisher=www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref><ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages|author=Salomon, R.|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=9780195099843|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=El4-AQAAIAAJ|page=61|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref>
* Law of signs in multiplication – The earliest use of notation for negative numbers, as [[subtrahend]], is credited by scholars to the Chinese, dating back to the 2nd century BCE.<ref name=Smith>Smith (1958), pp. 257{{ndash}}258</ref> Like the Chinese, the Indians used negative numbers as subtrahend, but were the first to establish the "law of signs" with regards to the multiplication of positive and negative numbers, which did not appear in Chinese texts until 1299.<ref name=Smith /> Indian mathematicians were aware of negative numbers by the 7th century,<ref name=Smith /> and their role in mathematical problems of debt was understood.<ref name=bourbaki49>Bourbaki (1998), page 49</ref> Mostly consistent and correct rules for working with negative numbers were formulated,<ref name=ebcal>Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (2007). ''algebra''</ref> and the diffusion of these rules led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to Europe.,<ref name=bourbaki49/> for example (+)×(-)=(-),(-)×(-)=(+) etc.
* [[Sign convention]] – Symbols, signs and mathematical notation were employed in an early form in India by the 6th century when the mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata recommended the use of letters to represent unknown quantities.<ref name=Bell96>Bell (1992), page 96</ref> By the 7th century Brahmagupta had already begun using abbreviations for unknowns, even for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.<ref name=Bell96/> Brahmagupta also managed to use abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.<ref name=Bell96/> By the 7th century fractions were written in a manner similar to the modern times, except for the bar separating the [[numerator]] and the [[denominator]].<ref name=Bell96/> A dot symbol for [[negative numbers]] was also employed.<ref name=Bell96/> The [[Bakhshali Manuscript]] displays a cross, much like the modern '+' sign, except that it symbolised subtraction when written just after the number affected.<ref name=Bell96/> The '=' sign for equality did not exist.<ref name=Bell96/> Indian mathematics was transmitted to the Islamic world where this notation was seldom accepted initially and the scribes continued to write mathematics in full and without symbols.<ref name=Bell97>Bell (1992), page 97</ref>
* Modern [[elementary arithmetic]] – Modum indorum or the method of the Indians for arithmetic operations was popularised by Al-Khwarizmi and Al-Kindi by means of their respective works such as in Al-Khwarizmi's on the Calculation with Hindu Numerals (ca. 825), On the Use of the Indian Numerals (ca. 830)<ref>{{cite web|title=Al-Kindi biography|url=http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Al-Kindi.html|website=www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071026091801/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Al-Kindi.html|archive-date=26 October 2007}}</ref> as early as the 8th and 9th centuries.They, amongst other works, contributed to the diffusion of the Indian system of arithmetic in the Middle-East and the West.The significance of the development of the positional number system is described by the French mathematician Pierre Simon Laplace (1749{{ndash}}1827) who wrote:
<blockquote>"It is India that gave us the ingenuous method of expressing all numbers by the means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position, as well as an absolute value; a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit, but its very simplicity, the great ease which it has lent to all computations, puts our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions, and we shall appreciate the grandeur of this achievement when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest minds produced by antiquity."</blockquote>
* [[Chakravala method]] – The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithm to solve [[Indeterminate equation|indeterminate]] [[quadratic equation]]s is commonly attributed to [[Bhāskara II]], (c. 1114 – 1185 CE)<ref name=SBI200>"Bhaskaracharya II". ''Students' Encyclopedia India'' (2000). (Volume 1: Adb Allah ibn al Abbas – Cypress). p. 200. {{ISBN|0-85229-760-2}}</ref><ref name=Kumar23>Kumar (2004), page 23</ref><ref name=Singh05-385>Singh, Manpal (2005), page 385</ref> although some attribute it to [[Jayadeva (mathematician)|Jayadeva]] (c. 950~1000 CE).<ref name=Plofker474>Plofker (2007), page 474</ref> Jayadeva pointed out that Brahmagupta's approach to solving equations of this type would yield infinitely large number of solutions, to which he then described a general method of solving such equations.<ref name=Goonatilake127>Goonatilake (1998), page 127 – 128</ref> Jayadeva's method was later refined by Bhāskara II in his ''[[Bijaganita]]'' treatise to be known as the Chakravala method, ''[[chakra]]'' (derived from ''cakraṃ'' चक्रं) meaning 'wheel' in [[Sanskrit]], relevant to the cyclic nature of the algorithm.<ref name= Goonatilake127/><ref name=Baber34>Baber (1996), page 34</ref> With reference to the Chakravala method, E. O. Selenuis held that no European performances at the time of Bhāskara, nor much later, came up to its marvellous height of mathematical complexity.<ref name=SBI200/><ref name= Goonatilake127/><ref name=RaoKA252>Rao K. A. (2000), page 252</ref>
* [[Trigonometric function]]s – The [[Trigonometry|trigonometric]] functions ''sine'' and ''versine'' originated in [[Indian astronomy]] along with the ''cosine'' and '' inversine '', adapted from the full-chord Greek versions (to the modern half-chord versions). They were described in detail by [[Aryabhata]] in the late 5th century, but were likely developed earlier in the [[Pancha-Siddhantika|Siddhantas]], astronomical treatises of the 3rd or 4th century.<ref name=Pingree1>Pingree (2003): {{blockquote|"Geometry, and its branch trigonometry, was the mathematics Indian astronomers used most frequently. In fact, the Indian astronomers in the third or fourth century, using a pre-Ptolemaic Greek table of chords, produced tables of sines and versines, from which it was trivial to derive cosines. This new system of trigonometry, produced in India, was transmitted to the Arabs in the late eighth century and by them, in an expanded form, to the Latin West and the Byzantine East in the twelfth century."}}</ref><ref name=MactutorTrigo>J. J. O'Connor and E.F. Robertson (1996). [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Trigonometric_functions.html Trigonometric functions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120084848/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Trigonometric_functions.html |date=20 January 2013 }}. [[MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive]]</ref> Later, the 6th-century astronomer [[Varahamihira]] discovered a few basic trigonometric formulas and identities, such as sin^2(x) + cos^2(x) = 1.<ref name="www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk"/>
* [[Mean value theorem]] – A special case of this [[theorem]] for inverse interpolation of the sine was first described by [[Parameshvara]] (1380–1460), from the [[Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics]] in [[India]], in his commentaries on [[Govindasvāmi]] and [[Bhāskara II]].<ref>J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson (2000). [https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Paramesvara/ Paramesvara], ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''.</ref>
* [[Bhāskara I's sine approximation formula]]
* [[Madhava series]] – The infinite series for {{pi}} and for the trigonometric [[sine]], [[cosine]], and [[arctangent]] is now attributed to Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1340 – 1425) and his Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.<ref name=Goonatilake37>Goonatilake (1998), page 37</ref><ref name=Amma182>Amma (1999), pp. 182{{ndash}}183</ref> He made use of the series expansion of <math>\arctan x</math> to obtain an infinite series expression for {{pi}}.<ref name=Goonatilake37/> Their rational approximation of the ''error'' for the finite sum of their series are of particular interest. They manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging series for {{pi}}.<ref name=roy>Roy (1990)</ref> They used the improved series to derive a rational expression,<ref name=roy/><math>104348/33215</math> for {{pi}} correct up to eleven decimal places, ''i.e.'' <math>3.1415926539214</math>.<ref name=Borwein107>Borwein (2004), page 107</ref><ref name=Plofker481>Plofker (2007), page 481</ref> Madhava of Sangamagrama and his successors at the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] used geometric methods to derive large sum approximations for sine, cosine, and arctangent. They found a number of special cases of series later derived by Brook Taylor series. They also found the second-order Taylor approximations for these functions, and the third-order Taylor approximation for sine.<ref name=bressoud>Bressoud (2002)</ref><ref name=Plofker>Plofker (2001)</ref><ref name=katz>Katz (1995)</ref>
* [[Power series]] – The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics or the Kerala school was a school of mathematics and astronomy founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama in Tirur, Malappuram, Kerala, India. Their work, completed two centuries before the invention of calculus in Europe, provided what is now considered the first example of a power series (apart from geometric series). However, they did not formulate a systematic theory of differentiation and integration.{{sfn|Stillwell|2004|p=173}}
* Finite difference [[interpolation]] – The Indian mathematician [[Brahmagupta]] presented what is possibly the first instance<ref>{{cite book|last=Van Brummelen|first=Glen|author-link=Glen Van Brummelen|title=The mathematics of the heavens and the earth: the early history of trigonometry|year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691129730|pages=329}} (p.111)</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Meijering|first=Erik|title=A Chronology of Interpolation From Ancient Astronomy to Modern Signal and Image Processing|journal=Proceedings of the IEEE|date=March 2002|volume=90|issue=3|pages=319{{ndash}}342|doi=10.1109/5.993400|bibcode=2002IEEEP..90..319M |url=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/63085}}</ref> of finite difference interpolation around 665 CE.<ref name="Gupta">{{cite journal|last=Gupta|first=R. C. |title=Second-order interpolation in Indian mathematics upto the fifteenth century|journal=Indian Journal of History of Science|volume=4|issue=1 & 2|pages=86{{ndash}}98}} Reprinted as: {{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-981-13-1229-8_27 |chapter=Second-Order Interpolation in Indian Mathematics up to the Fifteenth Century |title=Gaṇitānanda |date=2019 |last1=Ramasubramanian |first1=K. |pages=263–276 |isbn=978-981-13-1228-1 }}</ref>
* [[Algebra|Algebraic abbreviations]] – The mathematician [[Brahmagupta]] had begun using abbreviations for unknowns by the 7th century.<ref name=Bell96/> He employed abbreviations for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.<ref name=Bell96/> Brahmagupta also used abbreviations for [[square roots]] and [[cube roots]].<ref name=Bell96/>
* [[Permutation#Generation in lexicographic order|Systematic generation of all permutations]] – The method goes back to [[Narayana Pandit]]a in 14th-century India, and has been rediscovered frequently.{{sfn|Knuth|2005|pp=1–26}}
* Discovered by the Indian mathematician, Brahmagupta (598{{ndash}}668 CE):<ref name=Plofker419-436>Plofker (2007), pp. 419{{ndash}}436</ref><ref name=Joseph306>Joseph (2000), page 306</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://jwilson.coe.uga.edu/EMT725/Class/Brooks/Brahmagupta/Brahmagupta.html|title=Brahmagupta's Formula|author=Kala Fischbein, Tammy Brooks|publisher=University of Georgia|access-date=3 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BrahmaguptaMatrix.html|title=Brahmagupta Matrix|author=Weisstein, Eric W|publisher=Mathworld|access-date=3 November 2011}}</ref>
** [[Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity]]
** [[Brahmagupta formula]]
** [[Brahmagupta theorem]]
* [[Combinatorics]] – the [[Vyākhyāprajñapti|Bhagavati Sutra]] had the first mention of a combinatorics problem; the problem asked how many possible combinations of tastes were possible from selecting tastes in ones, twos, threes, etc. from a selection of six different tastes (sweet, pungent, astringent, sour, salt, and bitter). The Bhagavati is also the first text to mention the [[Binomial coefficient|choose function]].<ref name="India">{{cite web|title=India|url=http://binomial.csueastbay.edu/India.html|access-date=2008-03-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114201718/http://binomial.csueastbay.edu/India.html|archive-date=2007-11-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the second century BC, [[Pingala]] included an enumeration problem in the [[Sanskrit prosody|Chanda Sutra]] (also Chandahsutra) which asked how many ways a six-syllable metre could be made from short and long notes.<ref name="Hall">{{cite web |first=Rachel|last=Hall|title=Math for Poets and Drummers-The Mathematics of Meter|date=2005-02-16|url=http://www.sju.edu/~rhall/Rhythms/poets.pdf|access-date=2008-03-05|archive-date=7 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907145421/http://www.sju.edu/%7Erhall/Rhythms/poets.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Kulkarni">{{cite report |type=Preprint |last1=Kulkarni |first1=Amba |title=Recursion and Combinatorial Mathematics in Chandashaastra |date=2007 |arxiv=math/0703658 |bibcode=2007math......3658K }}</ref> Pingala found the number of metres that had <math>n</math> long notes and <math>k</math> short notes; this is equivalent to finding the [[binomial coefficients]].
* Jain texts define five different types of [[infinity]] – the infinite in one direction, the infinite in two directions, the infinite in area, the infinite everywhere, and the infinite perpetually.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Datta | first1 = Bibhutibhusan | last2 = Singh | first2 = Awadhesh Narayan | editor1-last = Kolachana | editor1-first = Aditya | editor2-last = Mahesh | editor2-first = K. | editor3-last = Ramasubramanian | editor3-first = K. | contribution = Use of permutations and combinations in India | doi = 10.1007/978-981-13-7326-8_18 | pages = 356–376 | publisher = Springer Singapore | series = Sources and Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences | title = Studies in Indian Mathematics and Astronomy: Selected Articles of Kripa Shankar Shukla | year = 2019| isbn = 978-981-13-7325-1 | s2cid = 191141516 }}. Revised by K. S. Shukla from a paper in ''Indian Journal of History of Science'' 27 (3): 231–249, 1992, {{MR | 1189487}}. See p. 363.</ref> and the ''[[Satkhandagama]]''
* [[Fibonacci numbers]] – This sequence was first described by [[Virahanka]] (c. 700 CE), Gopāla (c. 1135), and [[Hemachandra]] (c. 1150),<ref name="google2">{{cite book|title=Toward a Global Science: Mining Civilizational Knowledge|author=Goonatilake, S.|date=1998|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=9780253333889|url=https://archive.org/details/towardglobalscie0000goon|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/towardglobalscie0000goon/page/126 126]|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref> as an outgrowth of the earlier writings on Sanskrit prosody by [[Pingala]] (c. 200 BCE).
* [[Madhava's correction terms]] – Madhava's correction term is a mathematical expression attributed to [[Madhava of Sangamagrama]] (c. 1340 – c. 1425), the founder of the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]], that can be used to give a better approximation to the value of the mathematical constant {{pi}} (''pi'') than the partial sum approximation obtained by truncating the [[Madhava series|Madhava-Leibniz infinite series]] for {{pi}}. The Madhava-Leibniz infinite series for {{pi}}.
* [[Pascal's triangle]] – Described in the 6th century CE by [[Varahamihira]]<ref name="www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk">{{cite web|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Varahamihira.html|title=Varahamihira biography|publisher=www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref> and in the 10th century by [[Halayudha]],<ref name="google3">{{cite book|title=Pascal's Arithmetical Triangle: The Story of a Mathematical Idea|author=Edwards, A.W.F.|date=2002|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=9780801869464|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sx-EkudWKTcC|page=201|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref> commenting on an obscure reference by [[Pingala]] (the author of an earlier work on prosody) to the "Meru-prastaara", or the "Staircase of Mount Meru", in relation to binomial coefficients. (It was also independently discovered in the 10th or 11th century in Persia and China.)
* Integral solution to [[Pell's equation]] – About a thousand years before [[John Pell (mathematician)|Pell's]] time, Indian scholar Brahmagupta (598{{ndash}}668 CE) was able to find integral solutions to ''vargaprakṛiti'' (Pell's equation):<ref name=Pswamy416>Puttaswamy (2000), page 416</ref>{{sfn|Stillwell|2004|pp=72–73}} <math>\ x^2-Ny^2=1, </math> where ''N'' is a non-square integer, in his [[Brahmasphutasiddhanta|''Brâhma-sphuṭa-siddhânta'']] treatise.<ref name=sw101>Stillwell (2004), pages 72{{ndash}}73</ref>
* Ardhacheda – In the 8th century [[Jain]] mathematician [[Virasena]] is credited with a precursor to the binary logarithm. Virasena's concept of ''ardhacheda'' has been defined as the number of times a given number can be divided evenly by two. This definition gives rise to a function that coincides with the binary logarithm on the powers of two,<ref>{{citation| contribution=History of Mathematics in India|title=Students' Britannica India: Select essays|editor1-first=Dale|editor1-last=Hoiberg|editor-link1=Dale Hoiberg|editor2-first=Indu|editor2-last=Ramchandani|first=R. C.|last=Gupta|author-link=R.C Gupta|page=329|publisher=Popular Prakashan|year=2000| contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-xzljvnQ1vAC&q=Virasena+logarithm&pg=PA329}}</ref> but it is different for other integers, giving the [[p-adic order|2-adic order]] rather than the logarithm.<ref>See, e.g., {{citation|title=Cryptographic Applications of Analytic Number Theory: Complexity Lower Bounds and Pseudorandomness|volume=22|series=Progress in Computer Science and Applied Logic|first=Igor|last=Shparlinski|publisher=Birkhäuser|year=2013|isbn=978-3-0348-8037-4|page=35|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z635BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA35}}.</ref>
* [[Kuṭṭaka]] – The Kuṭṭaka algorithm has much similarity with and can be considered as a precursor of the modern day [[extended Euclidean algorithm]]. The latter algorithm is a procedure for finding integers ''x'' and ''y'' satisfying the condition ''ax'' + ''by'' = [[Greatest common divisor|gcd]](''a'', ''b'').<ref>{{cite book|last1=D. E. Knuth|title=[[The Art of Computer Programming|The Art of Computer Programming Volume 2]]|date=1998|publisher=[[Pearson Education India]], 1998|isbn=9788177583359|page=342 |author1-link=D. E. Knuth }}</ref>

=== Linguistics and Literature ===
* [[Formal grammar]] / [[Formal systems]] – In his treatise [[Aṣṭādhyāyī|Astadhyayi]], [[Pāṇini|Panini]] gives formal production rules and definitions to describe the formal grammar of [[Sanskrit]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Panini biography|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Panini.html|website=www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk}}</ref> In [[formal language|formal language theory]], a ''grammar'' (when the context is not given, often called a ''formal grammar'' for clarity) is a set of [[Production (computer science)|production rule]]s for [[String (computer science)|strings]] in a [[formal language]]. The rules describe how to form strings from the language's [[Alphabet (computer science)|alphabet]] that are valid according to the language's [[syntax (programming languages)|syntax]]. A grammar does not describe the [[semantics|meaning of the strings]] or what can be done with them in whatever context—only their form. The [[Backus-Naur form]], used to describe the [[Syntax (programming languages)|syntax]] of programming languages, applies similar concepts.<ref>{{cite journal|last= Ingerman|first= P. Z.|title= "Pāṇini Backus Form" suggested|journal= Communications of the ACM|volume= 10|issue= 3|page= 137|year= 1967|doi= 10.1145/363162.363165
|s2cid= 52817672|doi-access= free}}</ref>
*Sarvatobhadra Palindrome: The most complex palindrome, an example of which is in the [[Shishupala Vadha]] of [[Magha (poet)|Magha]].
<blockquote>
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break}}

सकारनानारकास- 
कायसाददसायका । 
रसाहवा वाहसार- 
नादवाददवादना ॥

 

sakāranānārakāsa- 
kāyasādadasāyakā 
rasāhavā vāhasāra- 
nādavādadavādanā. 

{{Col-break}}

{| style="text-align:center; width:200px;"
|- style="color:red;"
| sa || kā || ra || nā || nā || ra || kā || sa
|-
| style="color:red;" | kā || ya || sā || da || da || sā || ya || style="color:red;" | kā
|-
| style="color:red;" | ra || sā || ha || vā || vā || ha || sā || style="color:red;" | ra
|-
| style="color:red;" | nā || da || vā || da || da || vā || da || style="color:red;" | nā
|-
| colspan=8 | (and the lines reversed)
|-
| style="color:red;" | nā || da || vā || da || da || vā || da || style="color:red;" | nā
|-
| style="color:red;" | ra || sā || ha || vā || vā || ha || sā || style="color:red;" | ra
|-
| style="color:red;" | kā || ya || sā || da || da || sā || ya || style="color:red;" | kā
|- style="color:red;"
| sa || kā || ra || nā || nā || ra || kā || sa
|}
{{col-end}}

{{blockquote|"[That army], which relished battle (''rasāhavā'') contained allies who brought low the bodes and gaits of their various striving enemies (''sakāranānārakāsakāyasādadasāyakā''), and in it the cries of the best of mounts contended with musical instruments (''vāhasāranādavādadavādanā'')."}}
</blockquote>

Palindromic Novel: The Ramakrishna Vilomakavyam by Dyvagnya Surya Pandita is an example of a narrative that, when read forward, relate the story of the Ramayana and, when read backward, relate the story of the Mahabharata.

=== Mining ===
* [[Diamond (gemstone)|Diamond mining]] and diamond tools: Diamonds were first recognised and mined in central India,<ref name=Dickinson1/><ref name=Hershey22>Hershey (2004), page 22</ref><ref name=Malkin12>Malkin (1996), page 12</ref> where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found along the rivers [[Penner River|Penner]], [[Krishna River|Krishna]] and [[Godavari River|Godavari]]. It is unclear when diamonds were first mined in India, although estimated to be at least 5,000 years ago.<ref name=Hershey3,22>Hershey (2004), pages 3 & 23</ref> India remained the world's only source of diamonds until the discovery of diamonds in Brazil in the 18th century.<ref name=Thomas46>Thomas (2007), page 46</ref><ref name=Read17>Read (2005), page 17</ref><ref name=lee1>Lee, page 685</ref> [[Golconda]] served as an important centre for diamonds in [[central India]].<ref name=Wenk1>Wenk, pages 535{{ndash}}539</ref> Diamonds then were exported to other parts of the world, including Europe.<ref name=Wenk1/> Early references to diamonds in India come from [[Sanskrit]] texts.<ref name=Encarta11>MSN Encarta (2007). [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557986/Diamond.html ''Diamond''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028121034/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557986/Diamond.html |date=28 October 2009 }}. 1 November 2009.</ref> The ''[[Arthashastra]]'' of [[Kautilya]] mentions diamond trade in India.<ref name=lee1/> [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] works dating from the 4th century BCE mention it as a well-known and precious stone but don't mention the details of diamond cutting.<ref name=Dickinson1/> Another Indian description written at the beginning of the 3rd century describes strength, regularity, brilliance, ability to scratch metals, and good refractive properties as the desirable qualities of a diamond.<ref name=Dickinson1>Dickinson, pages 1{{ndash}}3</ref> A Chinese work from the 3rd century BCE mentions: "Foreigners wear it [diamond] in the belief that it can ward off evil influences".<ref name=Dickinson1/> The Chinese, who did not find diamonds in their country, initially used diamonds as a "jade cutting knife" instead of as a jewel.<ref name=Dickinson1/>
* [[Zinc mining]] and [[Zinc#Ancient use|medicinal zinc]] – Zinc was first smelted from zinc ore in India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.australianminesatlas.gov.au/education/fact_sheets/zinc.jsp |title=Zinc-Fact sheet |publisher=Australian mines |access-date=4 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107215623/http://www.australianminesatlas.gov.au/education/fact_sheets/zinc.jsp |archive-date=7 November 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Zinc mines of Zawar, near [[Udaipur]], [[Rajasthan]], were active during early Christian era.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/def_en/articles/metallurg_heritage_india/metallurgical_heritage_india.html |title=Mettalurgical heritage of India|author=Srinivasan, Ranganathan|publisher=Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel |access-date=4 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dli.gov.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005afd_33.pdf|title=Smelting furnaces in Ancient India|author=Rina Shrivastva|year=1999|publisher=Indian Journal of History & Science,34(1), Digital Library of India|access-date=4 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425052130/http://www.dli.gov.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005afd_33.pdf|archive-date=25 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> There are references of medicinal uses of zinc in the [[Charaka Samhita]] (300 BCE).<ref name=Craddock>Craddock (1983)</ref> The [[Rasaratna Samuccaya]] which dates back to the Tantric period ({{circa|5th{{snd}}13th century CE}}) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.<ref name=Craddock/><ref name=Biswas11>Biswas (1986), page 11</ref> India was to melt the first derived from a long experience of the old alchemy zinc by the distillation process, an advanced technique. The ancient Persians had also tried to reduce zinc oxide in an open stove, but had failed. Zawar in Tiri valley of Rajasthan is the first known old zinc smelting site in the world.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} The distillation technique of zinc production dates back to the 12th century CE and is an important contribution of India in the world of science.

