Barley

2022-10-27T23:39:49Z

31.51.151.236:

{{Short description|Species of plant}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Speciesbox
|name = Barley
|image = Illustration Hordeum vulgare1.jpg
|image_caption = Drawing of barley
|genus = Hordeum
|species = vulgare
|authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]<ref>{{ITIS |id=40874 |taxon=''Hordeum vulgare''}}</ref>
|synonyms =
{{Collapsible list |
{{Plainlist | style = margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; |
*''Frumentum hordeum'' E.H.L.Krause nom. illeg.
*''Frumentum sativum'' E.H.L.Krause
*''Hordeum aestivum'' R.E.Regel [[Validly published name|nom. inval.]]
*''Hordeum americanum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum bifarium'' Roth
*''Hordeum brachyatherum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum caspicum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum coeleste'' (L.) P.Beauv.
*''Hordeum daghestanicum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum defectoides'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum durum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum elongatum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum gymnodistichum'' Duthie
*''Hordeum heterostychon'' P.Beauv. [Spelling variant]
*''Hordeum hexastichon'' L.
*''Hordeum hibernaculum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum hibernans'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum himalayense'' Schult.
*''Hordeum hirtiusculum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum horsfordianum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum ircutianum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum jarenskianum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum juliae'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum kalugense'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum karzinianum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum kiarchanum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum laevipaleatum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum lapponicum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum leptostachys'' Griff.
*''Hordeum macrolepis'' A.Braun
*''Hordeum mandshuricum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum mandshuroides'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum michalkowii'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum nekludowii'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum nigrum'' Willd.
*''Hordeum pamiricum'' Vavilov nom. inval.
*''Hordeum parvum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum pensanum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum polystichon'' Haller
*''Hordeum praecox'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum pyramidatum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum revelatum'' (Körn.) A.Schulz
*''Hordeum sativum'' Jess. nom. illeg.
*''Hordeum sativum'' Pers. nom. inval.
*''Hordeum scabriusculum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum septentrionale'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum stassewitschii'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum strobelense'' Chiov.
*''Hordeum taganrocense'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum tanaiticum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum tetrastichum'' Stokes
*''Hordeum transcaucasicum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum violaceum'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Hordeum walpersii'' R.E.Regel nom. inval.
*''Secale orientale'' Schreb. ex Roth nom. inval.
}}
}}
|synonyms_ref = <ref>{{citation
|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-419563
|title=The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species
|access-date=2 February 2016}}</ref>
}}
'''Barley''' (''Hordeum vulgare''), a member of the [[Poaceae|grass family]], is a major [[cereal grain]] grown in [[temperate climate]]s globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in [[Eurasia]] as early as 10,000 years ago.<ref name = Zohary/> Globally 70% of barley production is used as animal [[fodder]],<ref>{{cite web |title=BARLEY: Post-Harvest Operations |url=https://www.fao.org/3/a-au997e.pdf}}</ref> while 30% as a source of fermentable material for [[beer]] and certain [[distilled beverage]]s, and as a component of various [[food]]s. It is used in soups and stews, and in [[barley bread]] of various cultures. Barley grains are commonly made into [[malt]] in a traditional and ancient method of preparation.

In 2017, barley was ranked fourth among grains in quantity produced ({{convert|149|e6t|e9lb|abbr=off|disp=or|lk=in}}) behind [[maize]], [[rice]] and [[wheat]].<ref name=faostat16/>

==Etymology==
[[File:Barley Seeds.jpg|thumb|Barley seeds with and without the outer husk]]
[[File:Семечко ячменя.jpg|thumb|Seed under a microscope.]]
The [[Old English]] word for barley was ''{{linktext|bere}}'', which traces back to [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] and is cognate to the [[Latin]] word ''{{linktext|farina|}}'' "flour" (''see corresponding entries'').

