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Bhramari

2025-09-29T09:00:07Z

220.255.242.109:

{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| image = [[File:Bhramari Devi.png|200px|]]
| caption = Brahmari is seen releasing her army of black bees against the army of Arunasura
| name = Bhramari
| affiliation = [[Mahadevi]], [[Lakshmi]], [[Parvati]]
| god_of = Goddess of Bees<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zPepDwAAQBAJ&dq=bhramari+goddess+of+bees&pg=PT88 | isbn=9781684668434 | title=Mind Your Breathing: The Yogi's Handbook with 37 Pranayama Exercises | date=19 August 2019 | publisher=Notion Press }}</ref>
| consort =
}}{{Short description|Hindu goddess}}'''Bhramari''' ({{Langx|sa|भ्रामरी|lit=like a bee|translit=Bhrāmarī}}) is the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] goddess of bees. She is an incarnation of the goddess [[Mahadevi]] in [[Shaktism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Klostermaier |first=Klaus K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CFQ9DgAAQBAJ&dq=bhramari+devi+bhagavatam&pg=PA217 |title=Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India |date=2006-01-01 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-88920-743-1 |pages=217 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Books |first=Kausiki |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5zxKEAAAQBAJ&dq=bhramari+goddess+of+bees&pg=PT89 |title=Markandeya Purana Part 2: Devi Mahatmya: English Translation only without Slokas |date=2021-10-24 |publisher=Kausiki Books |pages=89 |language=en}}</ref> {{refn|group=note|She is regarded to be a form of [[Lakshmi]] in the [[Pancharatra]] texts,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Makarand Joshi |url=http://archive.org/details/laksmitantratranslationbysanjuktaguptareprintdelhi2003lakshmitantra |title=LAKSMI TANTRA Translation By Sanjukta Gupta Reprint Delhi 2003 LAKSHMI TANTRA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o2ZpAAAAcAAJ&dq=bhramari+lakshmi&pg=PA154 |title=The Attanagalū-Vansa, Or the History of the Temple of Attanagalla: Translated ... with Notes ... by J. D'Alwis. [With the Pali Text Appended.] |date=1866 |publisher=Pali and Eng. Colombo |pages=154 |language=en}}</ref> while in [[Shaivism]], she is also regarded to be a form of [[Parvati]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Byghan |first=Yowann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qunaDwAAQBAJ&dq=bhramari+goddess+of+bees&pg=PA303 |title=Sacred and Mythological Animals: A Worldwide Taxonomy |date=2020-03-11 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-1-4766-7950-1 |pages=303 |language=en}}</ref>}}

== Etymology ==
Bhramari means 'the goddess of bees', or 'the goddess of [[black bee]]s'.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dowson |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UyAHAAAAQAAJ&dq=bhramari+bee+goddess&pg=PA87 |title=A classical dictionary of Hindu mythology and religion, geography, history and literature |date=1879 |pages=87 |language=en}}</ref>

== Iconography ==
The goddess is associated with bees, hornets, and wasps, which cling to her body, and is thus typically depicted as emanating bees and hornets from her [[Chaturbhuja|four hands]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Coburn |first=Thomas B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zaTtIQguKYIC&dq=bhramari+goddess+of+bees&pg=PA193 |title=Encountering the Goddess: A Translation of the Devi-Mahatmya and a Study of Its Interpretation |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-9931-3 |pages=193 |language=en}}</ref>

==Legend==

The tenth book and thirteenth chapter of the ''[[Devi Bhagavata Purana]]'' records the exploits of the goddess Bhramari in detail:<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Devi Bhagavatam: The Tenth Book: Chapter 13 |url=http://sacred-texts.com/hin/db/bk10ch13.htm#page_1046 |access-date=2016-03-26 |website=sacred-texts.com}}</ref>

In the city of the [[Daitya|daityas]], there lived a powerful [[asura]] named [[Arunasura|Aruna]]. He despised the [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]], and sought above all else to conquer these deities. He went to the banks of the [[Ganges]] in the Himalayas, and practiced a very strict penance to [[Brahma]], believing him to be the protector of the daityas.

Observing his penance and resolve, Brahma saw fit to bless Arunasura with the boon of not meeting his end at any war, nor by any arms or weapons, nor by any man or any woman, by any biped or quadruped creature, or any combination of the two. This blessing gave Arunasura the confidence to call on all the other daityas living in the nether regions and fight a final battle with the deities above. The daityas saluted him as their king. By his command, they sent messengers to [[Devaloka]] to signal their intent. Upon hearing the news, [[Indra]] trembled with fear, and went instantly with the deities to the abode of Brahma. After discussing the situation with Brahma, they went to the [[Vaikunth|Vaikuntha]] to recruit [[Vishnu]]. There, they all held a conference on how to kill the daitya who sought to overthrow them.

While the deities conferred, Arunasura and his army invaded Devaloka. The daitya used the power of his penances to assume various forms and seized possession of the [[Chandra]], [[Surya]], [[Yamraj|Yama]], [[Agni]], and all the elemental deities. All these deities, dislodged from their stations, visited [[Kailash|Kailasha]], and presented to [[Shiva]] the dire nature of their situation. After conferring with Shiva, they turned to [[Adi Parashakti]]. The goddess was aware of Aruna's blessing, and devised a plan to kill the daitya with the help of six-legged creatures.

After taking control of all the celestial regions, Aruna's next intention was to attack Kailasha directly. Shiva and his sons confronted him at the foot of the mountain. They tried to defeat him, but were unsuccessful. Even Shiva was unable to defeat him. Adi Shakti then appeared behind Shiva, and grew to a massive size, emanating bees from her four hands. Her three eyes shone like the sun, the moon, and the eternal fire [[Agni]]. She closed her eyes in concentration, summoning forth countless bees, hornets, wasps, flies, termites, mosquitos and spiders from the skies. They crawled onto her body and clung onto her, merging with her to create the divine form of Bhramari.

In the battle that ensued, the daityas' swords were blocked by Bhramari's massive size, while her other arms inflicted damage on the massive army. The bees, hornets, wasps, flies, termites, mosquitos, and spiders, which clung to her emanated forth in a wave over the ranks. When Arunasura was the last daitya remaining on the battlefield, she retreated and sent out all of the insects to attack him. They crawled all over him and ripped open each part of his body: his chests, back and belly, arms, hands, fingers, legs, feet, and toes were all torn apart. Soon after seeing Arunasura's great fall, the insects returned to Bhramari and clung on her again. The deities, who were in awe of this new form, gave her great praise. On the successful decimation of the daitya forces, all of the devas were able to return to their celestial abodes.

== Literature ==

=== Devi Bhagavata Purana ===
The salutations offered to Bhramari in the Devi Bhagavata Purana indicate that she is a form of the goddess of prosperity, [[Lakshmi]]:<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2013-05-15 |title=On the account of Bhrāmarī Devī [Chapter 13] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/devi-bhagavata-purana/d/doc57377.html |access-date=2022-09-23 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=Obeisance to Thee! O Bhagavatī! It is Thou that didst appear as Lakṣmī out of the milk ocean (Kṣīra Samudra). Thou hadst destroyed Vritrāsura, Caṇḍa, Muṇḍa, Dhūmralocana, Rakta Bīja, Śumbha, Niśumbha and the Exterminator of the Dānavas and thus, Thou didst do great favours to the Devas.|title=[[Devi Bhagavata Purana]]|source=Book 10, Chapter 13}}

=== Marakandeya Purana ===
She is also briefly alluded to in the [[Devi Mahatmya]].<ref name="Brown">{{cite book |author=C. Mackenzie Brown |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8kpThg4Q5EC&pg=PA277 |title=The Triumph of the Goddess: The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the Devi-Bhagavata Purana |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-9777-7 |pages=277}}</ref>