=== Space ===
* [[Periodic comet|Periodicity of comets]] – Indian astronomers by the 6th century CE believed that comets were apparitions that re-appeared periodically. This was the view expressed in the 6th century by the astronomers [[Varahamihira]] and Bhadrabahu, and the 10th-century astronomer [[Bhattotpala]] listed the names and estimated periods of certain comets, but it is unfortunately not known how these figures were calculated or how accurate they were.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ILBuYcGASxcC&pg=PA293 |page=293 |title=Exploring Ancient Skies: A Survey of Ancient and Cultural Astronomy |last1=Kelley |first1=David H. |last2=Milone |first2=Eugene F. |date=2011|publisher=Springer |isbn=9781441976246 }}</ref>
* [[Gravity|Preliminary concept of gravity]] – The concept of gravity as attracting objects towards Earth was already known to Greek scholars, [[Brahmagupta]] in sixth century CE also described gravity as an attractive force, using the term {{Transliteration|sa|ISO|gurutvākarṣaṇa}} in which heavier objects attract towards the earth.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pickover|first1=Clifford|title=Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind Them|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199792689|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQXcpvjcJBUC&pg=PA105|date=2008-04-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bose|first1=Mainak Kumar|title=Late classical India|publisher=A. Mukherjee & Co.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nbItAAAAMAAJ&q=gravity|year=1988}}</ref><ref>*{{cite book
| first= Amartya | last= Sen| title= The Argumentative Indian| date= 2005| page= 29 | publisher= Allen Lane | isbn= 978-0-7139-9687-6}}</ref>
* [[Tychonic system]] – A similar model was implicitly mentioned in the Hindu astronomical treatise ''[[Tantrasamgraha]]'' ({{Circa|1500 CE}}) by [[Nilakantha Somayaji]] of the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ramasubramanian |first1=K. |last2=Srinivas |first2=M. D. |last3=Sriram |first3=M. S. |title=Modification of the earlier Indian planetary theory by the Kerala astronomers (c. 1500 AD) and the implied heliocentric picture of planetary motion |journal=Current Science |date=1994 |volume=66 |issue=10 |pages=784–790 |jstor=24098820 }}</ref>{{sfn|Joseph|2000|p=408}}
* Reduction of the [[ecliptic]]: [[Achyutha Pisharadi]] discovered the techniques.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=B. |first1=E. |title=Review of The Contributions of Kerala to Sanskrit Literature |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=1960 |volume=80 |issue=4 |pages=392 |doi=10.2307/595925 |jstor=595925 }}</ref>

=== Miscellaneous ===
* [[Hookah]] or water pipe: according to Cyril Elgood (PP.41, 110), the physician Irfan Shaikh, at the court of the Mughal emperor [[Akbar]] I (1542{{endash}}1605) invented the Hookah or water pipe used most commonly for smoking [[tobacco]].<ref name="iranica">{{cite web | url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/galyan- | title=ḠALYĀN |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Iranica]] | date=15 December 2000 | access-date=19 December 2012 | author=Razpush, Shahnaz | pages=261–265 | volume=X}}</ref><ref name="Sivaramakrishnan4-5">{{cite book |title=Tobacco and Areca Nut|last=Sivaramakrishnan |first=V. M. |year=2001 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |location=[[Hyderabad (India)|Hyderabad]] |isbn=81-250-2013-6 |pages=4–5}}</ref><ref name="Blechynden215">{{cite book |title=Calcutta, Past and Present |last=Blechynden |first=Kathleen |year=1905 |publisher=University of California |location=Los Angeles |page=215}}</ref><ref name="RousseletLouis">{{cite book |title=India and Its Native Princes: Travels in Central India and in the Presidencies of Bombay and Bengal |url=https://archive.org/details/indiaitsnativepr00loui |last=Rousselet |first=Louis |year=1875 |publisher=Chapman and Hall |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/indiaitsnativepr00loui/page/290 290]|isbn=9788120618879 }}</ref>
* [[Punch (drink)]] a [[mixed drink]] containing fruits or fruit juice that can be both alcoholic and non-alcoholic originated in the Indian subcontinent before making its way into England by passage through the [[East India Company]].<ref name="Language">Edwards, Graham and Sue. ''The Language of Drink'', Alan Sutton Publishing, 1988.</ref> This beverage is very popular among the world with many varietal flavors and brands throughout the [[beverage industry]].

== Modern India ==
=== Metallurgy, manufacturing, and industry ===
* Carbon nitride solar reactor – In September 2021, A team from the [[Institute of Nano Science and Technology|Institute of Nano Science and Technology (INST), Mohali]], has fabricated a prototype reactor which operates under natural sunlight to produce hydrogen at a scale of around 6.1 litres in eight hours. They have used an earth-abundant chemical called carbon nitrides as a catalyst for the purpose.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/chandigarh/mohali-institute-develops-reactor-for-cost-effective-production-of-hydrogen-using-sunlight-water-318138|title=Mohali institute develops reactor for cost-effective production of hydrogen using sunlight, water|work=Tribuneindia News Service }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://dst.gov.in/large-scale-reactor-developed-cost-effective-production-hydrogen-using-sunlight-and-water | title=Large-scale reactor developed for cost-effective production of hydrogen using sunlight and water | Department of Science & Technology }}</ref>
* [[Substation|Micro-substation]], Tata power along with Nissin Electric demonstrated world's first microsubstation in Tata's Rohini plant, New Delhi that will provide cheap electricity to consumers.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://nissin.jp/e/news/pdf/release240919.pdf#:~:text=A%20micro%20substation%20consists%20of%20protective%20devices%2C,without%20installing%20a%20conventional%20large%2Dscale%20distribution%20substation | title=Demonstration Project of India’s First Micro Substation With Power Voltage Transformer (PVT) | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241014031500/https://nissin.jp/e/news/pdf/release240919.pdf | archive-date=2024-10-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/power/tata-power-ddl-collaborates-with-japanese-firm-to-install-indias-first-micro-substation/articleshow/122029053.cms?from=mdr | title=Tata Power-DDL collaborates with Japanese firm to install India's first micro substation | work=The Economic Times | date=23 June 2025 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.business-standard.com/companies/news/tata-power-ddl-nissin-electric-install-india-s-first-micro-substation-125062301094_1.html | title=Tata Power-DDL, Nissin Electric to install India's first micro substation }}</ref>
* [[National Metallurgical Laboratory#R&D|NML Magnetherm process]] is a large scale magnesium producing process, it is a kind of electrothermal process that produces at pilot scale of 300–450 kg raw material producing ~40 kg Magnesium/batch. A pilot plant is being constructed at Jamshedpur for using this process.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326264547_Development_of_magnesium_metal_production_technology_at_CSIR-NML_Jamshedpur#:~:text=CSIR%2DNational%20Metallurgical%20Laboratory%20(CSIR,developed%20highly%20guarded%20Magnetherm%20process | title=Development of magnesium metal production technology at CSIR-NML, Jamshedpur | website=www.researchgate.net | date=July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://money.rediff.com/news/market/rs-10-crore-magnesium-plant-launched-in-jamshedpur/18955720241126#:~:text=CSIR%2DNML%20lays%20foundation%20for,of%20rediff.com%20India%20Limited. | title=Rs 10 Crore Magnesium Plant Launched in Jamshedpur }}</ref>
* Contactless Handwasher, is a device which provides automated touchless handwashing process, major advantage of this type of system is that it uses very less water and hand Washing for 2000 people requires only one soap refill.It was developed by [[Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute|CSIR-CMERI]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cmeri.res.in/technology/contactless-hand-washer | title=Contactless Hand Washer | CSIR-Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute }}</ref>
* Hydrogen DRI steel, Jindal Steel is making world's first hydrogen based DRI process in its steel plants in Angul.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.businesstoday.in/markets/company-stock/story/jindal-stainless-shares-first-green-hydrogen-project-420077-2024-03-05 | title=Jindal Steel shares in news today as firm commences its first green hydrogen project - BusinessToday | date=5 March 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.hydrogennewsletter.com/india-the-worlds-second-largest-producer-of-crude-steel-go-green-with-green-hydrogen/ | title=India - the world's second-largest producer of crude steel goes green with Green Hydrogen | date=16 March 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.mercomindia.com/jindal-and-open-steel-plant-in-haryana | title=Jindal and Hygenco Open Green Hydrogen Facility at Steel Plant in Haryana - Mercom India }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/market/jindal-steel-and-power-share-price-bets-big-on-green-hydrogen-with-investment-in-odisha-facility-19476708.htm | title=Jindal Steel bets big on Green Hydrogen with investment in Odisha facility - CNBC TV18 | date=16 September 2024 }}</ref>
* High ash coal gasification (coal to methanol) – The central government gave the country world's first 'coal to methanol' (CTM) plant built by the [[Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited]] (BHEL). The plant was inaugurated in BHEL's Hyderabad unit, The pilot project is the first that uses the gasification method for converting high-ash coal into methanol. Handling of high ash and heat required to melt this high amount of ash is a challenge in the case of Indian coal, which generally has high ash content. Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited has developed the fluidized bed gasification technology suitable for high ash Indian coals to produce syngas and then convert syngas to methanol with 99% purity.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://thelogicalindian.com/trending/coal-to-methanol-bhel-33320 | title=First of Its Kind! Central Government Inaugurates India's 'Coal to Methanol' Plant Made by BHEL | date=17 January 2022 | last1=Saxena | first1=Akanksha }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
* [[Magnetically controlled shunt reactor|Controlled shunt reactor]] – In 2002, [[Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited]] has successfully developed a first-of-its-kind in the world device for improving power transfer capability and reducing transmission losses in the country's highest rating (400 kV) transmission lines.The device is called Controlled Shunt Reactor.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/bhel-develops-device-to-reduce-td-losses/articleshow/28959774.cms|title=Bhel develops device to reduce T&D losses| newspaper=The Times of India |date=21 November 2002|via=Press Trust of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/bhel-to-supply-device-for-high-voltage-systems/story-KIzepl351g9Xw0XREukAqI.html|title=The first-of-its-kind Controlled Shunt Reactor (CSR) has been developed by BHEL in-house, said a BHEL release. The device, which operates automatically, depending on system requirement in less than 10 milliseconds, improves power transfer capability of transmission lines| newspaper=The Hindustan Times |date=7 October 2006|via=HT Correspondent, Bhopal}}</ref>
* [[Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory|DMR 1700]] steel – For several high-technology applications, such as military hardware and aerospace, need to possess ultrahigh strength (UHS; minimum yield strength of 1380 MPa (200 ksi)) coupled with high fracture toughness in order to meet the requirement of minimum weight while ensuring high reliability.
* [[Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory|DMR SN 742]] is a nickel-based superalloy developed by the Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory (DMRL) in India. It is specifically designed for aero-engine applications, such as high-pressure compressors (HPC) and turbine rotors (HPT) in gas turbine engines.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.iadb.in/2022/02/23/development-of-nickel-base-superalloy-components-for-aeroengine-applications/ | title=Development of Nickel-Base Superalloy & Components for Aeroengine Applications | Indian Aerospace and Defence Bulletin - News for aerospace and defence in India | date=23 February 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4902841|title=Effect of Heterogenization on the Microstructure Evolution and High Temperature Deformation Behaviour of a Nickel Base Superalloy by balasundar ilangovan, P. Mahesh, Satheesh Kumar S.S., Balasundar I, Vanitha C :: SSRN|ssrn=4902841 |last1=Balasundar |first1=Ilangovan |last2=P. |first2=Mahesh |last3=Kumar |first3=S. S. |last4=Balasundar |first4=I. |last5=Vanitha |first5=C. }}</ref>
* GTM-900 is a high-temperature alpha-beta titanium alloy developed by [[National Aerospace Laboratories]] and [[Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory|DMRL]] used for components like compressor blades due to its strength and creep resistance at elevated temperatures.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nal.res.in/hi/node/2078 | title=High strain rate behavior of GTM-900 titanium alloy - CSIR - NAL }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://nopr.niscpr.res.in/bitstream/123456789/20553/1/IJEMS%209(5)%20351-358.pdf | title=Wear behaviour of titanium alloy GTM-900 under dry sliding | website=nopr.niscpr.res.in}}</ref>
* TITAN 26A and TITAN 29A, These are high-performance titanium-based alloys which are known for their high strength, creep resistance, and corrosion resistance, particularly in high-temperature environments.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.drdo.gov.in/drdo/high-temperature-titanium-alloys-components | title=High Temperature Titanium Alloys & Components | Defence Research and Development Organisation - DRDO, Ministry of Defence, Government of India }}</ref>
* Magnesium-lithium alloy grade(Mg-9Li-7.5Al-1.2Sn), ISRO has successfully mastered melting and casting of this alloy using inert atmosphere. It is now possible to melt up to 20 kg of this alloy and gave stable properties up to 1000C.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.inae.in/wp-content/themes/fortuna-child/img/Metallurgy%20REPORT.pdf | title=Successes and gaps in our metallurgical R&D efforts | website=www.inae.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/boms/017/06/0733-0745 | title=Development of ultra riot magnesium-lithium alloys | website=www.ias.ac.in}}</ref>
* [[Jindal Stainless Limited|JD-1]] alloy – A special lightweight alloy developed by [[Jindal Stainless Limited|Jindal Defence]] with a minimum guaranteed hardness of 500 HB. It can be used in aerospace, small arms, and engineering solutions. It is mainly used in armoured jacket.
* [[Polymetallic nodules]], India is considered a pioneer in the exploration of polymetallic nodules, In 1981, Indian scientists recovered manganese nodules, marking the beginning of deep sea exploration in the country.In 1987, India became the first country to receive Pioneer Investor status from the International Seabed Authority (ISA).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.idsa.in/issuebrief/indias-deep-sea-mining-endeavours-MSrivastava-270923#:~:text=In%201987%2C%20India%20became%20the%20first%20country,and%20developmental%20activities%20for%20the%20polymetallic%20nodules | title=India's Deep Sea Mining Endeavours: A Search for Climate Solutions in Deep Waters | Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://drs.nio.res.in/drs/bitstream/handle/2264/754/Refresher_Course_Mar_Geol_Geophys_2007_Lecture_Notes_52.pdf;jsessionid=CE99C6BA341E8AE14A9E5076EDED73A4?sequence=2|title=Indian exploration for polymetallic nodules in the Central Indian Ocean |website=drs.nio.res.in}}</ref>
* Sorption-enhanced steam methane reforming (SESMR) – In April 2022, the scientists from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (CSIR-IICT), Hyderabad developed a fluidized bed reactor (FBR) facility in Hyderabad to perform sorption enhanced steam methane reforming (SESMR) to achieve clean hydrogen in its purest form. The team of scientists have designed a hybrid material to simulate capturing carbon dioxide in-situ (onsite) and converting it into clean hydrogen from non-fuel grade bioethanol.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.mercomindia.com/indian-scientists-produce-clean-h2-with-carbon-capture-efficiency | title=Indian Scientists Produce Clean H2 with Carbon Capture Efficiency of 99.58% - Mercom India }}</ref>
* [[Harichand Megha Dalaya|Spray-drying buffalo milk]] – The collective consensus of dairy experts worldwide was that buffalo milk could not be spray-dried due to its high fat content. Harichand Megha Dalaya & his invention of the spray dry equipment, led to the world's first buffalo milk spray-dryer, at Amul Dairy in Gujarat.
* [[Neem-coated urea]] is an agriculture fertilizer in which the urea is neem oil-coated. The coating of neem slows the nitrification of urea thereby helps in increased absorption of nutrients in the soil as well as reduces groundwater pollution.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1038/s41598-022-12708-1 | title=A benchmark study on economic impact of Neem Coated Urea on Indian agriculture | date=2022 | last1=Ramappa | first1=K. B. | last2=Jadhav | first2=Vilas | last3=Manjunatha | first3=A. V. | journal=Scientific Reports | volume=12 | issue=1 | page=9082 | pmid=35641568 | pmc=9156691 | bibcode=2022NatSR..12.9082R }}</ref>
* Jackal steel – An advanced grade high-strength, low-alloy steel. The technology of Jackal steel has been passed on to Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) and MIDHANI for its bulk production.
* High-Rise Pantograph – The new-design world record pantograph, developed completely in-house for use in DFC & other freight routes with height of {{convert|7.5|m}}.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.irgreenri.gov.in/tractiondistribution.html | title=New Technological Developments in Electric Traction | access-date=21 April 2023 | archive-date=30 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030050919/http://www.irgreenri.gov.in/tractiondistribution.html | url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Commercial [[Carbon capture and utilization|CCU]] plant: Tuticorin Alkali Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited (TFL) partnered with Carbon Clean to create the world's first fully commercial CCU plant. The 10 MW facility captures coal-fired boiler flue gas and uses it to deliver industrial quality {{CO2}}. The 10 MW facility captures coal-fired boiler flue gas and uses it to deliver industrial quality {{CO2}}.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.edie.net/partner-content/in-action-the-worlds-first-fully-commercial-carbon-capture-and-utilisation-plant/ | title=In action: The world's first fully commercial carbon capture and utilisation plant - edie | date=14 January 2021 }}</ref> The technology has been developed by Carbon Clean Solutions, headquartered in London – a start-up by two Indian engineers focusing on carbon dioxide separation technology.There are many chemicals exported out of India where {{CO2}} is the raw material.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.voanews.com/a/indian-factory-uses-envronmentally-friendly-technology-to-utilize-carbon-emissions/3665619.html | title=Technology Helps Indian Factory Convert Carbon Emissions | date=6 January 2017 }}</ref>
* Triple-stack container freight train<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n5H8pSxzTsA | title=RDSO triple stack container trials on WDFC_DFCCIL | website=[[YouTube]] | date=10 March 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jYsjLlOds1I | title=Trials to reduce per-unit logistics cost by Indian Railways | website=[[YouTube]] | date=17 October 2023 }}</ref> – In order to ensure new streams of traffic and commodities and to bring about a modal shift, the DFC is undertaking trials for running smaller than usual containers, known as dwarf containers (where the container height is lower by 660 mm than normal containers), in triple-stack formation to further improve the profitability of train operations. It may be possible to run these as double-stack on conventional routes and triple-stack on routes with high-rise OHE, once the trials are successfully completed.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.globalrailwayreview.com/article/132297/innovative-logistics-stacking-small-containers-optimised-loading/ | title=Innovative logistics: Stacking small containers for optimised loading }}</ref>

=== Medicine ===
* [[Cervical cerclage]] – was first described by [[V. N. Shirodkar]] in [[Bombay]] in 1955.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Goulding E, Lim B | title = McDonald transvaginal cervical cerclage since 1957: from its roots in Australia into worldwide contemporary practice | journal = BJOG | volume = 121 | issue = 9 | pages = 1107 | date = August 2014 | pmid = 25047486 | doi = 10.1111/1471-0528.12874 | s2cid = 21004646 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* [[Cholera toxin]] – Cholera toxin was discovered in 1959 by Indian microbiologist [[Sambhu Nath De]].<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/path.1700630417 | title=An experimental study of the action of cholera toxin | year=1951 | last1=De | first1=S. N. | last2=Sarkar | first2=J. K. | last3=Tribedi | first3=B. P. | journal=The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology | volume=63 | issue=4 | pages=707–717 | pmid=14898376 }}</ref>
* [[In vitro fertilisation]] – the second successful birth of a 'test tube baby' occurred in India just 67 days after Louise Brown was born. The girl, named Durga, was conceived in vitro using a method developed independently by [[Subhash Mukhopadhyay (physician)|Subhash Mukhopadhyay]], a physician and researcher from [[Kolkata]]. Mukhopadhyay had been performing experiments on his own with primitive instruments and a household refrigerator.<ref>{{cite magazine |date=19 October 1978 |title=India reveals deep-frozen test-tube baby |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bik2nThZSYoC&pg=PA159 |magazine=[[New Scientist]] |page=159 |access-date=4 September 2021 |vauthors=Jayaraman KS}}</ref> However, state authorities prevented him from presenting his work at scientific conferences,<ref>{{cite web |date=5 October 2010 |title=Test tube triumph & tragedy – Nobel for UK scientist stirs memory of a Bengal doctor |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/test-tube-triumph-tragedy-nobel-for-uk-scientist-stirs-memory-of-a-bengal-doctor/cid/472542 |access-date=22 May 2012 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]]}}</ref> and it was many years before Mukhopadhyay's contribution was acknowledged in works dealing with the subject.<ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nkEko0DybuQ |title=Test Tube Baby |date=23 August 2013 |publisher=Educational Multimedia Research Centre, Kolkata |access-date=4 September 2021 |website=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=September 2021}}
* NexCAR19, is designed to target cancer cells carrying the CD19 protein, a marker on cancer cells, enhancing precision in treatment.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mallapaty |first1=Smriti |title=Cutting-edge CAR-T cancer therapy is now made in India — at one-tenth the cost |journal=Nature |date=28 March 2024 |volume=627 |issue=8005 |pages=709–710 |doi=10.1038/d41586-024-00809-y |pmid=38514877 |bibcode=2024Natur.627..709M }}</ref>
* [[Oral rehydration therapy|Oral Rehydrated Solution (ORS)]], In 1952 [[Hemendra Nath Chatterjee]]<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|title=Magic bullet: the history of oral rehydration therapy|first=J. N.|last=Ruxin|date=28 October 1994|journal=Medical History|volume=38|issue=4|pages=363–397|doi=10.1017/s0025727300036905|pmid=7808099|pmc=1036912}}</ref> was an Indian scientist from West Bengal known for the earliest publication of a formula for Orally Rehydrated Saline (ORS) for diarrhea.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/science/ors-the-salt-that-saved-millions-of-lives-952547.html | title=ORS: The salt that saved millions of lives }}</ref> According to his paper,<ref name="auto" /> he treated 186 patients with his oral glucose with an oral glucose-sodium electrolyte solution and was able to rehydrate his patients with mild to moderately severe cholera.
* [[post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis]] – In 1922, Brahmachari also discovered a new, deadly form of [[leishmaniasis]]. He called it dermal leishmanoid, marked by the appearance of sudden eruptions on the face of the patients without fever or other complaints. He observed it as a disease in partially cured cases of kala-azar, along with those who had no history of the disease at all.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brahmachari|first=U. N.|date=April 1922|title=A New Form of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis—Dermal Leishmanoid|journal=The Indian Medical Gazette|volume=57|issue=4|pages=125–127 |pmc=5186533|pmid=29008368}}</ref> It has since been termed as [[post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis]].
* [[Visceral leishmaniasis|Visceral leishmaniasis, treatment of]] – The Indian (Bengali) medical practitioner [[Upendranath Brahmachari]] (19 December 1873 – 6 February 1946) was nominated for the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in 1929 for his discovery of 'ureastibamine ([[antimony|antimonial]] [[Chemical compound|compound]] for treatment of [[kala azar]]) and a new disease, post-kalaazar dermal leishmanoid.'<ref name="nobel_foundation_UPB">[[Nobel Foundation]] (2008). [http://nobelprize.org/nomination/medicine/nomination.php?action=show&showid=2791 ''The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1901{{ndash}}1951'']</ref> Brahmachari's cure for Visceral leishmaniasis was the urea salt of para-amino-phenyl stibnic acid which he called Urea Stibamine.<ref name="Vigyan_prasar_UNB">[http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/UNBrahmachari.htm ''Upendra Nath Brahmachari: A Pioneer of Modern Medicine in India'']. Vigyan Prasar: Government of India</ref> Following the discovery of Urea Stibamine, Visceral leishmaniasis was largely eradicated from the world, except for some underdeveloped regions.<ref name="Vigyan_prasar_UNB" />
* [[Urea]] stibamine – Sir [[Upendranath Brahmachari]] synthesised [[urea]]-stibamine (carbostibamide) in 1922 and determined that it was an effective treatment for [[kala-azar]] (visceral leishmaniasis).
* LACC1 is a Peptidoglycan Editing Factor (PgeF) enzyme, acts as a molecular editor by detecting and removing these misincorporated amino acids. CSIR–CCMB team’s discovery of PgeF enzyme opens doors for new antibiotics and insights into autoinflammatory diseases<ref>https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/2025/Jul/24/csirccmb-scientists-find-proofreading-enzyme-in-bacteria</ref>