The direct ancestor of modern English ''barley'' in Old English was the derived adjective ''bærlic'', meaning "of barley".<ref name=Ayto1990/> The first citation of the form ''bærlic'' in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' dates to around 966 CE, in the compound word ''bærlic-croft''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=barley|encyclopedia=Oxford English Dictionary|editor1=J. Simpson |editor2=E. Weiner |year=1989|edition=2nd|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-861186-8}}</ref>
The underived word ''bære'' survives in the north of Scotland as ''[[Bere (grain)|bere]]'', and refers to a specific strain of six-row barley grown there.<ref name=DSLbear>{{cite web|url=http://www.dsl.ac.uk/dsl/getent4.php?plen=18327&startset=1964317&query=BEAR&fhit=bere&dregion=form&dtext=snd#fhit |title=''Dictionary of the Scots Language'': "DSL - DOST Bere, Beir" |access-date=2008-11-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526194225/http://www.dsl.ac.uk/dsl/getent4.php?plen=18327&startset=1964317&query=BEAR&fhit=bere&dregion=form&dtext=snd |archive-date=2011-05-26 }}</ref>

The word ''[[barn]]'', which originally meant "barley-house", is also rooted in these words.<ref name=Ayto1990/>

The Latin word ''{{linktext|hordeum}}'' (''see''), used as barley's scientific genus name, is derived from an Indo-European root meaning "bristly" after the long prickly [[Awn (botany)|awns]] of the ear of grain.

==Biology==
[[File:Barley (Hordeum vulgare) - United States National Arboretum - 24 May 2009.jpg|thumb|Barley]]
[[File:CSIRO ScienceImage 11626 Barley root.jpg|thumb|The cross-section of a barley root]]
Barley is a member of the [[Poaceae|grass family]]. It is a [[self-pollination|self-pollinating]], [[diploid]] species with 14 [[chromosome]]s. The wild ancestor of domesticated barley, ''Hordeum vulgare'' subsp. ''spontaneum'', is abundant in grasslands and woodlands throughout the [[Fertile Crescent]] area of Western Asia and northeast Africa, and is abundant in [[secondary succession|disturbed habitats]], roadsides, and orchards. Outside this region, the wild barley is less common and is usually found in disturbed habitats.<ref name = Zohary>{{cite book|last1=Zohary|first1=Daniel| first2 = Maria | last2 = Hopf | name-list-style = vanc |title=Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the Nile Valley |edition=3rd |year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-850357-6|pages= 59–69}}</ref> However, in a study of genome-wide diversity markers, [[Tibet]] was found to be an additional center of domestication of cultivated barley.<ref name="Fei Dai">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dai F, Nevo E, Wu D, Comadran J, Zhou M, Qiu L, Chen Z, Beiles A, Chen G, Zhang G | title = Tibet is one of the centers of domestication of cultivated barley | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 109 | issue = 42 | pages = 16969–73 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 23033493 | pmc = 3479512 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1215265109 | display-authors = 6 | bibcode = 2012PNAS..10916969D | doi-access = free }}</ref>

===Domestication===
[[Wild barley]] (''H. spontaneum'') is the ancestor of domestic barley (''H. vulgare''). Over the course of domestication, barley grain [[Plant morphology|morphology]] changed substantially, moving from an elongated shape to a more rounded spherical one.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hughes |first1=N |last2=Oliveira |first2=HR |last3=Fradgley |first3=N |last4=Corke |first4=F |last5=Cockram |first5=J |last6=Doonan |first6=JH |last7=Nibau |first7=C |title=μCT trait analysis reveals morphometric differences between domesticated temperate small grain cereals and their wild relatives |journal=The Plant Journal |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=98–111 |date=14 March 2019 |doi=10.1111/tpj.14312 |pmid=30868647|pmc=6618119 }}</ref> Additionally, wild barley has distinctive [[gene]]s, [[allele]]s, and regulators with potential for resistance to [[abiotic]] or [[biotic stress]]es to cultivated barley and adaptation to climatic changes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang X, Chen ZH, Yang C, Zhang X, Jin G, Chen G, Wang Y, Holford P, Nevo E, Zhang G, Dai F | title = Genomic adaptation to drought in wild barley is driven by edaphic natural selection at the Tabigha Evolution Slope | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 115 | issue = 20 | pages = 5223–5228 | date = May 2018 | pmid = 29712833 | pmc = 5960308 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1721749115 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Wild barley has a brittle [[spike (botany)|spike]]; upon maturity, the [[spikelet]]s separate, facilitating [[seed dispersal]]. Domesticated barley has [[shattering (agriculture)|nonshattering]] spikes, making it much easier to harvest the mature ears.<ref name = Zohary/> The nonshattering condition is caused by a [[mutation]] in one of two [[Genetic linkage|tightly linked]] genes known as Bt1 and Bt2; many [[cultivar]]s possess both mutations. The nonshattering condition is [[recessive]], so varieties of barley that exhibit this condition are [[homozygous]] for the mutant [[allele]].<ref name = Zohary/>