=== Lakshmi Tantra ===
Lakshmi declares herself to be Bhramari in the [[Lakshmi Tantra]]:<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2015-12-09 |title=Bhramari, Bhramarī, Bhrāmarī: 13 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/bhramari |access-date=2022-09-23 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=“During the sixtieth era there will be one demon, called Aruṇa who will do much harm to men and sages. Then I shall appear in bee-form incorporating innumerable bees, and I shall slay the mighty demon and rescue the three worlds. From then on people will praise me for ever and address me as Bhrāmarī.”|title=[[Lakshmi Tantra]]|source=9.41-43}}

==Yoga==

In [[pranayama]], the name Bhramari is given to a type of breathing through the nose, making a smooth humming sound like a bee buzzing.<ref>{{cite web |title=Types of Pranayama |url=https://www.yogapoint.com/pranayama/types-of-pranayama.htm#bhramari-humming-bee-breath |publisher=YogaPoint |accessdate=13 May 2019 |date=2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Balasubramanian |first=Sundar |title=Mind Your Breathing: The Yogi's Handbook with 37 Pranayama Exercises |publisher=[[Notion Press]] |year=2020 |chapter=15. Bhramari (Humming Bee Breathing) |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/_/zPepDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA1}}</ref>

== Worship ==
The goddess is worshipped as Bhramaramba together with [[Lord Shiva|Shiva]] at the following temples:

* [[Andhra Pradesh]] state
** ''[[Mallikarjuna Temple, Srisailam|Mallikarjuna Temple]]'' at [[Srisailam]] in [[Nandyal district]], one of the twelve [[Jyothirlingas|Jyotirlingas]] temples and one of main 18 [[Shakta pithas]].<ref name=kat1/>

* [[Karnataka]] state
** ''[[Kateel#Temple|Bhramari Sri Durga Parameshwari temple]]'' at [[Kateel]] in [[Dakshina Kannada]] district of the Indian state of Karnataka.<ref name=kat1>{{Cite web |title=KateelDevi {{!}} Kateel Devi{{!}}Kateel Durgaparameshwari Temple Official Website{{!}}Kateel devasthana {{!}}News{{!}}Events{{!}}Photos{{!}} Devi temple{{!}}Kateel school{{!}}College{{!}}Goshala{{!}}Yakshagana{{!}}Annadhana |url=http://www.kateeldevi.in/Home/Footer?LinkText=history&linkId=24 |access-date=2024-06-06 |website=www.kateeldevi.in}}</ref>

* [[Haryana]] state
** ''[[Banbhori#Temple|Shri Durga Mata Bhramari Mandir]]'' at [[Banbhori]] village of [[Hisar district]] where fairs are held twice a year and an [[eternal flame]] which has been continuously burning at the temple for at least 400 years.<ref>[https://hisar.gov.in/mata-bhanbhori-devi-mandir Mata Bhanbhori Devi Mandir], hisar.gov.in, accessed 29 Sept 2025.</ref><ref>[https://www.jagran.com/haryana/hisar-people-coming-from-abroad-in-this-temple-17695511.html यहां मान्यता ऐसी कि भूमि से पैदा हुई देवी मां की प्रतिमा, देश विदेश से आते हैं श्रद्धालु], Jagran, 20 March 2018.</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Ah-Muzen-Cab]] -- [[Maya peoples|Mayan]] god of bees.
* [[Aristaeus]] -- [[Ancient Greek]] god of bees.
* [[List of Lithuanian mythological figures#Jan Łasicki|Austėja]] -- [[Lithuania]]n goddess of bees.
* [[List of Lithuanian mythological figures#Jan Łasicki|Bubilas]] -- [[Lithuania]]n god of bees.
* [[List of Maya gods and supernatural beings#C|Colel Cab]] -- [[Maya peoples|Mayan]] goddess of bees.
* [[Melissa]] -- [[Ancient Greek]]/[[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] goddess of bees.
* [[Mellona]] -- [[Roman mythology|Roman]] goddess of bees.
* [[Bee (mythology)]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{HinduMythology}}
[[Category:Hindu goddesses]]
[[Category:Forms of Lakshmi]]
[[Category:Shaktism]]
[[Category:Bees in religion]]

List of dams on the Brahmaputra River

2025-09-23T18:54:00Z

220.255.242.109:

{{short description|None}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2022}}
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| Top left: Brahmaputra basin in India
| Top right: [[Rangit Dam]] and reservoir on [[Rangeet River]]
| Bottom left: Map of the Yarlung Tsangpo River watershed which drains the north slope of the Himalayas.}}
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This is a list of '''dams on the Brahmaputra River''' and hydro–infrastructure in the [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra River Basin]] which is a key constituent of the [[Ganges]]-Brahmaputra basin of [[Himalaya]]n rivers. Brahmaputra originates near [[Mount Kailash]], flows through [[Tibet]] where it is called '''[[Yarlung Tsangpo]]'''. It enters India in [[Arunachal Pradesh]] in [[Eastern Himalaya]], and then enters Bangladesh where it is called '''[[Jamuna River (Bangladesh)|Jamuna]]''' (not to be mistaken with [[Yamuna]] tributary of Ganges in India). It finally flows into the [[Bay of Bengal]] where it merges with the Ganges at [[Ganges Delta|Sunderban Delta]].

== List of dams and other hydro–infrastructure ==
''Upstream to downstream''
{| class="wikitable"
!Name
!Location
!Year
Completed
!Notes/Ref

|-
! colspan="4" | China
|-
|[[Yamdrok Hydropower Station]]
|{{coord|29.2641|90.6064|type:landmark|display=}}
|1998
|<ref name="completed">{{cite news|date=13 October 2015|title=China's first hydropower dam on Brahmaputra is fully operational|agency=HiLight News|url=http://hilight.news/chinas-first-hydropower-dam-on-brahmaputra-is-fully-operational/|access-date=19 November 2015|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303233346/http://hilight.news/chinas-first-hydropower-dam-on-brahmaputra-is-fully-operational/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

|-
|[[Pangduo Hydro Power Station]]
|{{coord|30.183|91.353|dim:1200_type:landmark_region:CN-54|display=}}
|2013
|
|-
|[[Zhikong Hydro Power Station]]
|{{coord|29|58|6.78|N|91|52|36.55|E|type:landmark|display=}}
|2007
|

|-
|[[Zangmu Dam]]
|{{coord|29|11|06|N|92|31|00|E|type:landmark|display=inline}}
|2015
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=3 December 2015|title=Rajya Sabha Question No. 52 Dam on Brahmaputra by China|url=https://mea.gov.in/rajya-sabha.htm?dtl/26106/Q_NO52_DAM_ON_BRAHMAPUTRA_BY_CHINA|access-date=2020-12-08|website=mea.gov.in}}</ref>

|-
|[[Jiacha Hydropower Station]]
|{{Coord|29|08|23|N|92|32|48|E|name=Jiacha Hydro Power Station}}
|2020
|<ref>{{cite web|date=17 Mar 2020|title=The Jiacha Hydropower Station with a total investment of 7.83 billion yuan will be put into operation this year|url=http://xz.people.com.cn/n2/2020/0317/c138901-33882665.html|work=[[People's Daily]]}}</ref>

|-
|Lalho Hydroelectric Project
|Xiabuqu river, Shigatse
|2019
|<ref>{{Cite web|last=Garg|first=Ibu Sanjeeb|date=2016-10-18|title=Why India should be worried about China's Lalho dam|url=https://www.livemint.com/Opinion/u143w6gzzfwkQs3t1wBu3O/Why-India-should-be-worried-about-Chinas-Lalho-dam.html|access-date=2020-12-11|website=mint|language=en}}</ref>