=== Electronics and communications ===
* [[Ashwin Gumaste#Developed products and technologies|Carrier Ethernet Switch Router (CESR)]] are high capacity routers which provides carrier class Ethernet service which does Layer 2 and layer 3 functionality within one single layer and also it uses cut-through switching, developed by IIT Bombay in 2011 and technology was transferred to [[Electronics Corporation of India|ECIL]].<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.ecil.co.in/ECR/ECR.pdf | title=Carrier Ethernet Switch Router ECR-1000 Series | website=www.ecil.co.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | doi=10.1109/ICCNC.2013.6504117 | chapter=Circuit performance in a packet network: Demonstrating integrated Carrier Ethernet Switch Router (CESR) + Optical Transport Network (OTN) | title=2013 International Conference on Computing, Networking and Communications (ICNC) | date=2013 | last1=Bidkar | first1=S. | last2=Mehta | first2=S. | last3=Bhamare | first3=D. | last4=Bajaj | first4=N. | last5=Medhekar | first5=A. | last6=Gumaste | first6=A. | pages=400–407 | isbn=978-1-4673-5288-8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://fundamatics.net/article/carrier-ethernet-switch-routers-from-concepts-to-products-to-sales-and-beyond/ | title=Carrier Ethernet Switch Routers: From Concepts to Products, to Sales, and Beyond – Fundamatics | date=13 November 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://rnd.iitb.ac.in/node/1138 | title=The Gigabit Networking laboratory at IIT Bombay has been instrumental in two key technology developments in the telecom arena: The CESR and the TCC. | IITBombay }}</ref>
* Direct-to-Mobile (D2M) technology, developed by Saankya Labs and IIT Kanpur, This tech will enable mobile users to stream videos on their smartphones without an active internet connection.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-01-20 |title=Explained: What is D2M tech that will allow mobile users to watch videos without internet connection |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/gadgets-news/explained-what-is-d2m-tech-that-will-allow-mobile-users-to-watch-videos-without-internet-connection/articleshow/107002537.cms |access-date=2025-02-26 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
* [[Quantum entanglement|Entanglement]]-based [[Quantum key distribution|QKD]], DRDO and IIT Delhi demonstrated 1 km distance of quantum communication using quantumn entanglement based Quantum key distribution.<ref>{{Cite web | title=MSN | url=https://www.msn.com/en-in/news/india/drdo-iit-delhi-demonstrate-quantum-communication/ar-AA1GVmFg?ocid=BingNewsVerp | access-date=2026-01-10 | website=www.msn.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.business-standard.com/technology/tech-news/drdo-iit-delhi-quantum-secure-communication-test-2025-125061601296_1.html | title=Hack-proof communication? DRDO, IIT Delhi test quantum entanglement tech }}</ref>
* [[Horn antenna]] or microwave horn, One of the first horn antennas was constructed by [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]] in 1897.<ref>{{cite web
| last = Rodriguez
| first = Vincente
| title = A brief history of horns
| work = In Compliance Magazine
| publisher = Same Page Publishing
| date = 2010
| url = http://www.incompliancemag.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=487:a-brief-history-of-horns-from-early-history-to-latest-developments&catid=24:current-issue&Itemid=126
| access-date = 2010-11-12}}</ref><ref name="Emerson">{{cite book |doi=10.1109/MWSYM.1997.602853 |chapter=The work of Jagadis Chandra Bose: 100 years of mm-wave research |title=1997 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium Digest |date=1997 |last1=Emerson |first1=D.T. |volume=2 |pages=553–556 |isbn=0-7803-3814-6 }}</ref>
* Low Mobility Large cell (LMLC), is a feature of 5G and is designed to enhance the signal transmission range of a basestation several times, helping service providers cost-effectively expand coverage in rural areas.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://telecom.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/telecom-carriers-may-enhance-coverage-once-5gi-5g-standard-merge-ng-subramaniam/89407176 | title=Telecom carriers may enhance coverage once 5Gi, 5G standards merge: NG Subramaniam - ET Telecom }}</ref>
* Phantom connectivity, a system for providing a higher level security to data communication in computer networks developed by [[ISRO]]. Phantom connectivity model enables organization to copy users download data from Internet to Intranet without connecting both the networks.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://patents.google.com/patent/WO2008004248A1/en | title=A system and method for secured data communication in computer networks by phantom connectivity }}</ref>
* [[Radio|Radiowave communication]] – In November 1894, the Indian physicist, [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]], demonstrated publicly the use of radio waves in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]].<ref>"[http://ethw.org/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose Jagadish Chandra Bose"] (biography), Engineering and Technology History Wiki (ethw.org)</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hong |first=Sungook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNWMEAAAQBAJ |title=Wireless: From Marconi's Black-Box to the Audion |date=2010-01-22 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-51419-4 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Waveguide]] – [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]] researched [[millimetre wave]]lengths using waveguides, and in 1897 described to the Royal Institution in London his research carried out in Kolkata.<ref name="Emerson" />

=== Computers and programming languages ===
* Autolay, is an interactive GUI CAD software for the design of aircraft composite components developed by [[Aeronautical Development Agency]], this tool was developed in late 1980's and used by all big aerospace companies such as [[Boeing]], [[Airbus]] and [[Dassault Systèmes]]<ref>{{cite book | url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.5555/645465.653819 | isbn=978-0-444-81564-4 | title=AUTOLAY - an Interactive Graphics System for the Design of Aircraft Composite Components | date=24 February 1993 | pages=205–214 | last1=Mudur | first1=S. P. | last2=Pattanaik | first2=S. N. | publisher=North-Holland }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/autolay-software-makes-ada-a-global-leader/articleshow/1478879143.cms | title=Autolay software makes ADA a global leader | work=The Times of India | date=29 July 2001 }}</ref>
* [[Haptik|chatbot-based conversational AI]], one of early modern AI/ML based chatbot was released by [[Haptik|Haptik.ai]] in 2013, when chatbots were not common.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.firstpost.com/tech/news-analysis/inside-haptik-ai-a-made-in-india-and-for-india-personal-assistant-and-end-to-end-chatbot-platform-4128927.html | title=Inside Haptik.ai, a made in India and for India personal assistant and end to end chatbot platform | work=Firstpost | date=10 October 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/technology/haptik-co-founder-aakrit-vaish-users-will-interact-with-the-internet-voice-first-potentially-4249401.htm | title=Haptik co-founder Aakrit Vaish: Users will interact with the internet voice first potentially - CNBC TV18 | date=27 August 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.expresscomputer.in/artificial-intelligence-ai/pioneering-conversational-ai/29485/ | title=Pioneering conversational AI | date=15 October 2018 }}</ref>
* [[File Transfer Protocol]] (FTP) – A standard communication protocol used for the transfer of computer files from a server to a client on a computer network. FTP is built on a client–server model architecture using separate control and data connections between the client and the server. [[Abhay Bhushan]] drafted the initial File Transfer Protocol ({{IETF RFC|114}}), in April 1971, while a student at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=FTP Is Almost 50 Years Old—and It's Ready to Retire |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/ftp-is-almost-50-years-oldand-its-ready-to-retire/ |access-date=2022-08-10 |website=Vice.com |date=29 September 2020 }}</ref>
* Fragalyst, is a software for analysis of fragments from an explosion or blast developed by [[Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research|CSIR-CIMFR]], the technology allows us to visualize the blast & fragments in a computer GUI.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286832552|title=Fragalyst 3.0: An indigenous fragmentation assessment tool based on digital image analysis - application and analysis}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://scicomsoftware.com/fragment-analysis/ | title=Fragment Analysis – SCI COM Software }}</ref>
* [[Julia (programming language)|Julia]] is a high-level, dynamic programming language. Its features are well suited for numerical analysis and computational science. [[Viral B. Shah]] an Indian computer scientist contributed to the development of the language in Bangalore while also actively involved in the initial design of the Aadhaar project in India using [[India Stack]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://qz.com/india/963225/julia-an-indian-computer-scientist-built-a-new-programming-language-from-bengaluru | title=Not just "IT coolies": An Indian computer scientist built a new programming language in Bengaluru | date=20 April 2017 }}</ref>
* [[Kojo (programming language)|Kojo]] – A [[programming language]] and [[integrated development environment]] (IDE) for computer programming and learning. Kojo is an [[open-source software]]. It was created, and is actively developed, by Lalit Pant, a computer programmer and teacher living in [[Dehradun]], India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kogics.net/sf:kojo |title=Kojo home page |access-date=29 August 2012 |archive-date=5 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405062458/http://www.kogics.net/sf:kojo |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://wiki.kogics.net/forum/t-263574 |title=Interview: Scala Learning Environment on the NetBeans Platform |date=19 February 2010 |author=Geertjan Wielenga |publisher=DZone |access-date=29 August 2012}}</ref>
* [[RISC-V]] ISA (microprocessor) implementations (a US standard, not from India, but some implementations are such as those below):
** [[SHAKTI (microprocessor)|SHAKTI]] – Open Source, Bluespec System [[Verilog]] definitions, for FinFET implementations of the ISA, have been created at [[IIT Madras]], and are hosted on [[GitLab]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 Jul 2021 |title=India's home-grown microprocessor Shakti is now part of tech-giant Altair's offerings |url=https://www.iitm.ac.in/happenings/press-releases-and-coverages/indias-home-grown-microprocessor-shakti-now-part-tech-giant}}</ref>
** [[VEGA Microprocessors]] – India's first indigenous 64-bit, superscalar, out-of-order, multi-core RISC-V Processor design, developed by [[C-DAC]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Aufranc (CNXSoft) |first=Jean-Luc |date=2022-02-04 |title=India goes RISC-V with VEGA processors – CNX Software |url=https://www.cnx-software.com/2022/02/04/india-goes-risc-v-with-vega-processors/ |access-date=2022-07-13 |website=CNX Software – Embedded Systems News }}</ref>
* [[TCS BaNCS]], was one of the first core banking software started implemented in late 1970s and released in early 80s.
* [[Visual J Sharp|Visual J#]] – A transitional [[programming language]] for programmers of [[Java (programming language)|Java]] and [[Visual J++]] languages, so they could use their existing knowledge and applications on [[.NET Framework]]. It was developed by the [[Hyderabad, Telangana|Hyderabad]]-based [[HITEC City#Microsoft Hyderabad Campus|Microsoft India Development Center at HITEC City]] in India.<ref>S Prasanna, [http://www.expresscomputeronline.com/20020729/indnews3.shtml Microsoft's VJ#.Net is made in India] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131128170355/http://computer.financialexpress.com/20020729/indnews3.shtml |date=28 November 2013 }}, ''Express Computer'', 29 July 2002 – invalid link !</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Hindu Business Line : Microsoft lines up big plans for Hyderabad centre|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/bline/2002/08/15/stories/2002081500530700.htm|website=thehindubusinessline.com}}</ref>

=== Construction, civil engineering and architecture ===
* Coal Mine to PSP, [[Coal India]] will turn abandoned mines or de-coaled mine to [[Pumped-storage hydroelectricity|Pumped Storage Projects(PSP)]] with help of [[NHPC]] hence saving huge amount of capital for development of reservoir or dams.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/coal-india-and-nhpc-join-forces-to-convert-abandoned-mines-into-pump-storage-projects-boosting-energy-transition-11695059193255.html | title=CIL, NHPC may convert old mines to pump storage | work=mint | date=18 September 2023 | last1=Baruah | first1=Rituraj }}</ref>
* {{CO2}}-treated-C&D, researchers at the Centre for Sustainable Technologies (CST) at IISc are exploring ways to store carbon dioxide from industrial flue gas in excavated soil from Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste. They are investigating the effects of injecting carbon dioxide gas into clayey soil, which is typically excavated from construction sites. This process has resulted in better stabilization of clay through the use of cement and lime, as well as a reduction in the surface area, pore volume, and lime reactivity of the clay in the soil, thereby improving the bulk engineering performance of the material.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.msn.com/en-in/news/other/carbon-dioxide-to-replace-natural-sand-in-construction/ar-BB1kF1Y4 | title=MSN | website=[[MSN]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://techxplore.com/news/2024-03-paving-paths-sustainable.html | title=Paving new paths for sustainable construction }}</ref>
* (I)-TM Tunneling technique:(I)-TM as Himalayan tunnelling method for tunnelling through the Himalayan geology to build tunnels in Jammu and Kashmir. Engineers decided to provide rigid supports using 'ISHB' as against the lattice girder method used in the New Austrian Tunnelling Method.ISHB uses nine-metre pipes in the mountains. It is called pipe roofing. Engineers made an umbrella using these perforated poles and filled them with PU grout.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://infra.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/railways/engineers-develop-new-tunnelling-method-for-kashmir-rail-link-project/104652328 | title=Engineers develop new tunnelling method for Kashmir rail link project - ET Infra }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/engineers-develop-new-tunnelling-method-for-kashmir-rail-link-project/articleshow/104627683.cms?from=mdr | title=Engineers develop new tunnelling method for Kashmir rail link project | newspaper=The Times of India | date=22 October 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.metrorailnews.in/engineers-develop-himalayan-tunnelling-method-for-katra-banihal-section-of-the-kashmir-rail-link-project/ | title=Engineers Develop Himalayan Tunnelling Method for Katra-Banihal Section of the Kashmir rail Link Project | date=23 October 2023 }}</ref>
* [[Plastic road]] are made entirely of plastic or of composites of plastic with other materials. Plastic roads are different from standard roads in the respect that standard roads are made from asphalt concrete, which consists of mineral aggregates and asphalt. Most plastic roads sequester [[plastic waste]] within the asphalt as an aggregate. Plastic roads first developed by [[Rajagopalan Vasudevan]] in 2001<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-09 |title=This Indian Genius Created Roads With Plastic Waste, Now Entire World Uses His Technique |url=https://www.indiatimes.com/technology/science-and-future/meet-padma-shree-r-vasudevan-who-made-roads-stronger-with-waste-plastic-that-saves-our-planet-505994.html |access-date=2022-07-25 |website=IndiaTimes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=Chermaine |title=Could plastic roads make for a smoother ride? |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210302-could-plastic-roads-make-for-a-smoother-ride |access-date=2022-07-25 |website=www.bbc.com |date=3 March 2021 }}</ref>
* Rib & spine/Spine & Wing technique, [[National Highways Authority of India|NHAI]] has developed a flyover design which allows to save cost, time, minimum material usage and allows light under the flyover using the same technique.
* [[Steel]] [[slag]] [[road]], world's first steel slag road NH-66 was constructed by [[Central Road Research Institute]] under CSIR.<ref>bituminous steel slag road is constructed with 28% less thickness compared to conventional bituminous roads on NH-66</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/infrastructure/steel-slag-road-technology-a-boon-to-bro-niti-aayog-member/articleshow/99054404.cms?from=mdr | title=Steel slag road technology a boon to BRO: Niti Aayog member | work=The Economic Times | date=28 March 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.financialexpress.com/business/roadways-india-gets-its-first-steel-slag-road-on-nh-66-mumbai-goa-national-highway-know-all-about-this-groundbreaking-eco-friendly-initiative-3364017/ | title=India's first National Highway Steel Slag road section on NH-66 Mumbai-Goa National Highway inaugurated! Know all about this groundbreaking eco-friendly initiative | date=14 January 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.globalconstructionreview.com/india-hails-success-of-first-steel-slag-road/ | title=India hails success of first 'steel-slag road' | date=4 April 2022 }}</ref>
* waterproof roads, zydex industries has developed waterproof road by forming a skin like layer that is water resistant using inhouse silane nanotechnology.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/zydex-industries-develops-nanotechnology-solution-for-durable-roads/article66396007.ece | title=Zydex Industries develops nanotechnology solution for durable roads | date=18 January 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.constructionweekonline.in/business/potholes-to-become-history-with-smooth-ride-breakthrough-by-zydex | title=Potholes to become history with smooth ride; breakthrough by Zydex - Construction Week India | date=19 January 2023 }}</ref>

=== Food ===
* [[Butter chicken]] was invented in [[Moti Mahal (restaurant)|Moti Mahal]] restaurant in Daryaganj of [[New Delhi|Delhi]] in 1950's.
* Butter garlic prawns are prawns fried in garlic and dipped in butter curry. Originally from Mumbai, they're usually eaten with bread or pasta.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.flavorsofmumbai.com/butter-garlic-pepper-prawns/ | title=Butter Garlic Prawns, Butter Garlic Prawns with Pepper Recipe | Prawns Recipe - Flavors of Mumbai | date=24 June 2011 }}</ref>
* [[Chicken 65]] is a spicy, deep-fried chicken from [[Chennai]], first invented by Hotel Buhari.
* [[Chicken lollipop]] is a fried chicken appetizer, believed to have originated in eastern India.
* [[Indian filter coffee|Filter Coffee]] was developed in [[Coorg]] in [[Karnataka]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2026}}
* Honey chilli potato is an indian starter that originated in Indo-Chinese restaurants of [[Kolkata]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Fact check: Honey Chilli Potato is the unhealthiest snack, claims a social media post! Here's the truth | work=The Times of India | date=16 December 2020 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/health-fitness/diet/fact-check-honey-chilli-potato-is-the-unhealthiest-snack-claims-a-social-media-post-heres-the-truth/articleshow/79742397.cms }}</ref>
* [[List of instant foods|Instant]] [[Momo (food)|momos]], popularly known as '''Frozen Momos''', were introduced in 2021 by the food brand Prasuma and are similar to noodles in their preparation through oil and hot water.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://hospitality.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/restaurants/prasuma-momos-to-expand-to-140-cities-by-mar-2022/84823522 | title=Prasuma Momos to expand to 140 cities by Mar 2022 - ET HospitalityWorld }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | title=ITC plans acquire 100% of Prasuma over 3 years, expanding footprint in frozen and ready-to-cook foods | url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/itc-plans-to-acquire-100-of-prasuma-over-three-years-12932876.html | access-date=2026-01-10 | website=www.moneycontrol.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.business-standard.com/content/press-releases-ani/prasuma-makes-history-as-the-first-and-only-indian-food-brand-to-win-an-international-taste-award-124022000651_1.html | title=Prasuma Makes History as the First and Only Indian Food Brand to Win an International Taste Award }}</ref>

=== Finance and banking ===
* [[Payments bank]] is an Indian new model of banks conceptualised by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) without issuing credit.