Domestication in barley is followed by the change of key [[phenotype|phenotypic traits]] at the genetic level. Little is known about the [[genetic variation]] among domesticated and wild genes in the [[chromosome|chromosomal]] regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yan S, Sun D, Sun G | title = Genetic divergence in domesticated and non-domesticated gene regions of barley chromosomes | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 10 | issue = 3 | pages = e0121106 | date = 2015-03-26 | pmid = 25812037 | pmc = 4374956 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0121106 | bibcode = 2015PLoSO..1021106Y | doi-access = free }}</ref>

===Two-row and six-row barley===
[[File:BarleyEars.JPG|thumb|upright|Two-row and six-row barley]]

Spikelets are arranged in triplets which alternate along the [[rachis]]. In wild barley (and other [[Old World]] species of ''Hordeum''), only the central spikelet is fertile, while the other two are reduced. This condition is retained in certain cultivars known as two-row barleys. A pair of mutations (one dominant, the other recessive) result in fertile lateral spikelets to produce six-row barleys.<ref name = Zohary/> {{anchor|vrs1}}Recent genetic studies have revealed that a mutation in one gene, ''vrs1'', is responsible for the transition from two-row to six-row barley.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Komatsuda T, Pourkheirandish M, He C, Azhaguvel P, Kanamori H, Perovic D, Stein N, Graner A, Wicker T, Tagiri A, Lundqvist U, Fujimura T, Matsuoka M, Matsumoto T, Yano M | title = Six-rowed barley originated from a mutation in a homeodomain-leucine zipper I-class homeobox gene | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 104 | issue = 4 | pages = 1424–9 | date = January 2007 | pmid = 17220272 | pmc = 1783110 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0608580104 | display-authors = 8 | bibcode = 2007PNAS..104.1424K | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Two-row barley, sometimes considered a separate species, ''[[Hordeum distichon]]'', has a lower protein content than six-row barley, thus a more fermentable sugar content. High-[[protein]] barley is best suited for animal feed. Malting barley is usually lower protein<ref name="IPNI">{{cite web |url=http://www.ppi-far.org/ppiweb/ppibase.nsf/$webindex/article=0EA04C0385256CF50062045A0D8E2931 |title=Nitrogen Fertilizer Management of Malting Barley: Impacts of Crop and Fertilizer Nitrogen Prices (Prairie Provinces and Northern Great Plains States) |author1=Adrian Johnston |author2=Scott Murrell |author3=Cynthia Grant |author-link3=Cynthia Grant |name-list-style=amp |publisher=International Plant Nutrition Instituteu |access-date=2009-05-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223233533/http://www.ppi-far.org/ppiweb/ppibase.nsf/$webindex/article=0EA04C0385256CF50062045A0D8E2931 |archive-date=2008-12-23 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
("low grain nitrogen", usually produced without a late fertilizer application) which shows more uniform germination, needs shorter steeping, and has less protein in the extract that can make beer cloudy. Two-row barley is traditionally used in English [[ale]]-style beers, with two-row malted summer barley being preferred for traditional [[German beer]]s.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

Amylase-rich six-row barley is common in some American [[lager]]-style beers, especially when [[adjuncts]] such as corn and rice are used.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