|-
| colspan="4" |'''Proposed:''' [[Lengda Hydro Power Station]], [[Zhongda Hydro Power Station]], [[Langzhen Hydro Power Station]], [[Jeixu Dam]] and [[Jiexu Hydro Power Station]], [[Dagu Dam]] and [[Dagu Hydro Power Station]], [[Bayu Hydro Power Station]], [[Lalho Dam]] and [[Lalho Hydroelectric Project]], [[Medog Hydropower Station]]

|-
! colspan="4" | Bhutan
|-
|[[Energy in Bhutan|Chukha Hydropower Project]]
|
|1988
|336 MW

|-
|[[Tala Hydroelectric Power Station]]
|
|2007
|1020 MW

|-
|Kurichhu Hydropower Project
|
|2002
|60 MW

|-
|Basochhu Hydropower Project
|
|2004
|40 MW

|-
| colspan="4" |'''Other related projects:''' Punatsangchhu-I Hydroelectric Project (1200 MW), Punatsangchhu-II Hydroelectric Project (1040 MW), Dagachhu Hydropower Project (126 MW), Jaldhaka hydroelectric plant (18 MW), Gyetsha Mini-Hydel (1.8 MW).
|-
| colspan="4" |'''Proposed:''' 

|-
! colspan="4" | India
|-
|[[Subansiri Lower Dam]]
|{{coord|27|33|13|N|94|15|31|E|type:landmark|display=}}
| (2026 target)<ref name=damtr1>[https://arunachal24.in/cm-pema-khandu-unveils-ambitious-roadmap-for-viksit-arunachal-2047/ CM Pema Khandu Unveils Ambitious Roadmap for Viksit Arunachal @ 2047], arunachal24.in, 15 Aug 2025.</ref>
|2000 MW<ref>{{Cite web|title=Subansiri Hydroelectric Project to begin power generation by mid-June, full commissioning by May 2026|url=https://assamtribune.com/assam/subansiri-hydroelectric-project-to-begin-power-generation-by-mid-june-full-commissioning-by-may-2026-1579472|access-date=10 June 2025}}</ref>

|-
|[[Ranganadi Dam]]
|{{coord|27|20|34|N|93|49|0|E|type:landmark|display=}}
|2001
|405 MW

|-
|[[Rangit Dam]]
|{{coord|27|17|41|N|88|17|32|E|type:landmark|display=}}
|2000
|60 MW

|-
|[[Etalin]] Hydroelectric project
|  [[Dibang Valley district]], Arunachal Pradesh
| (2032 target)<ref name=damtr1/>
| 3087MW<ref name=et1>[https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/expert-panel-gives-green-nod-for-india-s-third-largest-hydropower-project-in-arunachal-pradesh-13571054.html Expert panel gives green nod for India’s third-largest hydropower project in Arunachal Pradesh], Money Control, 23 Sept 2025.</ref>

|-
|[[Dibang Dam]]
|{{coord|28|20|15|N|95|46|15|E|type:landmark|display=}}
| (2032 target)<ref name=damtr1/>
| 2880MW<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rahman|first=Mirza Zulfiqur|date=26 September 2016|title=China and India's race to dam the Brahmaputra river puts the Himalayas at risk|url=http://theconversation.com/china-and-indias-race-to-dam-the-brahmaputra-river-puts-the-himalayas-at-risk-65496|access-date=2020-12-08|website=The Conversation|language=en}}</ref>

|-
|[[Tali, Arunachal Pradesh|Oju]] Hydroelectric project
|  [[Kra Daadi district]], Arunachal Pradesh
| (2032 target)<ref name=damtr1/>
| 2220MW<ref name=et1/>

|-
|Kameng
|
|
|600 MW<ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Hydro Electric Stations in the Country|url=https://cea.nic.in/hpi-report/?lang=en|access-date=10 June 2025|website=CEA}}</ref>

|-
|Pare
|
|
|110 MW

|-
|Kopoli
|
|
|110 MW

|-
|Khandong
|
|
|50 MW

|-
|Karbi Langpi
|
|
|100 MW

|-
| Tato-I
|{{coord|28.45|N|94.02|E|type:landmark|display=}}
| (2029 expected)
|186 MW

|-
| Tato-II
| {{coord|28.5072|N|94.3618|E|type:landmark|display=}}

| (2032 expected)<ref name=tatod1/>
|700 MW<ref name=tatod1>[https://assamtribune.com/north-east/centre-approves-rs-8146-cr-tato-ii-hydro-project-in-arunachal-completion-in-72-months-1588112 Centre approves Rs 8,146-Cr Tato-II Hydro Project in Arunachal; completion in 72 months], assamtribune.com, 12 Aug 2025.</ref>

|-
| Heo Hydroelectric Project
|  Meying, Payum, [[West Siang district]], Arunachal Pradesh

| (2030 expected)<ref name=tatod1/>
| 240 MW<ref name=heo1>[https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=2077106 Cabinet approves Investment Proposal for construction of 240 MW Heo Hydro Electric Project in Shi Yomi District of Arunachal Pradesh with an outlay of Rs.1939 crore and completion period of 50 months], PIB, 25 Nov2024.</ref>

|-
|[[Teesta Low Dam - III Hydropower Plant|Teesta Low Dam-III]]
|{{coord|27.0018057|N|88.4404352|E|type:landmark|display=}}
|
|132 MW

|-
|[[Teesta Low Dam - IV Hydropower Plant|Teesta Low Dam-IV]]
|{{coord|26.9339354|N|88.4470021|E|type:landmark|display=}}
|
|160 MW

|-
|Teesta-V
|
|
|510 MW

|-
|Teesta-III
|
|
|1200 MW

|-
|Chujachen
|
|
|110 MW

|-
|-
|Dikchu
|
|
|96 MW

|-
|Tashiding
|
|
|97 MW

|-
|Jorethang Loop
|
|
|96 MW

|-
|Rongnichu
|
|
|113 MW

|-
|[[Doyang Hydro Electric Project|Doyang]]
|
|
|75 MW

|-
|Kyrdemkulai
|
|
|60 MW

|-
|Umiam St. I
|
|
|36 MW

|-
|New Umtru
|
|
|40 MW

|-
|Umiam St. IV
|
|
|60 MW

|-
|Myntdu St-I
|
|
|126 MW

|-
| colspan="4" |'''Other related projects:''' [[Upper Siang Hydroelectric Project]], [[Tipaimukh Dam]], [[Dihing River]] Irrigation Project,{{Sfn|Sarma|2013|p=271}} Hawrapur Irrigation Project,{{Sfn|Sarma|2013|p=271}} [[Teesta River|Teesta]] Barrage, Mayurakshi project, Kangshabati project{{Sfn|Rudra|2018|p=152}}
|-
| colspan="4" |'''Proposed:''' [[Doyang Hydro Electric station]]

|-
! colspan="4" | Bangladesh
|-
| [[Teesta River|Barakhata Teesta Barrage]]<ref>Bangladesh has no dam on Brahmaputra/Jamuna except on [[Teesta River]]. However, its tributaries, such as [[Padma River]] (name of main channel of Ganges in Ban gladesh) and [[Teesta River]], have upstream dams in India. The proposed [[Ganges Barrage Project]] on Padma River in Bangladesh was abandoned in 2017 due to the lack of [[return on investment]] and high cost in excess of US$5 billion.</ref>
|
|
|
|}