=== Paleontology ===
* In 2024, one of the longest snakes to ever exist, [[Vasuki indicus]], was discovered by scientists from the [[Indian Institutes of Technology|Indian Institute of Technology]]. The snake was estimated to be between 10.9 and 15.2 metres in length and lived 47 million years ago. The fossilised vertebrae of Vasuki indicus were discovered in a lignite mine in [[Gujarat]]. It was likely a slow moving predator who killed its prey through constriction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghosh |first1=Sahana |title=Meet Vasuki indicus, among the longest snakes that ever lived |journal=Nature India |date=22 April 2024 |doi=10.1038/d44151-024-00048-0 }}</ref>
* In 2018, scientists from the [[Geological Survey of India]] and the Indian Institute of Technology discovered the fossil remains of a previously unknown dinosaur species in the [[Thar Desert]] region of Jaisalmer, Rajasthan. The dinosaur is named [[Tharosaurus indicus]], after the Thar Desert and India.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/iit-scientist-unearth-ancient-indian-dinosaur-heres-what-they-discovered-about-the-earliest-dinosaur-tharosaurus-indicus/articleshow/102523489.cms?from=mdr | title=IIT scientist unearth ancient Indian dinosaur; here's what they discovered about the earliest dinosaur, Tharosaurus Indicus | newspaper=The Economic Times | date=8 August 2023 }}</ref>

=== Zoology ===
* The world's first white tiger was Mohan, a mutant Bengal tiger captured in 1951 by Maharaja Martand Singh of Rewa. These type of tiger are found in [[White Tiger Safari & Zoo Mukundpur]]

=== Genetics ===
* [[Amrapali (mango)|Amrapali]] mango – A named mango cultivar introduced in 1971 by Dr. Pijush Kanti Majumdar at the Indian Agriculture Research Institute in Delhi.
* Asmon, is a plant based drug that is used to treat bronchial asthma developed by [[Council of Scientific and Industrial Research|CSIR]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.csir.res.in/csir-milestones | title=CSIR Milestones | Council of Scientific & Industrial Research }}</ref>
* Mynvax – The world's first "warm" COVID-19 vaccine, developed by [[Indian Institute of Science|IISc]], capable of withstanding {{convert|37|°C}} for a month and neutralise all coronavirus variants of concern.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Petrus Jansen van Vuren, et al (2022)|year= 2022|last1= Van Vuren|first1= Petrus Jansen|last2= McAuley|first2= Alexander J.|last3= Kuiper|first3= Michael J.|last4= Singanallur|first4= Nagendrakumar B.|last5= Bruce|first5= Matthew P.|last6= Riddell|first6= Shane|last7= Goldie|first7= Sarah|last8= Mangalaganesh|first8= Shruthi|last9= Chahal|first9= Simran|last10= Drew|first10= Trevor W.|last11= Blasdell|first11= Kim R.|last12= Tachedjian|first12= Mary|last13= Caly|first13= Leon|last14= Druce|first14= Julian D.|last15= Ahmed|first15= Shahbaz|last16= Khan|first16= Mohammad Suhail|last17= Malladi|first17= Sameer Kumar|last18= Singh|first18= Randhir|last19= Pandey|first19= Suman|last20= Varadarajan|first20= Raghavan|last21= Vasan|first21= Seshadri S.|journal= Viruses|volume= 14|issue= 4|page= 800|doi= 10.3390/v14040800|pmid= 35458530|pmc= 9031315|doi-access= free}}</ref>
* [[ZyCoV-D]] vaccine – The world's first DNA-based vaccine for humans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mallapaty |first1=Smriti |title=India's DNA COVID vaccine is a world first – more are coming |journal=Nature |date=9 September 2021 |volume=597 |issue=7875 |pages=161–162 |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-02385-x |pmid=34475553 |bibcode=2021Natur.597..161M |s2cid=237401121 }}</ref>

=== Metrology ===
[[File:Crescograph - Jagadish Chandra Bose Museum - Bose Institute - Kolkata 2011-07-26 4040 Cropped.JPG|thumb|150px|Crescograph, Bose Institute, Kolkata]]
* [[Crescograph]] – The crescograph, a device for measuring growth in plants, was invented in the early 20th century by the Bengali scientist Sir [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edsanders.com/bose|title=Jagadis Bose Research on Measurement of Plant Growth|access-date=5 August 2008}}</ref><ref>Geddes, pages 173{{ndash}}176</ref>
* [[Shearing interferometer]] – Invented by M.V.R.K. Murty, a type of Lateral [[Shearing Interferometer]] utilises a laser source for measuring refractive index.<ref>{{cite web|title=Definition of Murty interferometer|url=http://www.photonics.com/EDU/Term.aspx?TermID=5627|website=Photonics.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Riley|first1=M. E.|last2=Gusinow|first2=M. A.|title=Laser beam divergence utilizing a lateral shearing interferometer|journal=Applied Optics|date=1 October 1977|volume=16|issue=10|pages=2753{{ndash}}6|doi=10.1364/AO.16.002753|pmid=20174226|bibcode=1977ApOpt..16.2753R}}</ref>

=== Rocket science and jet propulsion===
* [[Advanced Technology Vehicle|Advanced Technology Vehicle - Scramjet]], the ISRO has twice successfully test fired a modified Rohini 560 rocket, with added, 2nd stage, air-breathing, [[Scramjet]] engines.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.isro.gov.in/ISROflightexperimentAirBreathingPropulsionSystem.html | title=ISRO conducts flight experiment of Air Breathing Propulsion System }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/science/story/isro-successfully-conducts-second-test-of-air-breathing-propulsion-technology-2570706-2024-07-23 | title=Isro successfully conducts second test of Air Breathing Propulsion Technology | date=23 July 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/isro-conducts-experimental-flight-of-air-breathing-propulsion-system/article68432854.ece | title=ISRO conducts experimental flight of air-breathing propulsion system | newspaper=The Hindu | date=23 July 2024 }}</ref>
* [[Small Satellite Launch Vehicle]], is a multi-stage solid propellent rocket that is cost-effective and very less complex used to deliver micro-satellites less than 500 kg weight. it is innovative as its three stages are solid propellent making it very efficient.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/space-to-learn-the-hindu-editorial-on-the-failure-of-isros-maiden-small-satellite-launch-vehicle-mission/article65750371.ece | title=Space to learn: The Hindu Editorial on the failure of ISRO's maiden small satellite launch vehicle mission | newspaper=The Hindu | date=9 August 2022 }}</ref>
* [[Solid Fuel Ducted Ramjet]], is a jet propulsion technology which uses solid propellant, developed by [[Defence Research and Development Organisation]].

=== Weapon systems ===
[[File:DRDO_AIP_(Air_Independent_Propulsion)_model_for_Kalvari-class_submarine.jpg|200px|thumb|A diagram of the fuel-cell AIP module developed by the DRDO of India, it can power ships or any other marine transport]]

* [[Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System|ATAGS]] – Bharat Forge and the DRDO has developed world's first electric artillery gun<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.forbesindia.com/article/take-one-big-story-of-the-day/can-atags-give-indias-military-a-muchneeded-boost-the-answer-is-yes/85813/1 | title=Can ATAGS Give India's Military a Much-needed Boost? The Answer is Yes }}</ref>
* [[Bhargavastra (counter drone system)|Bhargavastra]], is the world's first kind of multi-micro-missile system to counter swarm drones, low-cost portable system developed by Solar Defence and Aerospace.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/nagpur-based-solar-group-develops-worlds-first-guided-micro-missile-counter-drone-system/articleshow/117276446.cms | title=Nagpur-based Solar Group develops world's first guided micro-missile counter-drone system | work=The Times of India | date=16 January 2025 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/what-is-bhargavastra-india-low-cost-and-indigenous-micro-missile-air-defence-system-1747226428-1 | title=What is Bhargavastra? India's Low Cost and Indigenous Micro-Missile Air Defence System | date=14 May 2025 }}</ref>
* Critical Situation Response Vehicle (CSRV) – The Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) has made and inducted a bomb/bulletproof armoured vehicle. The latest all-terrain highly sophisticated vehicle 'CSRV' has given a shot in the arm to the Central Reserve Police Force engaged in counter-terror operations.
* E-bomb – The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has been developing an e-bomb which will emit electromagnetic shock waves that destroy electronic circuits and communication networks of enemy force.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-developing-e-bomb-to-paralyze-networks/articleshow/22127411.cms | title='India developing E-bomb to paralyze networks' | newspaper=The Times of India | date=29 August 2013 }}</ref> The tow bodies in Lakshya-2 Weapon Delivery Configuration carry High Energy Weapon Payload.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.drdo.gov.in/lakshya-2 | title=LAKSHYA-2 | Defence Research and Development Organisation - DRDO, Ministry of Defence, Government of India }}</ref>
* Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell air-independent propulsion (PAFC AIP) is a 270 kilowatt phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) air-independent propulsion (AIP) system to power the Kalvari-class submarines is developed by the [[Naval Materials Research Laboratory]] of Indian Defence Research and Development Organisation in collaboration with [[Larsen & Toubro]] and [[Thermax]]. The patent is owned by [[DRDO]]. Its application is considered to be wide and it can also power ships in future.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://patents.google.com/patent/WO2017145068A1/en | title=Air independent propulsion system for submarines based on phosphoric acid fuel cell with onboard hydrogen generator }}</ref>
* [[Photonic radar]], On 29 June 2025, DRDO announced that it has completed building the photonic radar for fighter jets, which will replace AESA Radar, such type of radars cannot be easily jammed.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thedefensenews.com/news-details/DRDO-Develops-First-Indigenous-Photonic-Radar-Trials-Soon/ | title=DRDO Develops First Indigenous Photonic Radar, Trials Soon | date=29 June 2025 }}</ref> The radar is made out of multiple Photonic Transmit Receive modules. In 2022, they tested the radar which was able to image small objects, measuring just 3 x 4 cm (1.2 x 1.6 in).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://raksha-anirveda.com/drdo-makes-significant-progress-in-photonic-radar-development/ | title=DRDO Makes Significant Progress in Photonic Radar Development | date=22 November 2022 }}</ref>
* [[Ramjet]] [[artillery shells]], IIT Madras with support of Army Technology Board(ATB) has developed world's first ramjet-powered shells for 155m artillery guns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-1st-in-world-army-set-to-deploy-ramjet-powered-shells-for-155mm-artillery-guns/articleshow/126330397.cms|title=In a 1st in world, Army set to deploy ramjet-powered shells for 155mm artillery guns|date=9 January 2026|via=The Economic Times - The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thedefensepost.com/2026/01/05/india-ramjet-powered-artillery/|title=India to Become First Army to Field Ramjet-Powered 155mm Artillery Shells|first=Ethan M.|last=Encarnacion|date=5 January 2026}}</ref>
* [[Combat helmet|Rifle-rated ballistic helmet]], [[MKU (company)|MKU]] has developed what it bills as "a first-of-its-kind rifle-rated ballistic helmet", MKU states that the Kavro Doma 360 is "the first anti-rifle helmet in the world that does not have bolts or any metal parts"<ref>{{cite web | url=https://euro-sd.com/2023/11/news/35083/mku-unveils-rifle-rated-helmet/ | title=Milipol Paris 2023: MKU unveils 'first-of-its-kind' rifle-rated ballistic helmet - European Security & Defence | date=16 November 2023 }}</ref>

=== Automotive innovations ===
* [[CNG]] car/vehicle – [[Bajaj Auto]] launched the first 'commercial' lot of its CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) autorickshaws in Delhi on 29 May 2000. By 1 December 2002, the last diesel bus had disappeared from Delhi's roads, all buses were running on CNG. At the beginning of 2005, 10,300 CNG busses, 10,000 CNG taxis and 10,000 CNG cars run on Delhi's roads.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.product-life.org/en/archive/cng-delhi | title=CNG Delhi – the world's cleanest public bus system running on CNG }}</ref>
* [[Bajaj Discover|DTS-Si]], stands for ‘Digital Twin Spark-Swirl induction’ system. Some of Bajaj’s bike engines have the patented ‘DTS Si’ (Digital Twin Spark-Swirl induction) technology. Bajaj Auto claims that new engine with swirl induction gives better mileage under ideal (standard) test conditions that are higher than some of the 100cc motorcycles offer.<ref>{{cite web | title=Bajaj Auto's DTS-Si engine offers 109km/L | url=https://www.dnaindia.com/business/report-bajaj-auto-s-dts-si-engine-offers-109kml-1114552 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=DTS Si: How Digital Twin Spark-Swirl Induction System Works? Read This | date=5 May 2017 | url=https://carbiketech.com/dts-si-tecchnology/ }}</ref>
* [[Air conditioning|Helmet AC]] - Featuring a plastic top and built-in-fan-like structure, the AC helmets are powered by a battery pack, which is worn by the traffic police officials on their waist. These helmets work for around 8 hours on a single full charge.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/auto/news/ac-helmet-what-is-it-and-how-is-it-different-from-a-riding-helmet/articleshow/102934911.cms | title=AC Helmet: What is it and how is it different from a riding helmet | newspaper=The Times of India | date=22 August 2023 }}</ref>
* [[Man Mohan Suri|Suri Transmission]], is a hydromechanical transmission unit for diesel locomotives developed by Man Mohan Suri.

=== Mathematics ===
{{See also|Indian mathematics}}

* [[AKS primality test]] and [[Agrawal's conjecture]]– The AKS primality test is a [[deterministic algorithm|deterministic]] [[primality test|primality-proving]] [[algorithm]] created and published by three [[Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur]] computer scientists, [[Manindra Agrawal]], [[Neeraj Kayal]], and [[Nitin Saxena]] on 6 August 2002 in a paper titled [http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/users/manindra/algebra/primality_v6.pdf ''PRIMES is in P''].<ref name=CrandallPomerance200>Crandall & Pomerance (2005), pages 200{{ndash}}201</ref><ref name=WeissteinAKSpt>{{MathWorld|urlname=AKSPrimalityTest|title=AKS Primality Test}}</ref> Commenting on the impact of this discovery, [[Paul Leyland]] noted: "One reason for the excitement within the mathematical community is not only does this algorithm settle a long-standing problem, it also does so in a brilliantly simple manner. Everyone is now wondering what else has been similarly overlooked".<ref name=WeissteinAKSpt/><ref name=Crandall03>Crandall & Papadopoulos (2003), page 2</ref>
* [[Basu's theorem]] – The Basu's theorem, a result of [[Debabrata Basu]] (1955) states that any complete sufficient statistic is independent of any ancillary statistic.<ref name="Nitis325">Nitis (2000), page 325</ref><ref name="Boos1">Boos & Oliver (1998)</ref>
* [[Dattaraya Ramchandra Kaprekar|Kaprekar Constants]]: Numbers 495 and 6174. The Indian mathematician [[Dattaraya Ramchandra Kaprekar|D.R.Kaprekar]] discovered the number 6174 is reached after repeatedly subtracting the smallest number from the largest number that can be formed from any four digits not all the same. The number 495 is similarly reached for three digits number.
* [[Kosambi–Karhunen–Loève theorem]] (also known as the [[Karhunen–Loève theorem]]) The Kosambi-Karhunen-Loève theorem is a representation of a stochastic process as an infinite linear combination of [[orthogonal function]]s, analogous to a [[Fourier series]] representation of a function on a bounded interval. Stochastic processes given by infinite series of this form were first<ref name="Raju">{{Citation |first=C.K. |last=Raju |title=Kosambi the Mathematician |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=44 |year=2009 |issue=20 |pages=33{{ndash}}45 }}</ref> considered by [[Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi]].<ref name="Kosambi">{{Citation |first=D. D. |last=Kosambi |title=Statistics in Function Space |journal=Journal of the Indian Mathematical Society |volume=7 |year=1943 |pages=76{{ndash}}88 |mr=9816 }}.</ref>
* [[Kosaraju's algorithm]] is a linear time algorithm to find the strongly connected components of a directed graph. Aho, Hopcroft and Ullman credit it to S. Rao Kosaraju and Micha Sharir. Kosaraju suggested it in 1978.
* [[Multivariate statistics|Multivariate Statistical Theory]], is one of the base foundational concept of statistics was developed by [[C. R. Rao]] in 1952 when he was in [[Indian Statistical Institute]], Kolkata.
* [[Parthasarathy–Ranga Rao–Varadarajan determinants]] or PRV determinants,<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://math.iisc.ac.in/~khare/papers/KRP-tribute.pdf | title=KRP'S contributions in lie theory | website=math.iisc.ac.in}}</ref> [[K. R. Parthasarathy (probabilist)|K. R. Parthasarathy]] along with [[R. Ranga Rao (mathematician)|R. Ranga Rao]] and [[Veeravalli S. Varadarajan]] discovered these class of determinants in ''Representations of Complex Semi-Simple Lie Groups and Lie Algebras'', the paper has subsequently often been referred to as the “PRV paper”.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Parthasarathy | first1=K. R. | last2=Rao | first2=R. Ranga | last3=Varadarajan | first3=V. S. | title=Representations of Complex Semi-Simple Lie Groups and Lie Algebras | journal=Annals of Mathematics | date=1967 | volume=85 | issue=3 | pages=383–429 | doi=10.2307/1970351 | jstor=1970351 | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1970351 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* [[Parthasarathy's theorem]]. is a generalization of Von Neumann's minimax theorem created by [[Thiruvenkatachari Parthasarathy]].
* [[block design|Partial Balanced Incomplete Block Designs (BIBD)]] was developed by [[Raj Chandra Bose]] and Kesavan Raghavan Nair in 1939.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Bose_Raj/ | title=Raj Chandra Bose - Biography }}</ref>
* [[Ramanujan theta function]], [[Ramanujan prime]], [[Ramanujan summation]], [[Ramanujan graph]] and [[Ramanujan's sum]] – Discovered by the Indian mathematician [[Srinivasa Ramanujan]] in the early 20th century.<ref>Berndt & Rankin (2001)</ref>
* [[Score test|Rao's Score Test]] was first published in 1948 in ''Sankhya: The Indian Journal of Statistics'' titled ''On Distributions of the Maximum Likelihood Estimates'' by [[C. R. Rao]].<ref>{{cite arXiv | eprint=2406.19956 | last1=Bera | first1=Anil K. | last2=Bilias | first2=Yannis | title=Three Scores and 15 Years (1948-2023) of Rao's Score Test: A Brief History | date=2024 | class=econ.EM }}</ref>
* [[Samarendra Nath Roy|Roy’s Largest Root Test]], proposed the test in 1953 as part of his "union-intersection principle", a unified approach to multivariate hypothesis testing.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.wisdom.weizmann.ac.il/~nadler/Roys_Largest_Root/Distribution_Roy.html | title=On the Distribution of Roy's Largest Root }}</ref>
* [[Samarendra Nath Roy|Roy-Hotelling Theorem]], is used to connects the eigenvalues of matrices in multivariate statistics proposed in 1953.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=706a588d834e03bc3380a00c54931f087c052637 | title=Simultaneous test procedures in multivariate analysis of variance | website=citeseerx.ist.psu.edu}}</ref>
* [[Seshadri constant]] – In [[algebraic geometry]], a Seshadri constant is an invariant of an ample line bundle L at a point P on an [[algebraic variety]].The name is in honour of the Indian mathematician [[C. S. Seshadri]].
* [[Sieve of Sundaram]], is a prime number generation algorithm that was developed by Indian math student S. P. Sundaram.
* [[Shrikhande graph]] – [[Graph (discrete mathematics)|Graph]] invented by the Indian mathematician [[S.S. Shrikhande]] in 1959.
* [[Standard monomial theory]], C. S. Seshadri introduced a concept named ''Standard Monomials'' in 1978.

=== Applied science and Technology ===
* Bipyrazole Organic Crystals, the piezoelectric molecules developed by [[Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research|IISER]] scientists recombine following mechanical fracture without any external intervention, autonomously self-healing in milliseconds with crystallographic precision.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/science-and-environment/indian-scientists-make-breakthrough-discovery-of-material-that-repairs-itself-1012430.html|title = Indian scientists make breakthrough discovery of material that repairs itself|date = 24 July 2021}}</ref>
* SEBEX 2, is a high performance explosive, it is said to be 2.01 times more lethal than TNT and most powerful non-nuclear explosives in the world. The Indian Navy has certified the explosive.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.news18.com/explainers/whats-indias-new-explosive-sebex-2-that-will-improve-lethality-of-warheads-military-tech-explained-8951573.html | title=What's India's New Explosive SEBEX 2 That Will Improve Lethality of Warheads? Military Tech Explained | date=2 July 2024 }}</ref>
* [[magnetic]] [[superatoms]], In 2009 a team of Harish Chandra Research Institute, Allahabad discovered magnetic superatoms.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/allahabad/researchers-discover-magnetic-superatom/articleshow/4702563.cms | title=Researchers discover 'magnetic superatom' | work=The Times of India | date=25 June 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/lucknow/indians-scientists-discover-magnetic-superatoms/ | title=Indians scientists discover magnetic superatoms | date=3 August 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.rediff.com/money/report/scientists-discover-magnetic-superatom/20090625.htm | title=Scientists discover magnetic superatom }}</ref>
* [[Silica fiber|Silica fiber based composite]] or Silica-Silica composite, In 2012 [[ISRO]] developed world's first pure silica fiber composite without carbon element known as ''silica fiber-silica matrix composite'' and also a new technology for developing silica fibres by sol-gel process. These fibres can be used for high temperature insulation up to 1500C and cheaper than Carbon fiber composite. Silica-silica composite are prepared by leaching glass cloth with hydrochloric acid, rinsing to remove acid therefrom, vacuum drying, moulding and treating with ethyl silicate and cationic starch binder further drying and sintering.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.isro.gov.in/media_isro/pdf/capacitybuilding/ISROIPRApril2024.pdf | title=Capacity Building and Public Outreach (CBPO) | website=www.isro.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.vssc.gov.in/SilicaFibres.html | title=Silica Fibres }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://allindianpatents.com/patents/253851-high-purity-porous-silica-fiber-silica-matrix-composite-and-a-method-of-manufacturing-thereof.html | title=Indian Patents. 253851:HIGH PURITY POROUS SILICA FIBER - SILICA MATRIX COMPOSITE AND a METHOD OF MANUFACTURING THEREOF }}</ref> The patent was filed by VSSC in 2005 and was granted in 2012.
* Single-crystalline Scandium Nitride, that has the ability to convert infrared light into energy, Scientists based in Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR), Bengaluru have discovered a novel material that can emit, detect, and modulate infrared light with high efficiency making it useful for solar and thermal energy harvesting and for optical communication devices.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.electronicsforu.com/news/whats-new/this-material-can-convert-infrared-light-to-renewable-energy | title=This Material Can Convert Infrared Light to Renewable Energy | date=11 July 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://thelogicalindian.com/trending/indian-researchers-discover-material-which-turns-infrared-light-into-renewable-energy-36452 | title=Groundbreaking! Indian Researchers Discover Material Which Turns Infrared Light into Renewable Energy | date=10 July 2022 | last1=Sarkar | first1=Snehadri }}</ref>
* Low-threshold gain lasers, researchers from IISER, Bhopal have made a breakthrough in field of low threshold gain lasers using crystals of cesium lead bromide they are able to produce high-intensity lasers with very low energy output.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/iiser-bhopal-breakthrough-to-produce-high-intensity-lasers/articleshow/98530310.cms | title=IISER Bhopal breakthrough to produce high-intensity lasers | newspaper=The Times of India | date=10 March 2023 }}</ref>
* [[Indian Ocean Dipole]] is an unusual pattern in the ocean-atmosphere system of the equatorial Indian Ocean that influences the monsoon and can offset the adverse impact of El Nino. It is typically characterized by cooler than normal eastern equatorial Indian Ocean and warmer than normal west and unusual equatorial easterly winds. It was discovered in Centre for Atmospheric And Oceanic Sciences, [[Indian Institute of Science|IISc.]] team led by NH Saji in 1999.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://eprints.iisc.ac.in/17757/|title = A dipole mode in the tropical Indian Ocean|journal = Nature|date = 23 September 1999|volume = 401|issue = 6751|pages = 360–363|last1 = Saji|first1 = N. H.|last2 = Goswami|first2 = B. N.|last3 = Vinayachandran|first3 = P. N.|last4 = Yamagata|first4 = T.|doi = 10.1038/43854|pmid = 16862108|bibcode = 1999Natur.401..360S|s2cid = 4427627}}</ref>
* [[Iron]] [[Ion]] [[Electric battery|battery]],In 2019 world's 1st iron-ion battery was first invented by team of researchers in IIT Madras.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/iit-madras-registers-initial-success-with-iron-ion-battery/article28976853.ece | title=IIT Madras registers initial success with iron ion battery | newspaper=The Hindu | date=10 August 2019 | last1=Prasad | first1=R. }}</ref>
* Solution combustion synthesis (SCS) was accidentally discovered in 1988 at Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru, India. SCS involves an exothermic redox chemical reaction between an oxidizer like metal nitrate and a fuel in an aqueous medium.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://ipc.iisc.ac.in/includes/kcpbook/SCS-Part-I.pdf | title=Solution Combustion Synthesis of Nanoceramic Materials: A Bibliography | website=ipc.iisc.ac.in}}</ref>
* [[Defluoridation|Nalgonda Technique]] is a technique for defluoridation to reduce the fluoride levels in water developed by [[National Environmental Engineering Research Institute]], Nagpur.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24095996 | jstor=24095996 | title=Defluoridation of potable water by Nalgonda technique | last1=Nawlakhe | first1=W. G. | last2=Paramasivam | first2=R. | journal=Current Science | date=1993 | volume=65 | issue=10 | pages=743–748 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://wedc-knowledge.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/22/dahi.pdf | title=Defluoridation using the Nalgonda Technique in Tanzania | website=wedc-knowledge.lboro.ac.uk}}</ref>
* Electrically Excited Synchronous Motor (EESM) or Rare earth free motor: In 2021 deep-tech startup Chara Technologies has built scalable, cloud-controlled electric vehicle motors free of toxic rare-earth metals, thus cutting a massive dependency on imports to accelerate electric mobility in India.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/renewables/bounce-ties-up-with-deep-tech-start-up-chara-for-local-production-of-ev-motors/articleshow/85211729.cms | title=Bounce ties up with deep-tech start-up Chara for local production of EV motors | newspaper=The Economic Times | date=10 August 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/entrepreneurship/an-electric-motor-from-bengaluru-can-break-chinas-rare-earth-mineral-hegemony/articleshow/97966989.cms?from=mdr | title=An electric motor from Bengaluru can break China's rare earth mineral hegemony }}</ref>
* [[Methanol fuel|MD-15]] is a new methanol fuel grade in which Methanol is blended with diesel. Research Design and Standards Organisation (RDSO), in collaboration with the Indian Oil Corporation Ltd (IOCL), has developed a special cost-effective fuel that would not only minimize IR's dependency on diesel, but will also be emit fewer pollutants. IOCL developed the composition, adding 14% additives (developed indigenously by IOCL) along with 71% mineral diesel, 15% methanol. MD-15 fuelled engine has shown superior performance, emission and combustion characteristics than the mineral diesel fuelled engine.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.news18.com/india/md-15-the-new-fuel-that-may-replace-diesel-in-indian-railways-locomotives-save-rs-2280-crore-8647015.html | title=MD-15: The New Fuel that May Replace Diesel in Indian Railways' Locomotives, Save Rs 2,280 Crore | date=3 November 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/ioc-facility-for-blended-fuel-to-come-up-in-chennai/articleshow/99830461.cms | title=IOC: Facility for blended fuel to come up in Chennai | newspaper=The Times of India | date=28 April 2023 }}</ref>
* [[Photon Multiplicity Detector]], is a detector for study of [[Quark-gluon plasma]] and [[photons]] developed by [[Institute of Physics, Bhubaneswar|Institute of Physics]] and [[Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre]], PMD is used in [[Large Hadron Collider]] to measure the multiplicity of photons.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://inis.iaea.org/records/kr9b1-6ks44 | title=INDIA: Photon multiplicity detector | date=January 1995 | volume=35 | issue=1 | pages=14–15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://india.web.cern.ch/alice/detectors_pmd/pmd.html | title=Pmdpage }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/science/indian-researchers-celebrate-2025-breakthrough-prize-in-fundamental-physics-for-award-winning-cern-experiments-article-13048764.html | title=Indian researchers celebrate 2025 breakthrough prize in fundamental physics for award-winning CERN experiments }}</ref>
* Phytorid Wastewater Treatment Technology, is a solution for sustainable wastewater treatment, developed by NEERI (CSIR), It is particularly useful for regions lacking advanced sewage infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.cseindia.org/static/mount/recommended_readings_mount/19-Phytorid-Wastewater-Treatment-Technology.pdf | title=Phytorid Technology for Treatment of Sewage | website=www.cseindia.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.ijert.org/research/domestic-wastewater-treatment-using-phytorid-technology-IJERTCONV5IS13165.pdf | title=Domestic Wastewater Treatment using Phytorid Technology | website=www.ijert.org}}</ref>
* [[Unified Payments Interface]] – An instant real-time bank to bank [[Internet Protocol|payments protocol]] system developed by National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) facilitated by QR code and Virtual Private Address(VPA) or UPI ID. UPI has able to make India a cashless and cardless economy, also strain on ATM infrastructure has reduced significantly.
* [[Digital rupee]] (e₹) or eINR or e-rupee is a world's first digital national currency, to be issued by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) as a central bank digital currency (CBDC). Digital Rupee is using blockchain distributed-ledger technology. Digital rupee users to hit 50,000 by Jan-end on better acceptance.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/money-and-banking/number-of-cbdc-retail-users-estimated-to-touch-50000-by-jan-end/article66356886.ece | title=CBDC-R users to hit 50,000 by Jan-end on better acceptance | date=9 January 2023 }}</ref>