== Map ==
{{OSM Location map
|float=center
|caption2=Yamdrok Hydro Power Station
|width=900
|coord={{coord|26.785|90.659}}

|mark-coord={{coord|29.185|92.5166}}|label=Zangmu Dam|label-pos=left|label-size=11|mark-size=8|mark=Red pog.svg|mark-title=Zangmu Dam
|label2=Yamdrok Hydro Power Station

|mark-coord1={{coord|29.139722|92.546666}}|caption1=Jiacha Hydro Power Station|label1=Jiacha Hydro Power Station|label-size1=11|label-pos1=right|mark-size1=8|mark-title1=Jiacha Hydro Power Station|mark-description1=

|mark-coord2={{coord|29.2532|90.5084}}|mark-size4=8|height=400|label-pos2=left|mark-size2=8|mark2=Red pog.svg|mark-title2=Yamdrok Hydro Power Station|mark-description2=|label-size2=11

|mark-coord3={{coord|29.96855|91.8768194}}|caption3=Zhikong Hydro Power Station|label3=Zhikong Hydro Power Station|label-pos3=right|mark-size3=8|mark3=Red pog.svg|mark-title3=Zhikong Hydro Power Station|mark-description3=|label-size3=11

|mark-coord4={{coord|30.17971|91.34983}}|caption4=Pangduo Hydro Power Station|label4=Pangduo Hydro Power Station|label-pos4=right|mark-description=|mark4=Red pog.svg|mark-title4=Pangduo Hydro Power Station|mark-description4=|label-size4=11|mark-coord5={{coord|27.34278|93.81667}}|caption5=Ranganadi Dam|label5=Ranganadi Dam|label-pos5=right|mark-size5=8|mark5=Red pog.svg|mark-title5=Ranganadi Dam|mark-description5=|label-size5=11

|mark-coord6={{coord|27.553611|94.258611}} |caption6=Subansiri Lower Dam|label6=Subansiri Lower Dam|label-pos6=right|mark-size6=8|mark6=Red pog.svg|label-color6=|mark-title6=Subansiri Lower Dam|mark-description6=|label-size6=11

|mark-coord7={{coord|30.3833|82.0000}} |caption7=Angsi Glacier (source)|label7=Angsi Glacier (source)|label-pos7=right|mark-size7=8|mark7=Red pog.svg|label-color7=|mark-title7=Angsi Glacier (source)|mark-description7=|label-size7=11

|mark-coord8={{coord|27.29454|88.29248}} |caption8=Rangit Dam|label8=Rangit Dam|label-pos8=right|mark-size8=8|mark8=Red pog.svg|label-color8=|mark-title8=Rangit Dam|mark-description8=|label-size8=11
|zoom=6 
|caption=Hydro infrastructure on the Brahmaputra River, the Brahmaputra River Basin and Brahmaputra River tributaries}}

{{clear}}

== See also ==


* [[South–North Water Transfer Project|China's South–North Water Transfer Project]]
* [[List of dams and reservoirs in China|Dams and reservoirs in China]]
* [[Geology of the Himalaya]]
* [[List of National Projects of the Ministry of Water Resources of India|India's National Projects of the Ministry of Water Resources]]
* [[Indian Rivers Inter-link]]
* [[List of rivers in Bangladesh]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
'''Bibliography'''

* {{Cite book|last=Rudra|first=Kalyan|title=Rivers of the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna Delta: A Fluvial Account of Bengal|publisher=Springer|year=2018|isbn=9783319765440}}
* {{Cite book|last=Sarma|first=AK|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RjrpCAAAQBAJ|title=The Brahmaputra Basin Water Resources|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|year=2013|isbn=9789401705400|editor-last=Singh|editor-first=V.P.|chapter=Hydraulic Structures|editor-last2=Sharma|editor-first2=Nayan|editor-last3=Ojha|editor-first3=C. Shekhar P.}}

{{Dams and reservoirs in India}}
{{Waters of India}}
{{Waters of South Asia}}

[[Category:Brahmaputra River]]
[[Category:Rivers-related lists]]
[[Category:Lists of dams in India|Brahmaputra]]
[[Category:Lists of dams in China|Brahmaputra]]
[[Category:Proposed infrastructure in India]]
[[Category:Ministry of Water Resources (India)]]

Kongka Pass

2025-08-18T12:52:31Z

220.255.242.109:

{{short description|Mountain pass in India and China}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox mountain pass
| name = Kongka Pass
| native_name = {{langx|bo|དགུན་ཁ་ལ}}
| map = India Ladakh#China Xinjiang Southern#China Tibet Ngari
| map_relief = 0
| label_position = top
| photo =
| photo_caption =
| elevation_m = 5171
| elevation_ref = <ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.geonames.org/1266188/kongka-la.html
|publisher=GeoNames
|title=Kongka La
|access-date=2013-09-18}}</ref>
| location = [[India]]–[[China]] border
| range = [[Karakoram]]
| coords = {{coord|34.335|N|79.0353|E|type:pass|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| topo =
}}
{{Chinese
|s={{linktext|空喀|山口}}
|t={{linktext|空喀|山口}}
|p=Kōngkā shānkǒu



}}

The '''Kongka Pass''' or '''Kongka La''' ({{bo|t=དགུན་ཁ་ལ|w=dgun kha la|s=gün kha la}}<ref name=KNAB>{{Cite web
| title = Ngari prefecture
| url = https://www.eki.ee/knab/valik/cn54ng.htm
| work = Geographical names of Tibet AR (China)
| publisher = Institute of the Estonian Language
| date = 2018-06-03
| access-date = 9 January 2020
}}</ref>) is a low [[mountain pass]] on the [[Line of Actual Control]] between India and China in eastern [[Ladakh]]. It lies on a spur of the [[Karakoram]] range that intrudes into the [[Chang Chenmo Valley]] adjacent to the disputed [[Aksai Chin]] region. China claimed the location as its border in a 1956 map, and attacked an Indian patrol party in 1959 killing ten policemen and apprehending ten others. Known as the '''Kongka Pass incident''', the event was a milestone in the escalation of the border dispute between the two countries.{{sfnp|Hoffmann, Perceived Hostility and the Indian Reaction|1973}}

==Name==
In the Ladakhi language, Kongka ({{bo|t=གོང་ཀ|w=gong ka}}) means a "low pass or ridge, high point or rise of a plateau".<ref>{{citation |title=RangSkat Ladakhi Dictionary: Ladakhi-English dictionary |author=SECMOL |date=7 May 2020 |url=https://steprimo.com/android/us/app/com.prakshas.rangskat1/RangSkat-Ladakhi-Dictionary/}}</ref> In the first reference we have of this pass, it was called "Salmu Kongka" and explained as a "small pass".<ref name="Carey and Dalgleish">
{{citation |chapter=Journey of Carey and Dalgleish in Chinese Turkistan and Northern Tibet and General Prejevalsky on the Orography of Northern Tibet |title=Royal Geographical Society (Great Britain), Supplementary Papers |publisher=J. Murray |year=1893 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.70720/page/n17/mode/2up |via=archive.org |page=10}}: Describing the route from [[Leh]] to [[Keriya Town|Keriya]]: "Leaving [Changchenmo valley] shortly after the Shahidulla road turns off to the left, it ascends to the plateau by a small pass (the Salmu Kongka); descending again into the valley and crossing the Changchenmo stream. Another ascent leads up the Lanak-la Pass, and the route now lies in ''independent Tibet''."
</ref>

A Tibetan name for the pass is now in circulation, as "Kongka La" ({{bo|t=དགུན་ཁ་ལ|w=dgun kha la|s=gün kha la}}), which can be interpreted as a "wintertime pass".<ref name=KNAB/>

==Geography==
[[File:Kongka-Pass-area.jpg|thumb|right|270px|Map 1: Area around the Kongka Pass]]
[[File:Changchenmo-Valley-map-Survey-of-India-1916.jpg|thumb|right|270px|Map 2: Map including Konka Pass (Survey of India, 1916)]]
[[File:Changchenmo-Valley-map-by-US-Army-Map-Service.jpg|thumb|right|270px|Map 3: Map of the Chang Chenmo Valley and the prevailing border at India's independence ([[Army Map Service|AMS]], 1955){{efn|From map: "THE DELINEATION OF INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES ON THIS MAP MUST NOT BE CONSIDERED AUTHORITATIVE"}}]]