=== Sciences ===
[[File:Ammonium Nitrite 3D.JPG|thumb|Bengali Chemist [[Prafulla Chandra Roy]] synthesised NH4NO2 in its pure form.]] [[File:Ramaplot.png|thumb|A [[Ramachandran plot]] generated from the protein [[PCNA]], a human [[DNA clamp]] [[protein]] that is composed of both [[beta sheet]]s and [[alpha helix|alpha helices]] ([[Protein Data Bank|PDB]] ID 1AXC). Points that lie on the axes indicate [[N-terminus|N-]] and [[C-terminus|C-terminal]] residues for each subunit. The green regions show possible angle formations that include [[Glycine]], while the blue areas are for formations that don't include Glycine.]]
* [[Ammonium nitrite|Ammonium nitrite, synthesis in pure form]] – [[Prafulla Chandra Roy]] synthesised NH4NO2 in its pure form, and became the first scientist to have done so.<ref name=vigyanprasar_pcray/> Prior to Ray's synthesis of Ammonium nitrite it was thought that the compound undergoes rapid thermal decomposition releasing nitrogen and water in the process.<ref name=vigyanprasar_pcray/>
* [[Bhabha scattering]] – In 1935, Indian nuclear physicist [[Homi J. Bhabha]] published a paper in the ''[[Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences|Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series A]]'', in which he performed the first calculation to determine the cross section of electron-positron scattering.<ref name="Penneyp39"/> Electron-positron scattering was later named Bhabha scattering, in honour of his contributions in the field.<ref name="Penneyp39">Penney (1967), page 39</ref>
* Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance: Invented jointly by [[Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar]] and K.N. Mathur in 1928, the so-called 'Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance' was a modern instrument used for measuring various magnetic properties.<ref name="Vigyan_prasar_Shanti_Swaryp">[http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/ssbhatnagar/ShantiSwarupBhatnagar.htm ''Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131018015234/http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/ssbhatnagar/ShantiSwarupBhatnagar.htm |date=18 October 2013 }}. Vigyan Prasar: Government of India.</ref> The first appearance of this instrument in Europe was at a [[Royal Society]] exhibition in London, where it was later marketed by British firm Messers Adam Hilger and Co, London.<ref name="Vigyan_prasar_Shanti_Swaryp" />
* [[Bose–Einstein statistics]], [[Bose–Einstein condensate|condensate]] – On 4 June 1924 the Indian physicist [[Satyendra Nath Bose]] mailed a short manuscript to [[Albert Einstein]] entitled [http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/jaa/15/3-7.pdf ''Planck's Law and the Light Quantum Hypothesis''] seeking Einstein's influence to get it published after it was rejected by the prestigious journal ''[[Philosophical Magazine]]''.<ref name=Rigden143>Rigden (2005), pages 143{{ndash}}144</ref> The paper introduced what is today called ''Bose statistics'', which showed how it could be used to derive the Planck blackbody spectrum from the assumption that light was made of [[photons]].<ref name=Rigden143/><ref name=Fraser238>Fraser (2006), page 238</ref> Einstein, recognizing the importance of the paper translated it into German himself and submitted it on Bose's behalf to the prestigious ''[[Zeitschrift für Physik]]''.<ref name=Rigden143/><ref name=Fraser238/> Einstein later applied Bose's principles on particles with mass and quickly predicted the ''Bose-Einstein condensate''.<ref name=Fraser238/><ref name=Dauxois297>Dauxois & Peyrard (2006), pages 297{{ndash}}298</ref>
* [[Boson]]: Satyendra Nath Bose's research led to the discovery of the [[Boson]], one of the [[elementary particles]] on the [[Standard Model]] of [[Particle Physics]].
* [[Braunstein-Ghosh-Severini Entropy]] – This modelling of entropy using network theory is used in the analysis of [[quantum gravity]] and is named after Sibasish Ghosh and his teammates, [[Samuel L. Braunstein]] and Simone Severini.
* [[Dual-phase steel]], was publicly first described in "Microstructure and tensile properties of high strength duplex ferrite–martensite (DFM) steels" by P.C. Chakraborti and M.K. Mitra.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chakraborti |first1=P.C. |last2=Mitra |first2=M.K. |title=Microstructure and tensile properties of high strength duplex ferrite–martensite (DFM) steels |journal=Materials Science and Engineering: A |date=September 2007 |volume=466 |issue=1–2 |pages=123–133 |doi=10.1016/j.msea.2007.02.042 |bibcode=2007MSEnA.466..123C }}</ref>
* [[Galena|Galena, applied use in electronics of]] – Bengali scientist Sir [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]] effectively used Galena crystals for constructing radio receivers.<ref name=tifr>[http://www.tifr.res.in/~outreach/biographies/scientists.pdf "Indian Scientists"] (November 2004), Science Popularisation and Public Outreach Committee, [[Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]].</ref> The Galena receivers of Bose were used to receive signals consisting of [[shortwave]], [[Electromagnetic spectrum#Visible radiation (light)|white light]] and [[ultraviolet light]].<ref name=tifr/> In 1904 Bose patented the use of Galena Detector which he called ''Point Contact Diode using Galena''.<ref name=Sarkar94>Sarkar (2006), page 94</ref>
* [[Mahalanobis distance]] – Introduced in 1936 by the Indian (Bengali) statistician [[Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis]] (29 June 1893 – 28 June 1972), this distance measure, based upon the correlation between variables, is used to identify and analyze differing pattern with respect to one base.<ref>Taguchi & Jugulum (2002), pages 6{{ndash}}7</ref>
* [[Nitrite|Mercurous nitrite]] – The compound mercurous nitrite was discovered in 1896 by the Bengali chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy, who published his findings in the ''[[Asiatic Society|Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal]]''.<ref name=vigyanprasar_pcray>[http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/pcray/PCRay.htm "Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927173458/http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/pcray/PCRay.htm |date=27 September 2007 }}, Viyan Prasar, Department of Science and Technology, Government of India.</ref> The discovery contributed as a base for significant future research in the field of chemistry.<ref name=vigyanprasar_pcray/>
* [[Ramachandran plot]], Ramachandran map, and Ramachandran angles: The Ramachandran plot and Ramachandran map were developed by [[Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran]], who published his results in the ''[[Journal of Molecular Biology]]'' in 1963. He also developed the Ramachandran angles, which serve as a convenient tool for [[communication]], representation, and various kinds of [[data analysis]].<ref name=Ramakrishnan>Ramakrishnan (2001)</ref>
* [[Raman effect]] – The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) reports: "change in the wavelength of light that occurs when a light beam is deflected by molecules. The phenomenon is named for [[Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman]], who discovered it in 1928. When a beam of light traverses a dust-free, transparent sample of a chemical compound, a small fraction of the light emerges in directions other than that of the incident (incoming) beam. Most of this scattered light is of unchanged wavelength. A small part, however, has wavelengths different from that of the incident light; its presence is a result of the Raman effect."<ref>"Raman effect".''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2008)</ref>
* [[Raychaudhuri equation]] – Discovered by the [[Bengali people|Bengali]] physicist [[Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri]] in 1954. This was a key ingredient of the [[Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems]] of [[general relativity]].<ref>Naresh (2005)</ref>
* [[Saha ionization equation]] is an expression that relates the ionization state of a gas in thermal equilibrium to the temperature and pressure.
* Periodicity in Nuclear Properties: A sharp pattern is discovered by an Indian researcher regarding the nuclear properties of chemical elements. The remarkable deviations are noticed near the magic numbers.<ref name=ShadabKAS20>{{cite journal|title=PERIODICITY IN NUCLEAR PROPERTIES|journal=International Research Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences|author=Shadab, K. A.|volume=7|issue=5|pages=18–61|year=2020}}</ref>
* Process of formation of the E layer of the ionosphere and night sky luminiscence: Discovered by the Indian physicist, Sisir Kumar Mitra.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Awakening Indians to India|date=2003|publisher=Central Chinmaya Mission Trust|others=All India Chinmaya Yuva Kendra|isbn=81-7597-175-4|edition=1st|location=Mumbai, India|oclc=296288988}}{{page needed|date=August 2024}}</ref>

=== Space ===
[[File:Direct evidence of lunar water.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Direct evidence of lunar water in the Moon atmosphere obtained by the Chandrayaan-1's Altitudinal Composition (CHACE) output profile]]
* [[Chandrasekhar limit]]: [[Subramanyan Chandrasekhar]] discovered the maximum mass of a stable [[white dwarf]] star.
* [[Lunar water]] – Although the presence of water ice on the Moon has been conjectured by various scientists since the 1960s, inconclusive evidence of free water ice had also been identified. The first incontrovertible evidence of water on the Moon was provided by the payload Chace carried by the [[Moon Impact Probe]] released by [[Chandrayaan-1]] in 2009,<ref>{{cite news|title=MIP detected water on Moon way back in June: ISRO Chairman|url=http://m.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/mip-detected-water-on-moon-way-back-in-june-isro-chairman/article24854.ece|newspaper=The Hindu|date=25 September 2009|author=Staff Reporter}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Did India beat NASA to find water on moon?|url=http://m.ndtv.com/sci-tech/did-india-beat-nasa-to-find-water-on-moon-402138|work=m.ndtv.com|access-date=29 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161130035434/http://m.ndtv.com/sci-tech/did-india-beat-nasa-to-find-water-on-moon-402138|archive-date=30 November 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Chandrayaan-1 {{!}} Indian space probe|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chandrayaan-1|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> confirmed and established by [[NASA]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Chandrayaan first discovered water on moon, but… {{!}} Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/scitech/report-chandrayaan-first-discovered-water-on-moon-but-1292942|work=dna|date=25 September 2009}}</ref>
* [[Quasi-normal mode]]s of [[black holes]] – [[C. V. Vishveshwara]] discovered the [[quasi-normal mode]]s of black holes.<ref>Vishveshwara, C.V., Nature, 1970, 227, 936</ref> These modes of black hole vibrations are one of the main targets of observation using the gravitational wave detector.
* [[Saha ionisation equation]] – The Saha equation, derived by the Bengali scientist [[Meghnad Saha]] (6 October 1893 – 16 February 1956) in 1920, conceptualises [[ionisation]]s in context of stellar atmospheres.<ref>Narlikar (2002), page 188</ref>

==See also==
* [[Timeline of Indian innovation]]
* [[History of science and technology in India]]
* [[Timeline of historic inventions]]
* [[List of Indian mathematicians]]
* [[List of Indian scientists]]
* [[List of Indian physicists]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

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{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.themysteriousindia.net/ancient-india-inventions-science-technology/ Ancient India's Inventions In Science And Technology]
* [http://www.indianscience.org/essays/essays.shtml Essays on Indian Science and Technology.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140224120624/http://www.sciencecongress.nic.in/html/pdf/e-book/oct-nov-2012.pdf P. K. Ray, SCIENCE, CULTURE AND DEVELOPMENT – A CONNECTED PHENOMENA, Everyman's Science Vol.]
* ''History of Science in South Asia'' ([http://hssa-journal.org hssa-journal.org]). HSSA is a peer-reviewed, open-access, online journal for the history of science in India.

{{Inventions|state=collapsed}}
{{Indianscience|state=uncollapsed}}

{{South Asian topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Indian Inventions And Discoveries}}
[[Category:Science and technology in India|Inventions]]
[[Category:Indian inventions| ]]
[[Category:Lists of inventions or discoveries]]
[[Category:India science and technology-related lists]]
[[Category:India history-related lists|Inventions and discoveries]]

Amritsar

2026-05-24T16:07:52Z

206.84.229.26:

{{short description|Metropolis in Punjab, India}}
{{about|the city|the district|Amritsar district}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2026}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Amritsar
| native_name = {{nativename|pa|Amritsar}}
| native_name_lang = iso 15919
| settlement_type = [[Metropolis]]
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| total_width = 290
| image_style =
| perrow = 1/3/2/2
| image1 = Golden Temple Amritsar Gurudwara (cropped).jpg
| caption1 = [[Golden Temple]]
| image2 = Baba Atal Amritsar (cropped).jpg
| caption2 = [[Gurdwara Baba Atal]]
| image3 = MAHARAJA RANJIT SINGH STATUE-AMRITSAR-PUNJAB-10.jpg
| caption3 = Maharaja Ranjit Singh Chowk in [[Heritage Street Amritsar|Heritage Street]]
| image4 = Another look at the obelisk which commemorates the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (27161747959).jpg
| caption4 = [[Jallianwala Bagh]]
| image5 = Bhagwan Valmiki Tirath Sthal 05.jpg
| caption5 = [[Bhagwan Valmiki Tirath Sthal]]
| image6 = Summer Palace of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Amritsar, Punjab,India.jpg
| caption6 = [[Ram Bagh Palace]]
| image7 = Zamzama - Front View- Gobindgarh Fort, Amritsar.jpg
| caption7 = [[Gobindgarh Fort]]
| image8 = Amritsar 9124.jpg
| caption8 = [[Partition Museum]]
}}
| image_size =
| image_caption =
| image_map = {{maplink|display=||frame=yes||frame-width=270|frame-height=280 |frame-align=center|zoom=12|type=point|id=Q180422|marker-colour=#ffd700|title=[[Golden Temple]] }}
| pushpin_map = India Punjab#India
| mapframe-zoom = 12
| nicknames = {{collapsible list|title=Nicknames|The Holy City|Ambarsar|Sifti Da Ghar|Guru Nagari|Golden City}}
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of the city center in Punjab
| pushpin_relief = yes
| mapframe-wikidata =
| coordinates = {{coord|31.64|74.86|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = [[Country]]
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|Emblem of Punjab (India) on a white background (1).png}} [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]]
| established_title = 
| established_date = 1574
| founder = [[Guru Ram Das]]
| government_type = Municipality
| governing_body = [[Amritsar Municipal Corporation]]
| area_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web|title=Amritsar City|url=http://www.urbanmobilityindia.in/Upload/Conference/46709088-0a0e-42af-969c-9bd63bededf9.pdf|access-date=23 November 2020|archive-date=2 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702024324/http://www.urbanmobilityindia.in/Upload/Conference/46709088-0a0e-42af-969c-9bd63bededf9.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
| area_rank = [[List of cities in Punjab and Chandigarh|2nd in Punjab]]
| area_total_km2 = 139
| population_total = 1159227
| population_as_of = 2011
| leader_title1 = Mayor
| leader_name1 = Jatinder Singh Bhatia
([[Aam Aadmi Party|AAP]])
| leader_title2 = Deputy Commissioner
| leader_name2 = Dalwinderjit Singh, IAS<ref>{{cite web |title=Sh. Dalwinderjit Singh, IAS - District Amritsar |url=https://amritsar.nic.in/whoswho/smt-sakshi-sawhney/ |website=[[Government of Punjab, India]] |access-date=9 January 2026}}</ref>
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_metro =
| population_metro_footnotes =
| population_demonym = Amritsariya, Ambarsariya,<ref>{{cite book |title=Vishveshvaranand Indological Journal |date=1981 |publisher=Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute |page=66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Fc5AAAAIAAJ&q=%22ambarsariya%22 |language=en}}</ref> Amritsari
| population_urban_footnotes = <ref name=districtcensus>{{Cite web |date=2011 |title=District Census Handbook: Amritsar |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/982/download/2942/DH_2011_0315_PART_A_DCHB_AMRITSAR.pdf |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]] |access-date=9 January 2024 |archive-date=9 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240109060628/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/982/download/2942/DH_2011_0315_PART_A_DCHB_AMRITSAR.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
| population_blank1_title = Metro rank
| population_blank1 = [[List of million-plus agglomerations in India|44th]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 143-001
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 91 183 XXX XXXX
| registration_plate = PB-01 (commercial vehicles), PB-02, PB-17, PB-89
| website = {{URL|amritsarcorp.com}}
}}

'''Amritsar''',{{efn|{{IPA|pa|ˌəmːˈɾɪt̪.səɾ|lang}}{{audio|Amritsar.ogg|}}}} also known as '''Ambarsar''',{{efn|{{IPA|pa|əmbaɾ.səɾ}}}} is the second-[[List of cities in Punjab, India by population|largest city]] in the [[India|Indian]] state of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], after [[Ludhiana]]. Located in the [[Majha]] region, it is a major cultural, transportation and economic centre. The city is the administrative headquarters of the [[Amritsar district]]. It is situated {{convert|217|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} north-west of [[Chandigarh]], and {{Convert|455|km|abbr=on}} north-west of [[New Delhi]]. It is {{convert|28|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} from the [[India–Pakistan border|India-Pakistan border]], and {{Convert|47|km|abbr=on}} north-east of [[Lahore]], [[Pakistan]].

According to the 2011 census, the city had a population of 1,132,383. It is one of the ten municipal corporations in the state; Karamjit Singh Rintu is serving as the [[mayor]] of the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.punjabdata.com/Municipal-Corporations-In-Punjab.aspx|title=List of Municipal Corporation in Punjab|website=www.punjabdata.com|access-date=28 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180114190106/http://www.punjabdata.com/Municipal-Corporations-In-Punjab.aspx|archive-date=14 January 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the United Nations, as of 2018, Amritsar is the second-most populous city in Punjab and the most populous metropolitan region in the state, with a population of roughly 2 million. Amritsar is the centre of the Amritsar Metropolitan Region.

Amritsar is the economic capital of Punjab. It is a major tourist centre with nearly a hundred thousand daily visitors. The city has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for the [[Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana]] (HRIDAY) program of the [[Government of India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Introduction|url=http://hridayindia.in/|website=HRIDAY official website|access-date=30 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150826075658/http://hridayindia.in/|archive-date=26 August 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is home to the [[Golden Temple]], the holiest site and most-visited [[Gurdwara|gurudwara]] in [[Sikhism]]. The city is also known for its food, and for the manufacture of wooden [[Chessboard|chessboards]] and [[Chess piece|chess pieces]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Bagga |first=Neeraj |date=6 September 2018 |title=Permit raj checkmates chessboard industry|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/business/permit-raj-checkmates-chessboard-industry/648342.html |work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]] |access-date=27 April 2019 |archive-date=28 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428014406/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/business/permit-raj-checkmates-chessboard-industry/648342.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
The city takes it take from '''Amṛta Sarovara''' (Sanskrit for Pool of Nectar) which is the pool that surrounds [[Golden Temple]] at Gurdwara Shri Harmindir Sahib .
The term ''Amritsar'' was previously sometimes known as '''Rāmdāspur''' after [[Guru Ram Das]], the fourth Sikh guru who is credited with founding the city.<ref name="McLeod1990p28" /> The name ''Amritsar'' was often mispronounced as Ambarsar in rural dialects; the latter name has since become a colloquial term for the city.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Indian Studies: Past and Present |publisher=Ramakrishna Maitra |year=1962 |volume=3 |pages=192 |quote=Amritsar, the principal place of [[Sikhs|Sikh]] worship, was not established at Ram-Raoni, but, in fact, Ram-Raoni was established near the Sikh place of worship at Amritsar (called Ambarsar by illiterate people), which had been founded by Guru Ramdas in 1574, one hundred and seventy-four years before the Ram-Raoni came into existence.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Madra |first1=Amandeep Singh |title=Sicques, Tigers or Thieves: Eyewitness Accounts of the Sikhs (1606-1810) |last2=Singh |first2=P. |publisher=Springer |year=2016 |isbn=9781137119988 |pages=86 |quote=Amritsar (q.v.), the city that includes the Harimandar Sahib Temple complex, was not established at Ram-Raoni (q.v.), as stated by Polier, which is nearby. Amritsar, pronounced Ambarsar by unlettered rural dialects of Punjab, was founded by Guru Ramdas (q.v.) in 1574, 174 years before the Ram-Raoni developed. The town had earlier been called Ramdaspur, Chakk Ramdas, or simply Chakk Guru (q.v.), and was marked as such in eighteenth-century maps of the area.}}</ref>

==Mythology==
The [[Bhagwan Valmiki Tirath Sthal]] situated at Amritsar is believed to be the ashram site of Maharishi [[Valmiki]], the writer of the ''[[Ramayana]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |date=22 November 2016 |title=Valmiki Tirath Sthal temple-cum-panorama to be opened on Dec 1 |work=Business Standard India |agency=Press Trust of India |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/valmiki-tirath-sthal-temple-cum-panorama-to-be-opened-on-dec-1-116112200989_1.html |url-status=live |access-date=17 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194031/https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/valmiki-tirath-sthal-temple-cum-panorama-to-be-opened-on-dec-1-116112200989_1.html |archive-date=3 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last= |title=Ram Tirth Temple, Indian Ram Tirth Temple, Ram Tirth Temple in India |url=http://www.indianmirror.com/temples/ram-tirth.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010043925/http://www.indianmirror.com/temples/ram-tirth.html |archive-date=10 October 2016 |access-date=17 March 2022}}</ref> As per the Ramayana, [[Sita]] gave birth to [[Lava (Ramayana)|Lava]] and [[Kusha (Ramayana)|Kusha]], sons of [[Rama]] at Ramtirath ashram. Numerous people visit Ramtirath Temple, Located 12 Km west of Amritsar on Chogawan road, dates back to the period of Ramayana, Rishi Valmiki's hermitage. at the annual fair. The nearby cities [[Lahore]] and [[Kasur]] were believed to be founded by Lava and Kusha, respectively. It is believed that during the [[Ashvamedha|ashvamedha yajna]] by Rama, Lava and Kusha caught the ritual horse and tied [[Hanuman]] to a tree near to today's [[Durgiana Temple]].{{Cn|date=May 2023}}

==History==
===Founding of Amritsar city===
[[File:Amritsar Overhead Panorama View Artwork circa 1860's.jpg|thumb|Overhead panoramic view artwork of Amritsar, {{Circa|1850s}}–1890s|left]]
In the Sikh tradition, [[Guru Ram Das]], the fourth Sikh guru, is credited with founding the holy city of Amritsar in 1574.<ref name="McLeod1990p28">{{cite book|author=W.H. McLeod|title=Textual Sources for the Study of Sikhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7xIT7OMSJ44C&pg=PA28|year=1990|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-56085-4|pages=28–29|access-date=16 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214213114/https://books.google.com/books?id=7xIT7OMSJ44C&pg=PA28|archive-date=14 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ShackleMandair2013xv">{{cite book|author1=Christopher Shackle|author2=Arvind Mandair|title=Teachings of the Sikh Gurus: Selections from the Sikh Scriptures|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VvoJV8mw0LwC|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-45101-0|pages=xv–xvi|access-date=29 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305055518/https://books.google.com/books?id=VvoJV8mw0LwC|archive-date=5 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Mann |first=Gurinder Singh |title=The Making of Sikh Scripture |date=3 May 2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198029878 |pages=9 |chapter=Table 1. Towns Associated with the Sikh Gurus}}</ref> Two versions of stories exist regarding the land where Guru Ram Das settled. In one, based on a ''Gazetteer'' record, the land was purchased, with Sikh donations, for 700 rupees from the owners of the village of Tung.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Louis E. Fenech|author2=W. H. McLeod|title=Historical Dictionary of Sikhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xajcAwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-4422-3601-1|page=67|access-date=16 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305055342/https://books.google.com/books?id=xajcAwAAQBAJ|archive-date=5 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to historical Sikh records, the site was chosen by [[Guru Amar Das]] and called Guru Da Chakk. The latter guru had asked Ram Das to find land to start a new town, and to create a man-made pool as its central point.<ref name="Arshi1989p5">{{cite book|author=Pardeep Singh Arshi|title=The Golden Temple: history, art, and architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rcmfAAAAMAAJ|year=1989|publisher=Harman|isbn=978-81-85151-25-0|pages=5–7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Louis E. Fenech|author2=W. H. McLeod|title=Historical Dictionary of Sikhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xajcAwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-4422-3601-1|page=33|access-date=16 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305055342/https://books.google.com/books?id=xajcAwAAQBAJ|archive-date=5 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> After his coronation, Guru Ram Das in 1574, who faced hostile opposition from the sons of Guru Amar Das,<ref name="Mandair2013p38">{{cite book|author=Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair|title=Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jn_jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|year=2013|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4411-5366-1|pages=38–40|access-date=29 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214211014/https://books.google.com/books?id=Jn_jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|archive-date=14 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> founded the town; it was named after him as "Ramdaspur". He first completed the pool, and built his new official Guru centre and home next to it. He invited merchants and artisans from other parts of India to settle into the new town with him. The town expanded during the time of Guru Arjan Dev, financed by donations and constructed by volunteers. The town grew to become the city of Amritsar. After the son of [[Guru Ram Das]] built the [[gurdwara]] [[Golden Temple|Harmandir Sahib]], the pool area developed further as a temple complex. In 1604 Guru Ram Das's son installed the scripture of Sikhism inside the new temple.<ref name="ShackleMandair2013xv"/>

The period and achievements of construction between 1574 and 1604 are described in ''Mahima Prakash Vartak'', a semi-historical Sikh [[hagiography|hagiographic]] text likely composed in 1741. It is the earliest known document dealing with the lives of all the ten Gurus.<ref name="McLeod1990p28"/>
[[File:Ranjit Singh at Harmandir Sahib - August Schoefft - Vienna 1850 - Princess Bamba Collection - Lahore Fort.jpg|thumb|Maharaja Ranjit Singh listening to [[Guru Granth Sahib]] being recited near the [[Akal Takht]] and [[Golden Temple, Amritsar]], [[Punjab, India]]. Painting by [[August Schoefft]], 1850|alt=|left]]

In 1762 and 1766–1767, Ahmad Shah of the [[Durrani Empire]] invaded the [[Sikh Confederacy]]. He besieged Amritsar, massacred the populace, and destroyed the city.{{sfn|Dupree|1980|p=338-339}}

===Old walled city===
[[File:Photo of an Amritsar street scene, by Felice Beato, circa 1858–59.jpg|thumb|Photo of an Amritsar street scene, by [[Felice Beato]], {{Circa|1858}}–59]]
During the reign of the [[Sikh Empire]], in 1822 Maharaja [[Ranjit Singh]] fortified the city, starting from a wall at Katra Maha Singh area.<ref name=":1" />

Among the ''Katras'' (fortified residential societies) constructed by Maharaja Ranjit Singh within the city were the following:<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Fauja |title=The City of Amritsar: A Study of Historical, Cultural, Social, and Economic Aspects |publisher=Oriental Publishers & Distributors |year=1978 |pages=78–82}}</ref>

* Katra Moti Ram
* Katra Kanwar Kharak Singh (also known as 'Katra Nikkai')
* Katra Fateh Singh Kallianwala
* Katra Ahluwalia<ref>{{Cite news |last=Teja |first=Charanjit Singh |date=26 August 2020 |title=Katra Ahluwalia, a glimpse of grand past, faces ravages & wrath of time |work=The Tribune |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/katra-ahluwalia-a-glimpse-of-grand-past-faces-ravages-wrath-of-time-131544 |access-date=14 July 2023 |archive-date=14 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714121032/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/katra-ahluwalia-a-glimpse-of-grand-past-faces-ravages-wrath-of-time-131544 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=28 January 2022 |title=Katra Ahluwalia: A Legacy of the Sikh-Misl Era |url=https://www.sikh-news.com/r/a/katra-ahluwalia-sikh-misl-era-10853 |access-date=14 July 2023 |website=Sikh News |language=en |archive-date=14 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714055437/https://www.sikh-news.com/r/a/katra-ahluwalia-sikh-misl-era-10853 |url-status=usurped }}</ref>
[[File:Map of Amritsar, with the city perimeter captioned in Perso-Arabic script marking the twelve historical gates of the old city-wall, ca.1831–35.jpg|thumb|Map of Amritsar, with the city perimeter captioned in Perso-Arabic script marking the twelve historical gates of the old city-wall, ca.1831–35]]
Later, [[Sher Singh]] continued with construction of the city wall, adding twelve gates. He also had built a fort named ''Dhoor Kot''; its fortification were yards broad and 7 yards high. The circumference of the walled city was around five miles. The twelve gates constructed during this era were known as (including later renamings):<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 January 2019 |title=6 historical gates of Amritsar to be restored to old glory |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/chandigarh/6-historical-gates-of-amritsar-to-be-restored-to-old-glory/story-z3V38dtwpNsOoQTqkxo4cI.html |access-date=14 July 2023 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en |archive-date=14 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714055434/https://www.hindustantimes.com/chandigarh/6-historical-gates-of-amritsar-to-be-restored-to-old-glory/story-z3V38dtwpNsOoQTqkxo4cI.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Bawa |first=J. S. |title=The Heritage of Amritsar |publisher=Faqir Singh |year=1977 |pages=45}}</ref>

# Lahori Darwaza (Lahori Gate)<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" />
# Khazana Darwaja (Khazana Gate)<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" />
# Deori Hakiman (Gate Hakeema/Darwaza Hakeema Wala)<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />
# Gilwali Darwaza – no longer extant<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" />
# Darwaza Rangar Nanglian (Gate Bhagatawala) – no longer extant<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" />
# Darwaza Ramgarhian (Chattiwind Gate) – later restored<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite news |last=Jaiswar |first=P.K. |date=9 November 2006 |title=Ramgarhia and Ahluwalia gates to get a new lease of life |work=The Tribune |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20061109/aplus1.htm#3 |access-date=14 July 2023 |archive-date=14 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714202525/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20061109/aplus1.htm#3 |url-status=live }}</ref>
# Darwaza Ahluwalia (Darwaza Gheo Mandi) – was no longer extant but has since been restored<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" />
# Doburji Darwaza (Sultanwind Gate or Delhi Darwaza)<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />
# Deorhi Kalan<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" />
# Darwaza Rambagh<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" />
# Deorhi Shazada (Hathi Darwaza/Darwaza Sehzada)<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />
# Darwaza Lohgarh – no longer extant<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" />

When the British annexed Punjab in 1849, Amritsar was a walled city. The British built a thirteenth gate in 1866 known as ''Hall Gate, Neighborhood in Amritsar, Punjab.''<ref name=":1">{{cite news |title=Gates to the grand past |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/gates-to-the-grand-past-153187 |access-date=2 February 2021 |work=Tribune |date=9 October 2020 |language=en |archive-date=30 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130101619/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/gates-to-the-grand-past-153187 |url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Map of Amritsar with the locations of Sikh sites labelled, as published in the Mahan Kosh (1930).jpg|thumb|Map of Amritsar with the locations of Sikh sites labelled, as published in the ''[[Mahan Kosh]]'' (1930)]]
The British rulers would later demolish some of the walls and gates or reconstruct some.<ref name=":1" /> An entire new wall of the city was completed in 1885.<ref name=":1" /> Many surviving gates have since been renamed and no longer bear their mid-19th century names, while others have since been demolished.<ref name=":1" />

===Jallianwala Bagh massacre===
[[File:Jallianwallah.jpg|thumb|The Jallianwala Bagh in 1919, months after the massacre]]
[[File:BulletMarks.JPG|thumb|Bullet marks on the walls of the park premises]]

The [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre]], involving the killings of hundreds of Indian civilians on the orders of British Colonel [[Reginald Dyer|Reginald Edward Harry Dyer]], took place on 13 April 1919 in the heart of Amritsar, the holiest city of the Sikhs, on a day sacred to them as the birth anniversary of the [[Khalsa]] (Vaisakhi day).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Collett |first1=Nigel |title=The Butcher of Amritsar: General Reginald Dyer |date=15 October 2006 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-85285-575-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XuQC5pgzCw4C&pg=PA263 |language=en}}</ref>

In Punjab, during [[World War I]] (1914–18), there was considerable social unrest, particularly among the Sikhs. First, they opposed the demolition of a boundary wall of Gurdwara Rakab Ganj, a historic gurdwara near Parliament House in New Delhi. Later, they were disturbed about the activities and trials of the [[Ghadarite]]s, almost all of whom were Sikhs. In India as a whole, political activity had arisen during the strains of war. Two leaders had emerged: [[Mahatma Gandhi]] (1869–1948), who after a period of struggle as a young man against the British in [[South Africa]] had returned to India in January 1915 to work there for change and [[Annie Besant]] (1847–1933), head of the [[Theosophical Society of India]]. On 11 April 1916 she established the [[Indian Home Rule Movement|Home Rule League]] with the goal of autonomy for India. In December 1916, the [[Indian National Congress]], at its annual session held at [[Lucknow]], passed a resolution asking the king to issue a proclamation announcing that it is the "aim and intention of British policy to confer self-government on India at an early date".<ref>''Proceedings of the Lucknow Session of the Indian National Congress, 1916,'' cited by {{cite book|last=Pasricha|first=Ashu|title=The Political Thought of Annie Besant (Encyclopaedia of Eminent Thinkers, Vol. 25)|year=2008|publisher=Concept Publishing|isbn=978-8180695858|page=84}}</ref>

On 10 April 1919, Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew, two popular proponents of the [[Satyagraha]] movement led by Gandhi, were called to the deputy commissioner's residence. There they were arrested and transported by car to Dharamsetla, a hill town, now in Himachal Pradesh. A general strike arose in response in Amritsar. Excited groups of citizens soon merged into a crowd of about 50,000 marching to protest these arrests to the deputy commissioner. The crowd, however, was stopped by British colonial forces and fired upon near the railway foot-bridge. The official version reported that the number of casualties were 12 dead and between 20 and 30 wounded. Based on evidence presented to an inquiry of the Indian National Congress, fatalities were reported as between 20 and 30.{{Cn|date=May 2023}}

Three days later, on 13 April, the traditional festival of Baisakhi, thousands of unarmed Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims gathered in the [[Jallianwala Bagh]]. An hour after the meeting began as scheduled at 16:30, Dyer arrived with a group of sixty-five Gurkha soldiers (from the [[9th Gorkha Rifles]]) and twenty-five Baluchi soldiers (from the [[59th Scinde Rifles (Frontier Force)|59th Scinde Rifles]]). Without warning the crowd to disperse, Dyer blocked the main exits from the Bagh and ordered his troops to begin shooting toward the densest sections of the crowd; the firing continued for approximately ten minutes. A British government inquiry into the massacre placed the death toll at 379.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Welle (www.dw.com)|first=Deutsche|title=The Jallianwala massacre – when British troops killed hundreds of unarmed Indians {{!}} DW {{!}} 13 April 2019|url=https://www.dw.com/en/the-jallianwala-massacre-when-british-troops-killed-hundreds-of-unarmed-indians/a-48313295|access-date=5 January 2021|website=DW.COM|language=en-GB|archive-date=8 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108173914/https://www.dw.com/en/the-jallianwala-massacre-when-british-troops-killed-hundreds-of-unarmed-indians/a-48313295|url-status=live}}</ref> The Indian National Congress, on the other hand, estimated that approximately 1,000 people were killed.<ref name=":0" />

===Operation Blue Star===
[[File:Statue of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Amritsar 01.jpg|thumb|Statue of [[Maharaja Ranjit Singh]] in Amritsar|left]]
Amritsar was a center of unrest in the late 20th century. In the 1980s, Sikh [[insurgents|militants]] occupied the Golden Temple there. Prime Minister of India, [[Indira Gandhi]], ordered [[Operation Blue Star]] (1 – 6 June 1984), an Indian military operation<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2004/jun/03spec.htm |title=Operation Bluestar, 20 Years On |work=Rediff.com |date=6 June 1984 |access-date=17 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090803203653/http://www.rediff.com/news/2004/jun/03spec.htm |archive-date=3 August 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> to remove the militants from the temple. The operation was carried out by [[Indian army]] troops equipped with [[tank]]s and armoured vehicles.<ref>{{cite book| last = Ahmad| first = Ishtiaq| title = State, Nation, and Ethnicity in the Contemporary South Asia| publisher = [[Continuum International Publishing Group]]| year = 1996| page = 130| isbn = 978-1-85567-578-0}}</ref> While militarily successful, the operation aroused immense controversy. The government's justification for the timing and style of the attack are hotly debated.<ref>{{cite book| last = Praagh| first = David Van| title = The Greater game: India's Race With Destiny and China| publisher = [[McGill-Queen's University Press]] (MQUP)| year = 2003| location = India| url =https://archive.org/details/greatergameindia0000vanp| url-access = registration| isbn = 978-0-7735-1639-7}}</ref> ''[[India Today]]'' magazine has ranked Operation Blue Star as among the Top 10 Political Disgraces in India.<ref>{{cite web |author=Gunjeet K. Sra |url=http://indiatoday.digitaltoday.in/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&&issueid=85&id=23078&sectionid=3&Itemid=1&page=in&latn=2 |title=10 Political Disgraces |publisher=Indiatoday.digitaltoday.in |date=19 December 2008 |access-date=9 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220230342/http://indiatoday.digitaltoday.in/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&&issueid=85&id=23078&sectionid=3&Itemid=1&page=in&latn=2 |archive-date=20 December 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Official reports put the number of deaths among the Indian army at 83, with 493 civilians killed, including Sikh militants,<ref name=terrorincontext>{{cite book|title=Terrorism in Context|author=Martha Crenshaw|publisher=[[Penn State Press]]|year=1995|isbn=978-0-271-01015-1|page=385}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Pritam|title=Federalism, Nationalism and Development: India and the Punjab Economy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mQLDcjhNoJwC&q=Blue%20Star&pg=PR4|access-date=29 July 2010|year=2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-45666-1|pages=44}}</ref> while independent estimates place the numbers upwards of 5,000 people, a majority of them pilgrims, including women and children.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Karim |first1=Afsir |title=Counter Terrorism, the Pakistan Factor |date=1991 |publisher=Lancer Publishers |isbn=978-8170621270 |pages=33–36 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QoqwQb38SQEC |access-date=10 June 2021 |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330072148/https://books.google.com/books?id=QoqwQb38SQEC |url-status=live }}</ref> In addition, the [[Central Bureau of Investigation|CBI]] is considered responsible for seizing historical artefacts and manuscripts in the [[Sikh Reference Library]] before burning it down.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kaur|first1=Jaskaran|last2=Crossette|first2=Barbara|title=Twenty years of impunity: the November 1984 pogroms of Sikhs in India|page=16|url=http://ensaaf-org.jklaw.net/publications/reports/20years/20years-2nd.pdf|edition=2nd|year=2006|publisher=Ensaaf|location=Portland, OR|isbn=978-0-9787073-0-9|access-date=7 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119015130/http://ensaaf-org.jklaw.net/publications/reports/20years/20years-2nd.pdf|archive-date=19 January 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=david>{{cite book| last = Westerlund| first = David| title = Questioning The Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics.| publisher = C. Hurst & Co| year = 1996| page = 1276| isbn =978-1-85065-241-0 }}</ref> Four months after the operation, on 31 October 1984, Indira Gandhi was assassinated by two of her Sikh bodyguards in what is viewed as an act of vengeance. Following her assassination, more than 17,000 Sikhs were killed in the [[1984 anti-Sikh riots]].<ref name="SAGE">{{cite book|title=The SAGE Encyclopedia of War: Social Science Perspectives|quote=around 17,000 Sikhs were burned alive or killed|first=Paul|last=Joseph|page=433|publisher = SAGE|isbn=978-1483359885|date=11 October 2016}}</ref>

==Geography==
Amritsar is located at {{Coord|31.63|N|74.87|E}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/23/Amritsar.html |title=Falling Rain Genomics, Inc – Amritsar |publisher=Fallingrain.com |access-date=17 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120811181822/http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/23/Amritsar.html |archive-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> with an average elevation of {{Convert|234|m|abbr=}} in the Majha region of the state of Punjab in North India and lies about {{Convert|15|mi|abbr=}} east of the border with [[Pakistan]]. Administrative towns includes [[Ajnala, India|Ajnala]], [[Attari]], [[Beas City|Beas]], [[Budha Theh]], [[Chheharta Sahib]], [[Jandiala Guru]], [[Majitha]], [[Rajasansi]], [[Ramdass]], [[Rayya (Punjab)|Rayya]], [[Verka Town]] and [[Baba Bakala]].{{Cn|date=May 2023}}

===Climate===
Typically for Northwestern India, Amritsar has a [[semi-arid climate#Hot semi-arid climates|hot semi-arid climate]] (Köppen ''BSh'') bordering on a monsoon-influenced [[humid subtropical climate]] (''Cwa''). Temperatures in Amritsar usually range from {{Convert|-1 to 45|C|F}}. It experiences four primary seasons: winter (December to March), when temperatures can drop to {{convert|-1|C|F|0}}; summer (April to June), when temperatures can reach {{convert|45|C|F|0}}; monsoon (July to September); and post-monsoon (October to November). Annual rainfall is about {{convert|726.0|mm|in|1}}.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Amritsar Climate Normals 1981-2010
| url = http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20(STATWISE).pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A131%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22Fit%22%7D%5D
| publisher = Indian Meteorological Department, Pune
| access-date = 31 March 2020
| archive-date = 5 February 2020
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200205040301/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20(STATWISE).pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A131%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22Fit%22%7D%5D
| url-status = live
}}</ref> The lowest recorded temperature is {{convert|-3.6|C|F}}, was recorded on 9 December 1996 and the highest temperature, {{convert|48.0|C|F|1}}, was recorded on 23 May 2013.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Amritsar Climate Normals 1981-2010
| url = http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20(STATWISE).pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A131%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22Fit%22%7D%5D
| publisher = Indian Meteorological Department, Pune
| access-date = 31 March 2020
| archive-date = 5 February 2020
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200205040301/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20(STATWISE).pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A131%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22Fit%22%7D%5D
| url-status = live
}}</ref> The official weather station for the city is the [[Sri Guru Ram Dass Jee International Airport|civil aerodrome]] at [[Rajasansi]]. Weather records here date back to 15 November 1947.<ref>{{cite web |title=Amritsar Climate Data |publisher=India Meteorological Department |url=https://www.imd.gov.in/pages/city_weather_main.php?id=42182 |access-date=13 April 2026}}</ref>

{{Amritsar weatherbox}}Amritsar has been ranked 39th best "National Clean Air City" (under Category 1 >10L Population cities) in India according to 'Swachh Vayu Survekshan 2024 Results' <ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=7th September 2024 |url=https://prana.cpcb.gov.in/ncapServices/robust/fetchFilesFromDrive/Swachh_Vayu_Survekshan_2024_Result.pdf |website=Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan 2024}}</ref>

==Demographics==

{{see also|List of cities in Punjab and Chandigarh}}
{{Historical population
|align = center
| source = <ref name="censusindia1">{{cite web |url=http://www.populstat.info/Asia/indiat.htm |title=Historical Census of India |access-date=29 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217053707/http://www.populstat.info/Asia/indiat.htm|archive-date=17 February 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dyson |first=Tim |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/3581/chapter/144864586 |title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day |date=27 September 2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780191867484 |pages=94–122 |chapter=6 Company and Crown: c.1821 to c.1871 |volume=1 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198829058.003.0006}}</ref>
| 1868 | 133925
| 1871 | 136000
| 1881 | 151896
| 1891 | 136766
| 1901 | 162429
| 1911 | 152756
| 1921 | 160218
| 1931 | 264840
| 1941 | 391010
| 1951 | 336114
| 1961 | 390055
| 1971 | 454805
| 1981 | 594844
| 1991 | 708835
| 2001 | 979801
| 2011 | 1159227
}}

[[File:Hamandir Sahib (Golden Temple).jpg|thumb|The Golden Temple, in Amritsar, is the holiest site in Sikhism]]

In 1871–72, Amritsar was the 11th most populous city in British India with a population of 136,000 and had a larger population than Lahore (99,000).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dyson |first=Tim |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/3581/chapter/144864586 |title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day |date=27 September 2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780191867484 |pages=94–122 |chapter=6 Company and Crown: c.1821 to c.1871 |volume=1 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198829058.003.0006}}</ref> As of the [[2011 census of India|2011 census]], Amritsar municipality had a population of 1,159,227.<ref name="districtcensus" /> The municipality had a [[human sex ratio|sex ratio]] of 884 females per 1,000 males and 119,592 (10.32%) of the population were under six years old, with the child sex ratio being 826 females per 1000 males.<ref name="districtcensus" /> Literacy was 83.81%; male literacy was 86.52% and female literacy was 80.76%.<ref name="districtcensus" /> The [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|scheduled caste]] population is 21.76%.