The [[Chang Chenmo Valley]] lies in a depression between the [[Karakoram Range]] in the north and the [[Changchenmo Range]] in the south.{{efn|The depression continues into Tibet, all the way to [[Yeshil Kul]] (Bangda Co) and [[Lake Lighten]] (Gozha Co) on the Khotan border.<ref>
{{citation |first=Emil |last=Trinkler |title=Notes on the Westernmost Plateaux of Tibet |journal=The Himalayan Journal |volume=3 |year=1931 |url=https://www.himalayanclub.org/hj/03/5/notes-on-the-westernmost-plateaux-of-tibet/}}
</ref> The depression is now recognized as a geological fault called the ''Longmu Co fault'', part of the larger Longmu–Guozha Co fault system.<ref>
{{cite journal |last1=Chevalier |first1=Marie-Luce |last2=Pan |first2=Jiawei |last3=Li |first3=Haibing |last4=Sun |first4=Zhiming |last5=Liu |first5=Dongliang |last6=Pei |first6=Junling |last7=Xu |first7=Wei |last8=Wu |first8=Chan |title=First tectonic-geomorphology study along the Longmu–Gozha Co fault system, Western Tibet |journal=Gondwana Research |volume=41 |year=2017 |pages=411–424 |issn=1342-937X |doi=10.1016/j.gr.2015.03.008|bibcode=2017GondR..41..411C }}
</ref>}}
Immediately to the north of the Chang Chenmo Valley, the Karakoram Range splits into multiple branches, with one of the branches (called "Karakoram-I" by some authors) forming a dividing ridge between the [[Kugrang River]] in the west and the [[Changlung River|Changlung]] and '''Kyapsang''' rivers in the east.{{sfnp|Johri, Chinese Invasion of Ladakh|1969|p=106}} A spur of this branch extends into the Chang Chenmo Valley for some distance, forcing the Changchenmo river to bend around it. On this spur lies the low pass of Kongka Pass, essentially forming a part of the general depression that is the Chang Chenmo valley.

To all appearances, the Kongka Pass was an unimportant saddle point, while the normal travel route followed the course of the Changchenmo river. (Maps 2 and 3) However, it was also possible to travel east by ascending the pass, especially in wintertime when the river area might be icy. [[Arthur Douglas Carey]] and [[Andrew Dalgleish (spy)|Andrew Delgleish]] used the pass in 1885 in travelling from Ladakh to [[Keriya Town|Keriya]].<ref name="Carey and Dalgleish"/>

Since 1959, the Kongka Pass formed part of the dividing line between India and China, China having extended its claims till this point. (Map 4) Kongka Pass is also on the dividing line between China's [[Xinjiang]] and [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]] autonomous regions. The Chang Chenmo Valley to the east of here is part of Tibet; the [[Aksai Chin]] region to the north is part of Xinjiang. China has a large military base at the bottom of the Kyapsang river valley, called the '''Kongka Shankou base''' near a saddle point called '''Mobdo La'''. (Map 3)

In the Indian-controlled territory immediately to the west of Kongka Pass lie the notable [[Hot Springs, Chang Chenmo Valley|Hot Springs]] (at a location called Kyam or Kiam). This location is roughly the point where the bend in the Changchenmo river ends, and river flows due west. To the northwest of here extends the Kugrang river valley, with the campsite of [[Gogra, Ladakh|Gogra]] at short distance above. At Gogra, the Changlung river flows down and joins the Kugrang river. Indian Military has termed the Kiam Hotsprings-[[Kongka Pass]] eastward route as the '''[[Line_of_Actual_Control#Patrol_points|patrol point PP-17A]]''' (map 1).<ref name=gpp1>[https://theprint.in/diplomacy/chinese-fm-wang-yi-in-india-heres-whats-on-top-of-agenda-for-talks-between-new-delhi-beijing/2723319/ hinese FM Wang Yi in India, here’s what’s on top of agenda for talks between New Delhi & Beijing], The Print, 18 Aug 2025.</ref>

To the south of the Kongka Pass, three tributaries, all called "'''Silung'''", flow down from the Changchenmo Range to join Changchenmo. From the west to east, they are referred to as ''Silung Yokma'', ''Silung Barma'' and ''Silung Kongma'' (the lower, middle and upper Silungs). Further east is another tributary called ''Stathrao''. On a tributary of Silung Kongma called '''Nyingri''' lies the route to the [[Pangong Lake]] region, via '''Kyungang La''',{{efn|Spelt as "Kyungang La" by [[Henry Strachey (explorer)|Strachey]] and "Kiung Gang La" in later British writings, the pass is known to Tibetans as '''Gyagong La''' ({{bo|t=རྒྱ་གོང་ལ|w=rgya gong la}}).<ref name=KNAB/> It is marked as "Gang Pass" on Map 2 and "Chungang La" on Map 3. Border guards from [[Rudok]] were said to have been stationed here during the summer months.{{sfnp|Maisey, Topograpy, Ethnology, Resources & History of Ladak|1995|p=30}} But later information (1898) said that they were placed in campsites in the Chumesang valley to the south of the pass.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wellby |first=M. S. |title=Through Unknown Tibet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Awwo3xwkQUC&pg=PA60 |year=1898 |publisher=Lippincott |isbn= 9788120610583 |pages=60–61}}</ref>}} which was once regarded as the boundary between Ladakh and Tibet. (Map 3) At present, Silung Yokma lies in the Indian-controlled territory and the rest lie in Chinese-controlled territory.<ref>{{citation |last=Ward |first=A. E. |title=The Tourist's and Sportsman's guide to Kashmir and Ladak |publisher=Thaker, Spink & Co |date=1896 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.6082 |via=archive.org |pages=105–106, 109}} (for geographical details only; Kyungang La is spelt "Kieun-la").</ref>

==Sino-Indian border dispute==
[[File:1947 ROC claim line in Ladakh.jpg|thumb|right|270px|Map 3: 1947 map of [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] showing Lanak La as the border]]
[[File:Kongka Pass claim lines (1962).jpg|thumb|right|270px|Map 4: Chinese claim lines near the Kongka Pass: 1956 claim line in green, 1960 claim line in dark brown and 1962 cease-fire line in orange]]

Colonial-era British sources state that the traditional boundary between [[Ladakh]] and [[Tibet]], accepted by both sides, was at [[Lanak La]], where the Changchenmo River originates.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wellby |first=M. S. |title=Through Unknown Tibet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Awwo3xwkQUC&pg=PA78 |year=1898 |publisher=Lippincott |isbn= 9788120610583 |page=78}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carey|first= A. D.|journal= Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society| volume =9|year= 1887|title=A Journey round Chinese Turkistan and along the Northern frontier of Tibet|issue= 12|pages= 731–752|doi= 10.2307/1801130|jstor=1801130|url= https://zenodo.org/record/1806393}}</ref><ref>Bower, Hamilton, ''Diary of A Journey across Tibet'', London, 1894</ref><ref>Rawling, C. G., ''The Great Plateau Being An Account of Exploration in Central Tibet, 1903, And of the Gartok Expedition 1904–1905'', p 38, London, 1905</ref> Chinese maps had recognised Lanak La as the boundary at least till 1951.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Karackattu |first1=Joe Thomas |title=The Corrosive Compromise of the Sino-Indian Border Management Framework: From Doklam to Galwan |journal=Asian Affairs |volume=51 |issue=3 |year=2020 |pages=590–604 |doi=10.1080/03068374.2020.1804726 |s2cid=222093756}}: p. 591: "The ''Atlas of China'' (''Chung-hua jen-min kung-ho-kuo hsin ti-t’u'', published in 1951) is one of the earliest maps published by the PRC, after the Communist Party came to power. The agency accrediting the maps was the ''Zhongguo Tushu Faxing Gongsi'' (a government-approved office similar to the Ministry of Internal Affairs/Security or ''Nei Zheng Bu'' before the Communist Party came to power), and the maps clearly depict the vicinity of Lanak La as being coterminous with India, unlike Zhou En Lai’s claim line that truncated India much earlier at the Kongka Pass. Even previously published Chinese maps such as ''A New Atlas of China'' (''Chung hua min kuo hsin titu'', published in 1934), contained the “New Map of the Republic of China” on the occasion of the 60th Anniversary of ''Shenpao'' (Shanghai News), that showed India in the vicinity of the Lanak La pass (running much further eastwards than current Chinese maps show)." p. 592: Figure 1. </ref>