===Religion===
{{bar box
|title=Religion in Amritsar City (2011)<ref name="Religion"/>
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism]]|darkorange|49.36}}
{{bar percent|[[Sikhism]]|darkkhaki|48.00}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|dodgerblue|1.23}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam in Punjab, India|Islam]]|green|0.51}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.90}}
}}

According to [[2011 Census of India]], [[Hinduism]] and [[Sikhism]] are the main religions of the Amritsar city followed by 49.36% and 48.00% of the population, respectively. Christianity is followed by 1.23% and Islam 0.51%. Around 0.9% of the population of the city stated 'No Particular Religion' or other religion.<ref name="Religion">{{cite web |title=Table C-01 Population by Religious Community: Punjab |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11389/download/14502/DDW03C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]] |access-date=9 January 2024 |archive-date=14 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314224307/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11389/download/14502/DDW03C-01%20MDDS.XLS |url-status=live }}</ref>

Amritsar is the holiest city in Sikhism and about 30 million people visit it each year for pilgrimage.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar - Pilgrimage - GCSE Religious Studies Revision|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z3b42hv/revision/1 |access-date=5 January 2021 |work=BBC |language=en-GB|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108193218/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z3b42hv/revision/1 |archive-date=8 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |first1=Srishti |last1=Chaudhary |first2=Raphael |last2=Reichel |date=13 June 2023 |title=Amritsar: The Indian city where no one goes hungry |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20230612-amritsar-the-indian-city-where-no-one-goes-hungry |work=BBC |access-date=15 June 2023 |archive-date=14 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230614182004/https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20230612-amritsar-the-indian-city-where-no-one-goes-hungry |url-status=live }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable collapsible sortable"
|+ Religious groups in Amritsar City (1868−2011){{efn|1881-1941: Data for the entirety of the town of Amritsar, which included Amritsar Municipality and Amritsar Cantonment.<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|32}}|name="Amritsar1881to1941"}}
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in India|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1868<ref name="Census1868">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057644 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057644 |access-date=23 June 2024 |title=Report on the census of the Punjab taken on 10th January, 1868. |year=1868 |pages=66 |last1=(India) |first1=Punjab }}</ref>
! colspan="2" |1881<ref name="Census1881">{{cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057656 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057656 |access-date=14 January 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. I. |year=1881 |archive-date=15 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115015937/https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057656 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Census1881B">{{cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057657 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057657 |access-date=14 January 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. II. |year=1881 |archive-date=15 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115015938/https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057657 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|520}}
! colspan="2" |1891<ref name="Census1891">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1891-26575632/|title=Census of India, 1891 General Tables British Provinces and Feudatory States Vol I|access-date=17 January 2023|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117090448/https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1891-26575632/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|68}}
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1901-26575826/|title=Census of India, 1901 Volume I-A India Part II-Tables|access-date=17 January 2023|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117090447/https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1901-26575826/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|44}}
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1911-26575903/|title=Census of India, 1911 Volume XIV Punjab Part II Tables|access-date=17 January 2023|archive-date=7 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007223437/https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1911-26575903/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|20}}
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1921-26575918/|title=Census of India, 1921 Volume XV Punjab and Delhi Part II Tables|access-date=17 January 2023|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117090446/https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1921-26575918/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|23}}
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1931-26575928/|title=Census of India, 1931 Volume XVII Punjab Part II Tables|access-date=17 January 2023|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117090447/https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1931-26575928/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|26}}
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/south-asia-open-archives/saoa/censusofindia1941-28216851/|title=CENSUS OF INDIA, 1941 VOLUME VI PUNJAB|access-date=17 January 2023|archive-date=11 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011130147/https://www.jstor.org/site/south-asia-open-archives/saoa/censusofindia1941-28216851/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|32}}
! colspan="2" |2011<ref name="Religion"/>
|-
![[Population (human biology)|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
| [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 61,193
| {{Percentage | 61193 | 133925 | 2 }}
| 75,891
| {{Percentage | 75891 | 151896 | 2 }}
| 63,366
| {{Percentage | 63366 | 136766 | 2 }}
| 77,795
| {{Percentage | 77795 | 162429 | 2 }}
| 71,851
| {{Percentage | 71851 | 152756 | 2 }}
| 71,180
| {{Percentage | 71180 | 160218 | 2 }}
| 132,362
| {{Percentage | 132362 | 264840 | 2 }}
| 184,055
| {{Percentage | 184055 | 391010 | 2 }}
| 5,862
| {{Percentage | 5862 | 1159227 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]
| 49,115
| {{Percentage | 49115 | 133925 | 2 }}
| 61,274
| {{Percentage | 61274 | 151896 | 2 }}
| 56,652
| {{Percentage | 56652 | 136766 | 2 }}
| 65,117
| {{Percentage | 65117 | 162429 | 2 }}
| 58,720
| {{Percentage | 58720 | 152756 | 2 }}
| 65,313
| {{Percentage | 65313 | 160218 | 2 }}
| 98,001{{efn|name=ad-dharmi|1931-1941: Including [[Ad-Dharmi]]s}}
| {{Percentage | 98001 | 264840 | 2 }}
| 144,522{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}}
| {{Percentage | 144522 | 391010 | 2 }}
| 572,189
| {{Percentage | 572189 |1159227 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 19,267
| {{Percentage | 19267 | 133925 | 2 }}
| 13,876
| {{Percentage | 13876 | 151896 | 2 }}
| 15,751
| {{Percentage | 15751 | 136766 | 2 }}
| 17,860
| {{Percentage | 17860 | 162429 | 2 }}
| 20,357
| {{Percentage | 20357 | 152756 | 2 }}
| 21,478
| {{Percentage | 21478 | 160218 | 2 }}
| 32,009
| {{Percentage | 32009 | 264840 | 2 }}
| 58,779
| {{Percentage | 58779 | 391010 | 2 }}
| 556,431
| {{Percentage | 556431 | 1159227 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 130
| {{Percentage | 130 | 133925 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 848
| {{Percentage | 848 | 136766 | 2 }}
| 1,104
| {{Percentage | 1104 | 162429 | 2 }}
| 1,128
| {{Percentage | 1128 | 152756 | 2 }}
| 1,446
| {{Percentage | 1446 | 160218 | 2 }}
| 1,819
| {{Percentage | 1819 | 264840 | 2 }}
| 2,611
| {{Percentage | 2611 | 391010 | 2 }}
| 14,280
| {{Percentage | 14280 | 1159227 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg|15px]]
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 133925 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 136766 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 162429 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 152756 | 2 }}
| 5
| {{Percentage | 5 | 160218 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 264840 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 773
| {{Percentage | 773 | 1159227 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 9
| {{Percentage | 9 | 151896 | 2 }}
| 143
| {{Percentage | 143 | 136766 | 2 }}
| 532
| {{Percentage | 532 | 162429 | 2 }}
| 652
| {{Percentage | 652 | 152756 | 2 }}
| 738
| {{Percentage | 738 | 160218 | 2 }}
| 604
| {{Percentage | 604 | 264840 | 2 }}
| 974
| {{Percentage | 974 | 391010 | 2 }}
| 1,143
| {{Percentage | 1143 | 1159227 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 5
| {{Percentage | 5 | 136766 | 2 }}
| 19
| {{Percentage | 19 | 162429 | 2 }}
| 48
| {{Percentage | 48 | 152756 | 2 }}
| 58
| {{Percentage | 58 | 160218 | 2 }}
| 41
| {{Percentage | 41 | 264840 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
| [[Judaism]] [[File:Star_of_David.svg|15px]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 136766 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 152756 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 160218 | 2 }}
| 4
| {{Percentage | 4 | 264840 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
| Others
| 4,220
| {{Percentage | 4220 | 133925 | 2 }}
| 846
| {{Percentage | 846 | 151896 | 2 }}
| 1
| {{Percentage | 1 | 136766 | 2 }}
| 2
| {{Percentage | 2 | 162429 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 152756 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 160218 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 264840 | 2 }}
| 79
| {{Percentage | 79 | 391010 | 2 }}
| 8,549
| {{Percentage | 8549 | 1159227 | 2 }}
|-
! Total population
! 133,925
! {{Percentage | 133925 | 133925 | 2 }}
! 151,896
! {{Percentage | 151896 | 151896 | 2 }}
! 136,766
! {{Percentage | 136766 | 136766 | 2 }}
! 162,429
! {{Percentage | 162429 | 162429 | 2 }}
! 152,756
! {{Percentage | 152756 | 152756 | 2 }}
! 160,218
! {{Percentage | 160218 | 160218 | 2 }}
! 264,840
! {{Percentage | 264840 | 264840 | 2 }}
! 391,010
! {{Percentage | 391010 | 391010 | 2 }}
! 1,159,227
! {{Percentage | 1159227 | 1159227 | 2 }}
|}

{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Languages spoken in Amritsar city (2011)<ref name="languages"/>
|label1 = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] |value1 = 91.12 |color1 = pink
|label2 = [[Hindi]] |value2 = 7.90 |color2 = orange
|label3 = Others |value3 = 0.98 |color3 = grey
}}

At the time of the 2011 census, 91.12% of the population spoke [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and 7.90% [[Hindi]] as their first language.<ref name="languages">{{cite web |title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: Punjab (Town) |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10229/download/13341/DDW-C16-TOWN-STMT-MDDS-0300.XLSX |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]] |access-date=9 January 2024 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323160934/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10229/download/13341/DDW-C16-TOWN-STMT-MDDS-0300.XLSX |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Government and politics==
===Politics===
The city is part of the [[Amritsar (Lok Sabha constituency)]].

{|class=wikitable sortable style=width:65%;
! style="width: 15%; font-size:75%" |Constituency number
! style="width: 25%;" | Constituency name
! style="width: 15%;" |Reserved for ([[Scheduled Castes|SC]]/None)
! style="width: 30%;" |Electors (2017)<ref name=election2017>{{cite web |url=http://ceopunjab.nic.in/English/Elections/SE/VS2017/D03-Electors%20and%20Polling%20Stations%20VS%202017.pdf |title=Electors and Polling Stations - VS 2017 |access-date=24 June 2021 |archive-date=10 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110074310/http://ceopunjab.nic.in/English/Elections/SE/VS2017/D03-Electors%20and%20Polling%20Stations%20VS%202017.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{update after|2022|02}}
! style="width: 15%;" |District<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ceopunjab.nic.in/English/lpac.aspx |title=List of Parliamentary Constituencies and Assembly Constituencies in the State of Punjab as determined by the delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituency notification dated 19th June, 2006 |date=19 June 2006 |access-date=24 June 2021 |archive-date=26 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210626090207/http://ceopunjab.nic.in/English/lpac.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|15
|[[Amritsar North Assembly Constituency|Amritsar North]]
|None
|{{formatnum:175908}}
|[[Amritsar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Amritsar]]
|-
|16
|[[Amritsar West Assembly Constituency|Amritsar West]]
|SC
|{{formatnum:179766}}
|[[Amritsar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Amritsar]]
|-
|17
|[[Amritsar Central Assembly Constituency|Amritsar Central]]
|None
|{{formatnum:135954}}
|[[Amritsar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Amritsar]]
|-
|18
|[[Amritsar East Assembly Constituency|Amritsar East]]
|None
|{{formatnum:153629}}
|[[Amritsar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Amritsar]]
|-
|19
|[[Amritsar South Assembly Constituency|Amritsar South]]
|None
|{{formatnum:148809}}
|[[Amritsar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Amritsar]]
|-
|20
|[[Attari Assembly Constituency|Attari]]
|SC
|{{formatnum:173543}}
|[[Amritsar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Amritsar]]
|}

=== Amritsar Municipal Corporation ===
Amritsar was notified as a city on 29 March 1977 under the Punjab Municipal Corporation Act, 1976, following which the Municipal Corporation replaced the earlier Municipal Committee.

The city’s first local administrative body was established as a Town Committee in 1858, which was later upgraded to a Municipal Committee in 1868.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Joshi |first=S.N. |date=1988 |title=Priorities of Municipal Committee, Amritsar (1868 - 1873) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44148413 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=49 |pages=372–377 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref> The first election to the Municipal Corporation was conducted in 1991, when the city was divided into 50 wards. Sh. O. P. Soni was elected Mayor<ref>{{Cite web |last=PTI |date=5 February 2022 |title=From Amritsar's first Mayor to Deputy CM, OP Soni eyeing sixth term as MLA |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2022/Feb/05/from-amritsars-first-mayor-to-deputy-cm-op-soni-eyeing-sixth-term-as-mla-2415675.html |access-date=21 January 2026 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> on 25 June 1991, with S. Raminder Singh Bularia as Senior Deputy Mayor and Sh. Subash Sharma as Deputy Mayor. This elected body remained in office until its dissolution on 18 June 1996.

Subsequently, the number of wards was increased to 60, and elections were held on 28 May 1997. Sh. Subash Sharma, S. Lakha Singh, and Kumari Raj Sharma were elected as Mayor, Senior Deputy Mayor, and Deputy Mayor respectively. Following the resignation of Sh. Subash Sharma, Sh. Brij Mohan Kapur was elected Mayor on 18 October 2000.

The third municipal election took place on 27 April 2002, with the mayoral election held on 15 June 2002. Sh. Sunil Dutti, Sh. Sawinder Singh, and Sh. Om Parkash were elected as Mayor, Senior Deputy Mayor, and Deputy Mayor respectively.

Prior to the fourth municipal election, the number of wards was increased to 65. Elections were held on 8 August 2007, and the election for the office of Mayor took place on 6 September 2007. Sh. Shwait Malik was elected Mayor, with Sh. Ajaybir Pal Singh Randhawa as Senior Deputy Mayor and Sh. Kashmir Singh as Deputy Mayor.

To enhance representation, 33 per cent of seats in the Municipal Corporation are reserved for women on a rotational basis. Seats are also reserved for Scheduled Castes and Backward Classes in accordance with government policy.

The present Municipal House was constituted on 19 September 2012. Sh. Bakshi Ram Arora was elected Mayor, Sh. Avtar Singh (Trucka Wala) as Senior Deputy Mayor, and Sh. Avinash Jolly as Deputy Mayor.

==== List Of Mayors ====
The Mayor of Amritsar is the elected head of the Municipal Corporation of Amritsar and is regarded as the first citizen of the city. The position is primarily ceremonial, as executive authority rests with the Municipal Commissioner. The mayor represents the city in official functions and presides over meetings and deliberations of the Municipal Corporation, ensuring orderly conduct and upholding the dignity of the office.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!S. No.
!Name
!Took Office
!Left Office
!Tenure
!Party
!Ward No.
!Reference
|-
|1
|[[Om Parkash Soni|Om Prakash Soni]]
|25 June 1991
|18 June 1996
|4 years- 359 days
|INC
|
|<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Amritsar Municipal Corporation |url=https://www.amritsarcorp.com/historyMCA.htm}}</ref>
|-
|2
|Subash Sharma
|28 May 1997
|18 October 2000
|3 years- 143 days
|BJP
|
|<ref name=":5" />
|-
|3
|Brij Mohan Kapur
|18 October 2000
|27 April 2002
|1 year- 191 days
|BJP
|
|<ref name=":5" />
|-
|4
|[[Sunil Dutti]]
|15 June 2002
|2007
|5 years
|INC
|
|<ref name=":5" />
|-
|5
|[[Shwait Malik]]
|6 September 2007
|2012
|5 years
|BJP
|
|<ref name=":5" />
|-
|6
|Bakshi Ram Arora
|19 September 2012
|2017
|5 years
|BJP
|
|<ref name=":5" />
|-
|7
|Karamjit Singh Rintu
|23 January 2018
|27 January 2025
|7 years- 361 days
|AAP
|
|<ref name=":5" />
|-
|8
|Jatinder Singh
|27 January 2025
|Incumbent
|359 days
|AAP
|26
|<ref name=":5" />
|}

==== Current Members ====
The Amritsar Municipal Corporation consists of 85 councillors, who are directly elected for a five-year term. The council is headed by a mayor. The most recent municipal elections were conducted on 21 December 2024. Jatinder Singh of the [[Aam Aadmi Party]] currently serves as the Mayor of Amritsar. The positions of Senior Deputy Mayor and Deputy Mayor are held by Priyanka Sharma and Anita Devi respectively, both of whom are members of the Aam Aadmi Party.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="4" |Mayor- Jatinder Singh
!
|-
! colspan="4" |Senior Deputy Mayor- Priyanka Sharma
!
|-
! colspan="4" |Junior Deputy Mayor- Anita Rani
!
|-
!Ward Number
!Name of Councillor
!Party
!Remarks
!
|-
|1
|Kuljit Kaur
| rowspan="2" |[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|2
|Amarjit Singh
|
|
|-
|3
|Navdeep Kaur
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|4
|Mandeep Singh Aujla
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|Elected as independent councilor; later joined AAP<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Times of India. Retrieved 14 January 2025 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/in-amritsar-mayoral-election-aap-gains-ground-despite-having-fewer-councillors-than-factionalism-hit-congress/articleshow/117243310.cms}}</ref>
|
|-
|5
|Kriti Arora
| rowspan="2" |[[Bharatiya Janata Party|Bhartiya Janta Party]]
|
|
|-
|6
|Amandeep Aery
|
|
|-
|7
|Kajal Devi
| rowspan="2" |[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|8
|Balwinder Singh
|
|
|-
|9
|Shobit Kaur
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|10
|Shruti Vij
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|Bhartiya Janta Party]]
|
|
|-
|11
|Priyanka Sharma
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|12
|Narinder Singh
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|13
|Gurwinder Kaur
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|14
|Rajkanwal Preetpal Singh Sandhu
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|15
|Rama Devi
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|Bhartiya Janta Party]]
|
|
|-
|16
|Sandeep Sharma
| rowspan="3" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|17
|Anita Kumari
|
|
|-
|18
|Navdeep Singh
|
|
|-
|19
|Navjeet Kaur
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|20
|Gurinder Singh
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|21
|Kulwinder Kaur
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|22
|Sujinder Bidlan
| rowspan="4" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|23
|Kulwinder Kaur
|
|
|-
|24
|Satnam Singh Sabha
|
|
|-
|25
|Monika Sharma
|
|
|-
|26
|Jatinder Singh
| rowspan="2" |[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|27
|Preet Kaur
|Elected as [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] councilor, later joined AAP<ref name=":6" />
|
|-
|28
|Saurabh Madaan Mithu
| rowspan="2" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|29
|Shweta Devi
|
|
|-
|30
|Avtar Singh
|[[Shiromani Akali Dal]]
|
|
|-
|31
|Sukhbir Kaur
| rowspan="3" |[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|32
|Jagmeet Singh Ghulli
|Elected as independent councilor; later joined AAP<ref name=":6" />
|
|-
|33
|Ashnoor Kaur
|
|
|-
|34
|Amritpal Singh
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|35
|Amarji Kaur
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|
|
|-
|36
|Ashok Kumar
| rowspan="5" |[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|37
|Gurjit Kaur
|
|
|-
|38
|Bhagwant Singh
|
|
|-
|39
|Manpreet Kaur
|
|
|-
|40
|Gurwinder Singh
|
|
|-
|41
|Sukhwinder Kaur
| rowspan="2" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|42
|Gagandeep Singh
|
|
|-
|43
|Inderjit Singh
|[[Shiromani Akali Dal]]
|
|
|-
|44
|Jaswinder Singh Gill
| rowspan="3" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|45
|Sukhbir Kaur
|
|
|-
|46
|Navpreet Singh
|
|
|-
|47
|Kiranjit Kaur
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|48
|Ashwani Kumar
| rowspan="2" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|49
|Ritu Kundra
|
|
|-
|50
|Ritu Devi
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|51
|Sarita Devi
| rowspan="5" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|52
|Vikas Soni
|
|
|-
|53
|Komal Shah
|
|
|-
|54
|Amit Kumar
|
|
|-
|55
|Kulbir Kaur
|
|
|-
|56
|Varinder Vicky Datta
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|57
|Manju Mehra Pappal
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|58
|Jarnail Singh
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|59
|Gurmeet Kaur
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|60
|Gaurav Gill
| rowspan="2" |[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|
|
|-
|61
|Rajni Devi
|
|
|-
|62
|Sameer Dutta
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|63
|Usha Rani
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|Elected as independent councilor; later joined AAP<ref name=":6" />
|
|-
|64
|Nitu Tangri
|[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|
|
|-
|65
|Neeraj Chaudhary
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|66
|Virat Devgan
| rowspan="2" |[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|67
|Anita Devi
|Elected as independent councilor; later joined AAP<ref name=":6" />
|
|-
|68
|Vikas Gill
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|
|
|-
|69
|Gurpreet Kaur
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|70
|Vijay Kumar Bhagat
| rowspan="2" |[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|Elected as independent councilor; later joined AAP<ref name=":6" />
|
|-
|71
|Surjit Kaur
|
|
|-
|72
|Avtar Singh
| rowspan="2" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|Elected as [[Indian National Congress|INC]] councilor; later joined AAP, then returned to INC<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=The Tribune. Retrieved 19 August 2025. |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/fresh-setback-to-cong-as-two-party-councillors-join-aap/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Tribune. Retrieved 20 August 2025. |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/councillor-does-u-turn-rejoins-cong-hours-after-leaving-party/}}</ref>
|
|-
|73
|Kuldeep Singh
|
|
|-
|74
|Paramjeet Kaur Dhillon
|[[Shiromani Akali Dal]]
|
|
|-
|75
|Kashmir Singh
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|76
|Sukhbir Singh
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|77
|Sunita Devi
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|78
|Anita Sharma
| rowspan="2" |[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|Elected as independent councilor; later joined AAP<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Tribune. Retrieved 20 August 2025. |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/another-independent-councillor-joins-aap/}}</ref>
|
|-
|79
|Shivali Devi
|Elected as [[Indian National Congress|INC]] councilor; later joined AAP<ref name=":7" />
|
|-
|80
|Raman Kumar
| rowspan="2" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|81
|Nisha Dhillon
|
|
|-
|82
|Sandeep Singh
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|
|
|-
|83
|Nagwant Kaur
|[[Shiromani Akali Dal]]
|
|
|-
|84
|Rashpal Singh
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|
|
|-
|85
|Natasha Gill
|[[Aam Aadmi Party]]
|Elected as independent councilor; later joined AAP<ref name=":6" />
|
|}