In 1952, Indian patrol teams had reached till Lanak La without encountering any Chinese presence.<ref name="ahuja" /> When enquired in 1954 and again in 1956 about demarcating boundaries in the sector, [[Zhou Enlai]] replied that the [[People's Republic of China|PRC]] government was still printing [[Kuomintang]] maps and had not had the time to prepare their own maps. While maintaining this position, the Chinese would lay the Sianking–Tibet road (now [[G219]]) through Aksai Chin to Indian objections and even imprison a two-men strong patrol party.<ref name="Smith">{{citation |last=Smith |first=Warren W. |title=Tibetan Nation: A history of Tibetan nationalism and Sino-Tibetan relations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SbHtAAAAMAAJ |page=489 |year=1996 |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=978-0-8133-3155-3 |quote="Chou had assured Nehru that the PRC was still using old KMT maps, not yet having had time to prepare their own... On 8 October 1958 the Indians protested to China that the [Sinkiang-Tibet road] traversed Indian territory, to which the PRC replied that the territory in question was Chinese."}}</ref>

In 1956, a map was published that marked Kongka Pass as the boundary in the Chang Chenmo Valley; three years hence, Zhou would note this particular map to be an accurate representation of Chinese position and claim Kongka Pass to be the "traditional customary boundary" of China.<ref name="Karackattu">{{cite journal |last1=Karackattu |first1=Joe Thomas |title=The Corrosive Compromise of the Sino-Indian Border Management Framework: From Doklam to Galwan |journal=Asian Affairs |volume=51 |issue=3 |year=2020 |pages=590–604 |doi=10.1080/03068374.2020.1804726 |s2cid=222093756}}</ref><ref>Chou Enlai, ''The Sino-Indian Boundary Question'', Foreign Language Press, Peking, November 1962. "In October 1959 Indian armed forces crossed the ''traditional customary boundary line'' in the western sector and provoked a sanguinary border clash of an even graver nature at Kongka Pass." (emphasis added)</ref> Leo E. Rose and Wim van Eekelen find such claims to be inconsistent with the available evidence.<ref>{{harvp|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963|p=101}}: "Confusion as to the extent of the Chang Chenmo valley between the Lanak and Kongka passes continued to be a feature of Chinese cartography even after the Communists came to power.... the flexibility shown by official Chinese cartographers here and on other sections of the border makes mockery of China's oft-repeated claim that its concept of the border has a solid basis in history."</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Van Eekelen |first1=Willem Frederik |title=Indian Foreign Policy and the Border Dispute with China |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8eTzBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA163 |year=1967 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-017-6555-8 |page=164 |quote="The Chinese could not quote a single document confirming that the Kongka Pass constituted the boundary.... The thorough approach of the Indian side generally contrasted with an inconsistent and almost careless presentation by the Chinese officials."}}</ref>

=== Kongka Pass incident ===
In October 1959, an Indian police party{{efn|The Indian team was made up of personnel from the [[Central Reserve Police Force]] (CRPF), who were loaned to the [[Intelligence Bureau (India)|Intelligence Bureau]] for border security and intelligence-gathering functions. They were dubbed the "India–Tibet Border Force", but they are not to be confused with the paramilitary force called [[Indo-Tibetan Border Police]], which was a later formation.}} was sent to set up posts in three locations — [[Tsogtsalu]], [[Hot Springs, Chang Chenmo Valley|Hot Springs]] and [[Shamal Lungpa]] — which were in undisputed Indian territory per the recent Chinese maps. The party was led by an [[Intelligence Bureau (India)|Intelligence Bureau]] officer of the rank of Deputy Superintendent, Karam Singh, who was an experienced patroller in Ladakh. As late as June 1958, Singh had led patrols to Lanak La without incidents.{{sfnp|Hoffmann, India and the China Crisis|1990|loc=p. 77: "This company was commanded by the most experienced Indian patrol leader in Ladakh, one Karam Singh, who (the previous June) had taken a patrol through Hot Spring, Kongka Pass, and then forty miles further to Lanak La. No sign of a Chinese presence had been seen then, but this time (October 1959) the situation would change."}}{{Relevance inline|reason=These past experiences are not relevant to the topic, only serves as narrative fluff.|date=July 2022}} Singh states that they had established a post at Hot Springs and were about to head to Shamal Lungpa when, on 20 October, two men sent out for reconnaissance went missing.<ref name="white_paper">
{{Cite book |title=Notes, Memoranda and letters Exchanged and Agreements signed between The Governments of India and China | series=White Paper |volume=III |publisher=Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India |via=claudearpi.net |date=1960 |access-date=4 January 2020 |url=http://www.claudearpi.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/WhitePaper3NEW.pdf |quote=[Chinese interrogation of Karam Singh] We established a checkpost at Kayam and we had to establish one at Shamul Lungpa. On 20th October 1959, our two men missed. On the morning of 21st October 1959, Tyagi took 60 men and reached the hill (battle field). ... [Indian debriefing of Karam Singh] we had inadequate cover and the Chinese were in a favourable position ... five of us were made to carry the dead body of a Chinese soldier who had been killed.}}
</ref> According to the Chinese version of the events these two men had crossed the "traditional border at Kongka Pass", leading to their detention.<ref name="wortzel">{{cite book |last=Wortzel |first=Larry |author-link=Larry Wortzel |editor1-last=Burkitt |editor1-first=Laurie |editor2-last=Scobell |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Wortzel |editor3-first=Larry |title=The Lessons of History: The Chinese People's Liberation Army at 75 |url=http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/PUB52.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051113163101/http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub52.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 November 2005 |year=2003 |publisher=[[Strategic Studies Institute]], [[U.S. Army War College]] |isbn=9781428916517 |page=331 |quote="In the western sector of the border, on 21 October 1959, a team of Indian troops crossed the traditional border at Kongka Pass, entering Chinese territory."}}</ref> Later information reveals that the location was on the bank of the Chang Chenmo River, somewhere between the mouth of Silung Barma and that of Silung Kongma.<ref name="Hoffmann two miles west">{{harvp|Hoffmann, India and the China Crisis|1990|loc=p. 77: "[The incident] happened two miles west of the [Kongka] pass, on the banks of the Chang Chenmo River."}}</ref>

The same evening, Singh dispatched a 10-men-strong party to investigate the disappearance, who returned late night and reported extensive hoof-marks in the region suggesting the presence of Chinese cavalry.<ref name="ahuja" /> On the morning of 21 October, a forward search party of 20 men set out on ponies under Singh; the rest was ordered to follow on foot under another commander called Tyagi.<ref name="ahuja" />{{sfnp|Sandhu, Shankar & Dwivedi, 1962 from the Other Side of the Hill|2015|p=44}} Singh chose to follow the hoof-marks near Kongka Pass and lost contact with Tyagi's men. Singh encountered Chinese soldiers on top of a hill,{{efn|According to Chinese sources, the site is a small independent hill to the south of the Chang Chenmo River, which was later named '''Shengli Hill''' ({{zh|c=胜利山|p=Shènglì shān}}; "Victory Hill").<ref name="qi">{{cite book |last1=靳 |first1=娟娟 |last2=金 |first2=天义 |date=2011-04-01 |trans-title=The Border Control and Border Construction in XinJiang |script-title=zh:新疆边防管理与边防建设 |url=http://47.94.233.156/RMBase/SysJP/Multimedia/Pdf.ashx?ID=236472&contentid=1949&form=browse |language=Chinese |location=Beijing |publisher=Social Sciences Academic Press |isbn=978-7-5097-1934-3 |quote="防守于章图山南侧一独立小高地（胜利山）。 " |page=184 }}{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>}} who belonged to the 6th Cavalry Regiment and were well-entrenched in their position.<ref name="ahuja" /><ref name="white_paper" />{{sfnp|Sandhu, Shankar & Dwivedi, 1962 from the Other Side of the Hill|2015}} A firefight ensued after negotiations failed.<ref name="ahuja" /> Nine Indian policemen were killed during the engagement, one died later of his injuries,<ref name="bhatnagar">{{Cite magazine
| title = Hot Springs: Saga of Heroism
| first = R.R.
| last = Bhatnagar
| issue = Special Issue on Police Martyrdom
| magazine = Indian Police Journal
| issn = 0537-2429
| date = Nov-Dec 2018
| access-date = 4 January 2020
| pages = 16
| url = http://bprd.nic.in/WriteReadData/CMS/Spl.%20issue%20of%20IPJ.pdf
| quote = Fighting gallantly nine men laid down their lives and ten were wounded. Later on, one of the injured also succumbed to his injuries. ... Seven men were taken Prisoners of War by PLA}}</ref> and seven were taken prisoner. One Chinese soldier of the rank of "Deputy Squadron Leader" was killed too.<ref name="white_paper" /><ref>
*{{Cite book|title =Communist Remembrance Historical Materials 3|last=Chinese People's Liberation Army Historical Data Series Editorial Board |publisher=Beijing:解放军出版社|year=1997|isbn=7-5065-3348-0|pages=213}}
*{{Cite book|title=The People's Republic of China's Toponymic Dictionary Volume 5|editor-last= Naifu|editor-first=Cui|publisher=Beijing:商印书|year=2002|isbn=7-100-03254-7|pages=7777}}
*{{Cite web|url=http://www.shule.gov.cn/ShowNews_Content9929.shtml|title=Shuol government information website--Shule County Martyrs Cemetery Maintenance and Reconstruction Project successfully passed the project completion acceptance|access-date=2018-05-06|work=Silele County People's Government|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180507010548/http://www.shule.gov.cn/ShowNews_Content9929.shtml|archive-date=2018-05-07}}
</ref>
It appears that Tyagi's men were informed of the firefight by one of Singh's constables but they were under simultaneous attack and failed to be of any help; however, his team incurred no fatalities despite injuries on several men. On 22 October, Tyagi retreated to [[Tsogtsalu]] and four severely injured men were evacuated by air.<ref name="ahuja" />

After release, Karam Singh reported that the detained personnel were put in a storage pit for four days under severe climatic conditions without water, refused medical attention, interrogated in 12 hour stretches for further several days, induced to sign false confessions about them being responsible for the episode, window-dressed for photographs, and finally returned to India on 14 November.<ref>{{harvp|Rowland, A History of Sino-Indian Relations|1967|pp=130–131}}: 'Singh's testimony provides a good picture of Chinese interrogating technique: "This interrogation lasted from 4:00 A.M. to about 4:00 P.M. By this time I was almost frozen and mentally and physically exhausted because of cold, persistent interrogation, intimidation, threats, angry shoutings and lack of sleep. In this condition I was compelled to sign the statement recorded by the Chinese. At the end of this interrogation the Chinese then brought all the other captured personnel before me and read out the statement and several photographs were taken."... The incident was staged according to the Chinese version of events while photographs were taken which could be used as evidence in support of the Chinese allegations that the Indian patrol had provoked the incident.'</ref><ref name="ahuja"/> The bodies of the dead soldiers were returned a day earlier at the new border of Kongka Pass and China rejected payment of any compensation.<ref name="ahuja"/> Scholar John Rowland states that, through these means, China obtained the "evidence" it needed to claim that it was India that broke the [[Panchsheel agreement|Panchsheel]] (peace agreement between the two countries) unprovoked.{{sfnp|Rowland, A History of Sino-Indian Relations|1967|pp=130–131}} China however rejected Singh's testimony and charged Indian Government of promoting Sinophobic sentiments.{{Efn|The government accepted that their troops might have failed in providing optimum care for the first few days, since such an event was wholly unanticipatable.}}

Indian Army castigated the Intelligence Bureau for causing mindless provocations at the frontiers without bringing them in confidence and from 1 November, took charge of manning all border-posts in the sector.<ref name="ahuja" /> Throughout the time of the detention, China claimed that Kongka Pass was patrolled by their troops ever since liberation of Tibet and that the episode happened only due to unprovoked aggression by Indian side; threats were made to infiltrate NEFA if Indian patrols were to disregard Chinese claims in the Ladakh sector. Public protests called for resignation of defence minister [[Krishna Menon]] and abandonment of non-alignment as a strategic policy. Indian media described the event as a "brutal massacre of an Indian police party" with [[The Indian Express]] carrying an editorial about how Nehru had ignored the "menace of Han expansionism and Communist Imperialism."<ref name="ahuja" /> The incident [[Events leading to the Sino-Indian War|contributed to the heightening of tensions]] that led to the [[Sino-Indian War]] in 1962.<ref name="maxwell">{{cite book |title=India's China War |last=Maxwell |first=Neville |author-link=Neville Maxwell |year=1970 |publisher=Pantheon |location=New York |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/12249475/Indias-China-War-Neville-Maxwell |page=13 |access-date=29 August 2013 |archive-date=1 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101121143/http://www.scribd.com/doc/12249475/Indias-China-War-Neville-Maxwell |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="ahuja">{{cite news
|first=Vivek |last=Ahuja
|title=Unforgiveable Mistakes, The Kongka-La Incident, 21st October 1959
|newspaper=Security Research Review (formerly Bharat Rakshak Monitor)
|date=July–December 2008 |id=BRMP07010805
|url=http://www.adl.gatech.edu/research/brmsrr/2008/BRMP07010805.pdf
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930230542/http://www.adl.gatech.edu/research/brmsrr/2008/BRMP07010805.pdf
|archive-date=30 September 2011
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>

== Military posts and infrastructure ==
{{OSM Location map
| coord = {{coord|34.3341|79.095}} 
| float = right
| zoom = 11
| width = 270
| height = 270
| nolabels = 1
| caption = {{center|Map 5: China's Kongka Shankou base}}

| mark-coord1 = {{coord|34.3341|79.1072}}
| mark1 = Red pog.svg
| mark-size1 = 10
| label1 = Kongka |labela1 = Shankou |labelb1 = base
| label-size1 = 11
| label-color1 = hard red
| label-pos1 = top | label-offset-x1 = 0 | label-offset-y1 = 0
| mark-title1 = Kongka Shankou base
| mark-image1 =
| mark-description1 = Chinese military base
}}
The Indian border post is located {{convert|3|km}} to the west of Kongka Pass at [[Hot Springs, Chang Chenmo Valley|Hot Springs]].<ref name="jindal">{{Cite magazine
| title = The Story of Hot Springs
| first = Akash
| last = Jindal
| issue = Special Issue on Police Martyrdom
| magazine = Indian Police Journal
| issn = 0537-2429
| date = Nov-Dec 2018
| access-date = 4 January 2020
| pages = 20–33
| url = http://bprd.nic.in/WriteReadData/CMS/Spl.%20issue%20of%20IPJ.pdf
| quote = (p22) Karam Singh of ITBF was assigned the task of establishing outposts near the Chinese Occupation Line ... "Hot Springs" was barely three Km far from the site where Chinese Army had intruded.
}}</ref> A war-memorial is situated at the place.<ref name="ahuja" />