==== Administrative setup ====
Source:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Administrative Setup {{!}} District Amritsar, Government of Punjab {{!}} India |url=https://amritsar.nic.in/administrative-setup/ |access-date=19 December 2025 |language=en-US}}</ref>

===== Tehsils =====
Amritsar district is divided into 6 Tehsils:
# [[Ajnala, India|Ajnala]]
# Amritsar-I
# Amritsar-II
# [[Baba Bakala]]
# [[Majitha]]
# Lopoke

===== Blocks =====
Amritsar district is divided into 10 blocks
# [[Ajnala, India|Ajnala]]
# [[Attari]]
# [[Chogawan]]
# [[Harsha Chhina|Harsha China]]
# [[Jandiala Guru]]
# [[Majitha]]
# [[Rayya, Amritsar|Rayya]]
# Tarsika
# [[Verka Town|Verka]]
# Ramdas

===Civic utilities===
==== Medical facilities ====
* [[Dr. Vidyasagar Institute of Mental Health]], a government mental hospital<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/offtrack/story/20050523-psychiatrist-turns-run-down-mental-hospital-in-amritsar-into-institute-of-repute-787585-2005-05-23|title=Psychiatrist turns run-down mental hospital in Amritsar into institute of repute|last=Vinayak|first=Ramesh|website=India Today|date=23 May 2005|access-date=14 January 2020|archive-date=13 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113093710/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/offtrack/story/20050523-psychiatrist-turns-run-down-mental-hospital-in-amritsar-into-institute-of-repute-787585-2005-05-23|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Government Medical College, Amritsar|Government Medical College]]
* [[Sri Guru Ram Das University of Health Sciences, Sri Amritsar|Sri Guru Ram Das University of Health Sciences]]

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Amritsar}}

Amritsar is the second-largest city and district of Punjab. It is also one of the fastest-growing cities of Punjab.{{cn|date=August 2023}} In the mid-1980s the city was famous for its textile industry. Amritsar's trade and industry faced a blow during militancy period in 1980s, but there are still many textile mills, knitting units and embroidery factories functional in the city. It is famous for its pashmina shawls, woolen clothes, blankets, etc. Among handicrafts, the craft of the [[Thathera]]s of [[Jandiala Guru]] in [[Amritsar district]] got enlisted on [[UNESCO]]'s [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists|List of Intangible Cultural Heritage]] in 2014,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/traditional-brass-and-copper-craft-of-utensil-making-among-the-thatheras-of-jandiala-guru-punjab-india-00845|title=UNESCO - Traditional brass and copper craft of utensil making among the Thatheras of Jandiala Guru, Punjab, India|website=ich.unesco.org|language=en|access-date=1 July 2019|archive-date=7 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007132215/https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/traditional-brass-and-copper-craft-of-utensil-making-among-the-thatheras-of-jandiala-guru-punjab-india-00845|url-status=live}}</ref> and the effort to revive this craft under the umbrella of Project Virasat is among India's biggest government-sponsored craft revival programs.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/age-old-craft-of-thatheras-to-get-new-life/articleshow/64715430.cms|title=Jandiala utensils: Age-old craft of thatheras to get new life|date=24 June 2018|first1=Yudhvir|last1=Rana|work=The Times of India|language=en|access-date=1 July 2019|archive-date=2 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702083822/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/age-old-craft-of-thatheras-to-get-new-life/articleshow/64715430.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> Tourism and hospitality have recently become the backbone of local economy due to heavy tourist arrivals. Hundreds of small and some large hotels have sprung up to cater to the increased tourist inflow. Restaurants, taxi operators, local shopkeepers have all benefited from the tourist boom.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}

==Tourism==
{{main|Tourism in Amritsar}}

{{div col|colwidth=26em}}
* [[Golden Temple]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/asia/india/articles/real-marigold-hotel-selina-scott-india/|title=The Real Marigold Hotel: What a month in India taught me about the country's poverty, history and serenity|work=The Telegraph|access-date=31 July 2018|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731150319/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/asia/india/articles/real-marigold-hotel-selina-scott-india/|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> and Heritage Street<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/amritsars-heritage-street-in-a-shambles/articleshow/65076282.cms|title='Amritsar's Heritage Street in a shambles'|work=The Times of India|access-date=31 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815120604/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/amritsars-heritage-street-in-a-shambles/articleshow/65076282.cms|archive-date=15 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Khalsa College, Amritsar|Khalsa College]]
*[[Durgiana Temple|Durgiana Mandir]] and Bada Hanuman Mandir<ref>{{Cite book|last=Raj|first=Rishi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rn-DDwAAQBAJ&q=durgiana+temple&pg=PP15|title=Jallianwala Bagh and Wagah Border|date=January 2020|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan|language=en}}</ref>
*Mata Lal Devi Mandir, Model Town<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Minahan|first1=Robert|last2=Mandir|first2=Allen S.|date=March 2010|title=Letters|journal=Spine|volume=35|issue=6|pages=720–721|doi=10.1097/brs.0b013e3181d32398|pmid=24736511|issn=0362-2436|doi-access=free}}</ref>
*Shri Ram Tirath and [[Bhagwan Valmiki Tirath Sthal|Valmiki Tirath]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Pioneer|first=The|title=Punjab to transform 30 places as tourist attraction centers|url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2018/state-editions/punjab-to-transform-30-places-as-tourist-attraction-centers.html|access-date=8 February 2021|website=The Pioneer|language=en|archive-date=28 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928135436/https://www.dailypioneer.com/2018/state-editions/punjab-to-transform-30-places-as-tourist-attraction-centers.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Shivala Bagh Bhaiyan<ref>{{Cite book|last=Singh|first=Fauja|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7ABAAAAMAAJ&q=Shivala+Amritsar|title=The City of Amritsar: A Study of Historical, Cultural, Social, and Economic Aspects|date=1978|publisher=Oriental Publishers & Distributors|language=en}}</ref>
* Punjab State War Heroes' Memorial & Museum<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/amritsar-war-memorial-s-kargil-gallery-to-open-on-july-15/story-MGamGdZn2WfggMUVwAlYEP.html|title=Amritsar: War memorial's Kargil gallery to be thrown open on July 15|date=14 June 2018|work=hindustan times|access-date=31 July 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730235147/https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/amritsar-war-memorial-s-kargil-gallery-to-open-on-july-15/story-MGamGdZn2WfggMUVwAlYEP.html|archive-date=30 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Sadda Pind<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/-sadda-pind-free-entry-ticket-for-meritorious-students/598986.html|title=Sadda Pind: Free entry ticket for meritorious students|date=1 June 2018|work=The Tribune|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731183559/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/-sadda-pind-free-entry-ticket-for-meritorious-students/598986.html|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/heritage-project-know-real-punjab-at-sadda-pind/story-J6NOlN55BX4FIvED8TTEyO.html|title=Heritage project: Know real Punjab at 'Sadda Pind'|date=23 October 2016|work=hindustan times|access-date=31 July 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731183512/https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/heritage-project-know-real-punjab-at-sadda-pind/story-J6NOlN55BX4FIvED8TTEyO.html|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Urban Haat Food Street<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/as-punjab-govt-gears-up-to-open-lahore-like-food-street-in-amritsar-no-takers-for-existing-one/story-SoUktiQq5G1qVyScHzn4PL.html|title=As Punjab govt gears up to open Lahore-like food street in Amritsar, no takers for existing one|date=26 February 2018|work=hindustan times|access-date=31 July 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731213147/https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/as-punjab-govt-gears-up-to-open-lahore-like-food-street-in-amritsar-no-takers-for-existing-one/story-SoUktiQq5G1qVyScHzn4PL.html|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Gobindgarh Fort]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.india.com/news/india/punjab-18th-century-gobindgarh-fort-thrown-open-to-the-public-after-completion-of-its-restoration-work-1984869/|title=18th century Gobindgarh Fort thrown open to public after completion of its restoration work|last=Dangwal|first=Sandhya|date=2 April 2017|work=India.com|access-date=31 July 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731183410/http://www.india.com/news/india/punjab-18th-century-gobindgarh-fort-thrown-open-to-the-public-after-completion-of-its-restoration-work-1984869/|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Ram Bagh Palace]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/asi-lifts-photography-ban-tourists-cheer/621657.html|title=ASI lifts photography ban, tourists cheer|last=Bagga|first=Neeraj|date=16 July 2018|work=The Tribune|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731183623/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/asi-lifts-photography-ban-tourists-cheer/621657.html|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> and
**Maharaja Ranjit Singh Museum
* [[Wagah]] border<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/crowd-heads-for-wagah-border-on-long-independence-day-weekend/articleshow/59981252.cms|title=Crowd heads for Wagah border on long Independence Day weekend|work=The Times of India|access-date=31 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815120615/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/crowd-heads-for-wagah-border-on-long-independence-day-weekend/articleshow/59981252.cms|archive-date=15 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Gurudwara Shaheed Ganj Sahib
* [[Partition Museum]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/the-partition-museum-opening-up-about-the-pain-1.694671|title=The Partition Museum: Opening up about the pain|work=The National|access-date=31 July 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731183631/https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/the-partition-museum-opening-up-about-the-pain-1.694671|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.asianage.com/india/all-india/260218/tales-of-47-move-trudeau-at-partition-museum.html|title=Tales of '47 move Trudeau at Partition Museum|date=26 February 2018|work=The Asian Age|access-date=31 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731213243/http://www.asianage.com/india/all-india/260218/tales-of-47-move-trudeau-at-partition-museum.html|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Jallianwala Bagh]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/shaheed-udham-singh-s-10-foot-high-statue-to-be-inaugurated-at-jallianwala-bagh-on-march-13/story-tegw9gevQk1G66594NlAlJ.html|title=Shaheed Udham Singh's 10-foot high statue to be inaugurated at Jallianwala Bagh on March 13|date=10 March 2018|work=hindustan times|access-date=31 July 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731183411/https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/shaheed-udham-singh-s-10-foot-high-statue-to-be-inaugurated-at-jallianwala-bagh-on-march-13/story-tegw9gevQk1G66594NlAlJ.html|archive-date=31 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Pul Kanjri]]
* [[VR Ambarsar]], Circular Road
*[[Mall of Amritsar]], near Hyatt
*[[Jang-e-Azadi Memorial]] near [[Kartarpur, India]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/cm-opens-second-phase-of-jang-e-azadi-memorial-at-kartarpur/articleshow/63193135.cms|title=Amarinder Singh opens second phase of Jang-e-Azadi memorial at Kartarpur|work=The Times of India|access-date=31 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180825220232/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/cm-opens-second-phase-of-jang-e-azadi-memorial-at-kartarpur/articleshow/63193135.cms|archive-date=25 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{div col end}}

==Transport==
===Air===
[[File:Sri Guru Ram Dass Jee International Airport, Amritsar.jpg|thumb|[[Sri Guru Ram Das Ji International Airport]]]]
Amritsar hosts [[Sri Guru Ram Das Ji International Airport]]. The airport is connected to other parts of India and other countries with direct international flights to cities and is the 12th busiest airport in the country in terms of international traffic.<ref>{{cite tweet|user=networkthoughts|number=1223996410070228999|title=Top 20 airports in #India by passenger traffic in 2019 International, Domestic and Total|date=2 February 2020|accessdate=22 January 2021}}</ref> It serves Amritsar and several other districts in Punjab and neighbouring states.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}

===Rail===
[[Amritsar Junction railway station]] is the main station serving Amritsar. It is the busiest railway station in Indian state of Punjab and one of the highest revenue-generating station of [[Northern Railways]]. Due to high traffic at the [[Amritsar Junction railway station]], [[Indian Railways]] has planned to develop two satellite stations-Chheharta and Bhagtanwala, in order to decongest traffic at this station. As many as 6 trains would be shifted to Chheharta railway station in the first phase.<ref>{{cite news |title=City railway station all set to be decongested soon |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/amritsar/city-railway-station-all-set-to-be-decongested-soon-871380 |access-date=22 January 2021 |work=Tribuneindia News Service |date=7 December 2019 |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308202307/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/amritsar/city-railway-station-all-set-to-be-decongested-soon-871380 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Indian Railway Stations Development Corporation]] has also planned to make the Amritsar Junction railway station a world-class railway station on lines of the international airport based on PPP model. The project has received an overwhelming response with bids from 7 private firms, including [[GMR Group|GMR]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Wow! Indian Railways receives "overwhelming" response for Nagpur, Amritsar, Gwalior, Sabarmati station projects |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/infrastructure/railways/wow-indian-railways-receives-overwhelming-response-for-nagpur-amritsar-gwalior-sabarmati-station-projects/2009006/ |access-date=16 August 2020 |work=The Financial Express |date=30 June 2020 |archive-date=30 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730035656/https://www.financialexpress.com/infrastructure/railways/wow-indian-railways-receives-overwhelming-response-for-nagpur-amritsar-gwalior-sabarmati-station-projects/2009006/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Road===
Amritsar is located on the historic [[Grand Trunk Road]] (G.T. Road), also known as [[National Highway 1 (India, old numbering)|NH 1]] now renumbered as [[National Highway 3 (India)|National Highway 3]]. An expressway by name of [[Delhi–Amritsar–Katra Expressway]] at the cost of {{INR}}25,000 [[crore]] is approved under [[Bharatmala]] scheme which will cut the travel time from Amritsar to [[New Delhi]] by road from current 8 hours, to 4 hours.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nag |first1=Devanjana |title=Delhi-Amritsar-Katra Expressway: Amritsar to Delhi in 4 hours! Phase 1 of expressway to cost Rs 25,000 crore |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/infrastructure/roadways/delhi-amritsar-katra-expressway-amritsar-to-delhi-in-4-hours-phase-1-of-expressway-to-cost-rs-25000-crore/1979806/ |access-date=22 January 2021 |work=The Financial Express |date=3 June 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308190518/https://www.financialexpress.com/infrastructure/roadways/delhi-amritsar-katra-expressway-amritsar-to-delhi-in-4-hours-phase-1-of-expressway-to-cost-rs-25000-crore/1979806/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Another expressway, called [[Amritsar–Jamnagar Expressway]] is under construction which will connect Amritsar to [[Jamnagar]] in [[Gujarat]]. Additionally, [[National Highway 54 (India)|NH 54]] (Old NH15), [[National Highway 354 (India)|NH 354]] and [[National Highway 503A (India)|NH 503A]] connect Amritsar to other parts of state and rest of India.
A [[ring road]] will also be built surrounding all 4 sides of Amritsar<ref>{{cite news |title=शहर के चारों तरफ बनेगा रिग रोड हाईवे, सरकार ने दी मंजूरी |url=https://www.jagran.com/punjab/amritsar-ring-road-will-built-outside-amritsar-20457941.html |access-date=22 January 2021 |work=Dainik Jagran |date=30 June 2020 |language=hi |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308200245/https://www.jagran.com/punjab/amritsar-ring-road-will-built-outside-amritsar-20457941.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{INR}} 450,000,000 is being spent to expand the Amritsar-[[Jalandhar]] stretch of G.T. Road to four lanes. In 2010, elevated road with four lanes connected to the National highway for better access to the [[Golden Temple]] has been started.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20060401/punjab1.htm |title=The Tribune, Chandigarh, India – Punjab |publisher=Tribuneindia.com |access-date=17 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120920051821/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20060401/punjab1.htm |archive-date=20 September 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Amritsar MetroBus===
[[File:ISBT Amritsar.jpg|thumb|right|Amritsar Inter State Bus Stand]]
Amritsar has a [[bus rapid transit]] service, the [[Amritsar Metrobus]] which was launched on 28 January 2019. 93 fully air-conditioned [[Tata Marcopolo]] buses are used for the service connecting places like{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
* [[Golden Temple]]
* [[Jallianwala Bagh]]
* [[Guru Nanak Dev University]]
* [[Golden Gate]]
* [[India Gate]], Amritsar
* [[Durgiana Temple]]
* [[Khalsa College, Amritsar|Khalsa College]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.punjabtribune.com/news/82781-navjot-singh-sidhu-launches-brts-project-full-throttle-.aspx|title=Navjot Singh Sidhu launches BRTS project full throttle|website=www.punjabtribune.com|access-date=3 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306043711/http://www.punjabtribune.com/news/82781-navjot-singh-sidhu-launches-brts-project-full-throttle-.aspx|archive-date=6 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Metro bus gets lukewarm response | website=The Tribune | date=31 January 2019 | url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/metro-bus-gets-lukewarm-response/721687.html | access-date=6 November 2019 | archive-date=6 November 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106082218/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/metro-bus-gets-lukewarm-response/721687.html | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tatamotors.com/press/tata-motors-commences-delivery-of-new-ac-buses-with-automatic-transmission-in-amritsar-for-new-brts-operations/|title=Tata Motors commences delivery of new AC buses, with Automatic Transmission in Amritsar, for new BRTS operations|website=Tata Motors Limited|date=15 December 2016|access-date=6 November 2019|archive-date=11 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711195721/https://www.tatamotors.com/press/tata-motors-commences-delivery-of-new-ac-buses-with-automatic-transmission-in-amritsar-for-new-brts-operations/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Educational institutions ==
[[File:Khalsa College-Monumentos de Amritsar-India16.JPG|alt=|thumb|200x200px|[[Khalsa College, Amritsar|Khalsa College]]]]

* [[BBK DAV College for Women, Amritsar|BBK DAV College for Women]]
* [[D.A.V College]]
* [[D.A.V Public School]]
* [[Delhi Public School Society|Delhi Public School]]
* [[Government Medical College, Amritsar|Government Medical College]]
* [[Guru Nanak Dev University]]
* [[Khalsa College, Amritsar|Khalsa College]]
* [[Khalsa College of Law]]
* [[Indian Institute of Management, Amritsar|Indian Institute of Management]]
* [[Spring Dale Senior School]]

==Sister cities==
Following cities are [[sister cities]] of Amritsar:
*[[Bakersfield, California|Bakersfield]], [[California]], United States<ref>{{cite web|title=Sister Cities|url=https://bakersfieldsistercity.org/?page_id=22|website=bakersfieldsistercity.org|publisher=Bakersfield Sister City Project Corporation|access-date=18 February 2020|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922214234/https://www.bakersfieldsistercity.org/?page_id=22|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*[[Sandwell]], [[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]], England, United Kingdom<ref>{{cite web|title=Sandwell Economic Prospectus|url=https://cmis.sandwell.gov.uk/cmis5/Document.ashx?czJKcaeAi5tUFL1DTL2UE4zNRBcoShgo=EYiXoKQbJaKk7svJJ1%2FfLvnRltWVGfTdSYDMeQ0RcNe8X5YIbvU6wA%3D%3D&mCTIbCubSFfXsDGW9IXnlg%3D%3D=hFflUdN3100%3D&kCx1AnS9%2FpWZQ40DXFvdEw%3D%3D=hFflUdN3100%3D&uJovDxwdjMPoYv%2BAJvYtyA%3D%3D=ctNJFf55vVA%3D&FgPlIEJYlotS%2BYGoBi5olA%3D%3D=NHdURQburHA%3D&d9Qjj0ag1Pd993jsyOJqFvmyB7X0CSQK=ctNJFf55vVA%3D&WGewmoAfeNR9xqBux0r1Q8Za60lavYmz=ctNJFf55vVA%3D&WGewmoAfeNQ16B2MHuCpMRKZMwaG1PaO=ctNJFf55vVA%3D|website=sandwell.gov.uk|publisher=Sandwell Metropolitan Borough Council|page=18|access-date=7 May 2020}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
*[[Thetford]], [[Norfolk, England]], United Kingdom<ref>{{cite web|title=UK town to be Amritsar's twin city in memory of Maharaja Duleep Singh|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/uk-town-to-be-amritsar-s-twin-city-in-memory-of-maharaja-duleep-singh-616711|website=tribuneindia.com|publisher=Tribune India|date=7 July 2018|access-date=18 February 2020|archive-date=18 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218100056/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/uk-town-to-be-amritsar-s-twin-city-in-memory-of-maharaja-duleep-singh-616711|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of people from Amritsar]]
* [[Amritsar Ring Road]]
* [[Amritsar train disaster]], a major accident that occurred during Dussehra 2018
* [[Tarn Taran District]]
* Sports facilities:
** [[Gandhi Sports Complex Ground]], cricket stadium


== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
*{{cite book |title=Afghanistan |first=Louis |last=Dupree |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1980}}

== External links ==
{{Wikivoyage|Amritsar}}
{{Commons category|Amritsar}}
{{Wikiquote}}

* [http://amritsar.nic.in/ Official Website of District of Amritsar]
* [https://www.amritsarcorp.com/ Official Website of Amritsar Municipal Corporation]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150505063818/http://hridayindia.in/amritsar/ Amritsar HRIDAY city]

{{Amritsar district}}
{{Punjab (Indian state)}}
{{Portalbar|Punjab|India}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Amritsar| ]]
[[Category:Metropolitan cities in India]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Amritsar district]]
[[Category:Former capitals in India]]
[[Category:Holy cities]]
[[Category:Populated places along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Sikh places]]
[[Category:Populated places established in 1574]]