[[File:Kongka-La-snapshot-from-earthworks-stanford-edu-Gogra-Hot-Springs.jpg|thumb|right|275px|Map 6: Line of Actual Control near Kongka La, as marked by the US [[Office of the Geographer]] in 2013 (in blue), and as marked by OpenStreetMap in 2020 (in green)<ref name=earthworks/>]]
The Chinese [[border outpost]] is located a few kilometers to the east at an elevation of {{convert|5070|m|ft}}.<ref>{{Cite web
| title = 在海拔5070米的空喀山口哨卡某边防团政委宗建明和官兵深情的拥抱
| work = [[Sina Corp|Sina]] Military
| date = 2009-09-17
| access-date = 14 December 2019
| url = http://slide.mil.news.sina.com.cn/slide_8_199_1262.html#p=5
| language = zh
}}</ref>
Called Kongka Shankou base, it is located at the junction of the '''Kyapsang''' and Chang-Chenmo rivers. The outpost is linked to the [[China National Highway 219]] (G219) via two highways.
* The '''Konghong Highway''' ({{lang|zh|空红线}}, S519), or Kongka–Hongshan Highway, runs along the Chang-Chenmo Valley via Lanak La, and meets G219 near the [[Sumzhi Lake|Sumzhi]] and [[Longmu Lake|Longmu]] lakes.<ref name="Konghong">
[https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/8416265#map=9/34.0608/79.3808 Konghong Highway] (China, S519) and [https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/11621646#map=8/34.996/81.735 Kongka Shankou Highway] mapped on OpenStreetMap, retrieved 22 October 2020.
</ref>
** A new road called Kongka Shankou Highway ({{lang|zh|空喀山口公路}}) has been laid along the continuation of the same depression as the Changchenmo Valley on the other side of G219. It meets the [[China National Highway 216]] (G216) near the Yueya Lake.<ref name="Konghong"/>
* The '''Banying Highway''' ({{lang|zh|班应线}}, S520) goes south from the Kongka Shankou base to the [[Khurnak Plain]] and runs along the northern shore of the [[Pangong Lake]] till it reaches the G219 highway.<ref>
[https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/8416261#map=9/34.0608/79.3808 Bangying Highway] (China, S520) mapped on OpenStreetMap, retrieved 22 October 2020.
</ref>
The Indian government has noted that the original versions of these roads were built during 1959–1962.<ref>
{{citation |last=India |first=Government of |title=Chinese Aggression in Maps |publisher=Publications Division |date=January 1963 |url=http://www.claudearpi.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/1963-Chinese-Agression-in-Maps.pdf |at=Map 4}}
</ref>

In addition to these, a '''Tiankong Highway''' ({{lang|zh|天空线}}) or Tianwendian–Kongka Highway, appears to have been constructed between 2013 and 2020. It passes through territory marked as being on the Indian side of the Line of Actual Control by the US [[Office of the Geographer]] in 2013.<ref name=earthworks>
[https://earthworks.stanford.edu/catalog/stanford-yg089df0008 Detailed World Polygons (LSIB), Asia and Russia, 2013], EarthWorks, Stanford University
</ref>
It is a mountain road that runs till the [[Tianwendian]] post in the [[Depsang Plains]]. It runs parallel to the Line of Actual Control and passes through Nischu and [[Heweitan]]. It also connects to the ''Wenjia Road'' ({{zh|c=温加线|p=Wēn jiā xiàn}}), which leads to the [[Galwan Valley]].<ref>
[https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/11347211#map=9/34.8525/78.8269 Tiankong Xian] and
[https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/11347741#map=9/34.8525/78.8269 Wen Jia Road] mapped on OpenStreetMap, retrieved 22 October 2020.
</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of locations in Aksai Chin]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

{{clear}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{citation |title=Gazetteer of Kashmir and Ladak |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.43256 |via=archive.org |publisher=Superintendent of Government Printing |location=Calcutta |year=1890 |ref={{sfnref|Gazetteer of Kashmir and Ladak|1890}}}}
** {{citation |first=Lieutenant F. |last=Maisey |title=Topography, Ethnology, Resources & History of Ladak (Central Asia, Part VII, Section II) |publisher=Barbican |location=Petersfield, England |year=1995 |orig-year=1878 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.pahar.0882 |via=archive.org |ref={{sfnref|Maisey, Topograpy, Ethnology, Resources & History of Ladak|1995}}}}
* {{citation |last1=Fisher |first1=Margaret W. |last2=Rose |first2=Leo E. |last3=Huttenback |first3=Robert A. |title=Himalayan Battleground: Sino-Indian Rivalry in Ladakh |year=1963 |publisher=Praeger |url=https://archive.org/details/himalayanbattleg0000unse |via=archive.org |ref={{sfnref|Fisher, Rose & Huttenback, Himalayan Battleground|1963}}}}
* {{citation |first=Steven A. |last=Hoffmann |title=Perceived Hostility and the Indian Reaction to China |journal=India Quarterly |volume=20 |number=4 |date=October–December 1973 |pages=283–299 |doi=10.1177/097492847302900401 |jstor=45070057 |s2cid=152421080 |ref={{sfnref|Hoffmann, Perceived Hostility and the Indian Reaction|1973}}}}
* {{citation |last=Hoffmann |first=Steven A. |title=India and the China Crisis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BpSRwC5_EPUC |year=1990 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-06537-6 |ref={{sfnref|Hoffmann, India and the China Crisis|1990}}}}
* {{citation |last=Johri |first=Sitaram |title=Chinese Invasion of Ladakh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rJs9AAAAMAAJ |year=1969 |publisher=Himalaya Publications |ref={{sfnref|Johri, Chinese Invasion of Ladakh|1969}}}}
* {{citation |last=Rowland |first=John |title=A History of Sino-Indian Relations: Hostile Co-existence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NB1uAAAAMAAJ |year=1967 |publisher=Van Nostrand |isbn=9780442070854 |ref={{sfnref|Rowland, A History of Sino-Indian Relations|1967}}}}
* {{citation |last1=Sandhu |first1=P. J. S. |last2=Shankar |first2=Vinay |last3=Dwivedi |first3=G. G. |title=1962: A View from the Other Side of the Hill |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=boBNCgAAQBAJ |year=2015 |publisher=Vij Books India Pvt Ltd |isbn=978-93-84464-37-0 |ref={{sfnref|Sandhu, Shankar & Dwivedi, 1962 from the Other Side of the Hill|2015}}}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/8416265#map=9/34.0608/79.3808 Konghong Highway] (China, S519) and [https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/11621646#map=8/34.996/81.735 Kongka Shankou Highway] mapped on OpenStreetMap
* [https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/8416261#map=9/34.0608/79.3808 Bangying Highway] (China, S520) mapped on OpenStreetMap
* [https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/11347211#map=9/34.8525/78.8269 Tiankong Xian] connecting [[Tianwendian]] and Kongka La, mapped on OpenStreetMap
* [https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/11294016#map=10/34.1760/78.8773 Route to Hot Springs] (India), mapped on OpenStreetMap

{{Xinjiang topics}}
{{Mountain passes of India}}
{{Mountain passes of China}}
{{Ladakh}}

[[Category:Mountain passes of Xinjiang]]
[[Category:Mountain passes of China]]
[[Category:Mountain passes of Ladakh]]
[[Category:Mountain passes of India]]
[[Category:Borders of Ladakh]]
[[Category:Chang Chenmo Valley]]
[[Category:Aksai Chin]]