===Hulless barley===
Hulless or "naked" barley (''Hordeum vulgare ''L. var.'' nudum'' Hook. f.) is a form of domesticated barley with an easier-to-remove [[Husk|hull]]. Naked barley is an ancient food crop, but a new industry has developed around uses of selected hulless barley to increase the digestible energy of the grain, especially for swine and poultry.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bhatty RS | title = The potential of hull-less barley | journal = Cereal Chemistry | year = 1999 | volume = 76 | pages = 589–599 | doi = 10.1094/CCHEM.1999.76.5.589 | issue = 5}}</ref> Hulless barley has been investigated for several potential new applications as whole grain, and for its value-added products. These include bran and flour for multiple food applications.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bhatty RS | title = β-glucan and flour yield of hull-less barley | journal = Cereal Chemistry | year = 2011 | volume = 76 | pages = 314–315 | doi = 10.1094/CCHEM.1999.76.2.314 | issue = 2 }}</ref>
<gallery widths="180">
File:Barley grains 4.jpg|Non-hulless barley grains
File:Barley grains 3.jpg|Hulless barley grains
</gallery>

=== Classification ===
[[File:Hordeum-barley.jpg|thumb|upright|Barley]]

In traditional classifications of barley, these morphological differences have led to different forms of barley being classified as different species. Under these classifications, two-row barley with shattering spikes (wild barley) is classified as ''[[Hordeum spontaneum]]'' [[Karl Koch (botanist)|K. Koch]]. Two-row barley with nonshattering spikes is classified as ''[[Hordeum distichon|H. distichon]]'' [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]], six-row barley with nonshattering spikes as ''H. vulgare'' L. (or ''H. hexastichum'' L.), and six-row with shattering spikes as ''H. agriocrithon'' Åberg.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

Because these differences were driven by single-gene mutations, coupled with [[cell biology|cytological]] and [[molecular biology|molecular]] evidence, most recent classifications treat these forms as a single species, ''H. vulgare'' L.<ref name = Zohary/>

=== Cultivars ===
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2021}}
; Vocabulary
* DON: Acronym for deoxynivalenol, a toxic byproduct of [[Fusarium head blight|''Fusarium'' head blight]], also known as [[vomitoxin]]
* Heading date: A parameter in barley cultivation<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Martínez | first1 = J.H. Esparza | last2 = Foster | first2 = A.E. | s2cid = 40181834 | name-list-style = vanc | year = 1998 | title = Genetic analysis of heading date and other agronomic characters in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) | journal = Euphytica | volume = 99 | issue = 3| pages = 145–153 | doi = 10.1023/A:1018380617288 }}</ref>
* Lodging: The bending over of the stems near ground level
* ''Nutans'': A designation for a variety with a lax ear, as opposed to 'erectum' (with an erect ear)
* QCC: A pathotype of [[stem rust]] (''Puccinia graminis'' f. sp. ''tritici'')
* Rachilla: The part of a spikelet that bears the florets, the length of the rachilla hairs is a characteristic of barley varieties

; Cultivars
* 'Azure', a six-row, blue-[[aleurone]] malting barley released in 1982, it was high-yielding with strong [[straw]], but was susceptible to [[loose smut]].
* 'Beacon', a six-row malting barley with rough [[Awn (botany)|awns]], short rachilla hairs and colorless aleurone, it was released in 1973, and was the first [[North Dakota State University]] (NDSU) barley that had resistance to loose smut.
* [[Bere (grain)|Bere]], a six-row barley, is currently cultivated mainly on 5-15 hectares of land in Orkney, Scotland. Two additional parcels on the island of Islay, Scotland, were planted in 2006 for Bruichladdich Distillery.
* 'Betzes', an old German two-row barley, was introduced into North America from [[Kraków, Poland]], by the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA).<ref>{{cite book |author1=Wiebe, G.A. |author2=Reid, D.A. |year=1961 |title=Classification of Barley Varieties Grown in the United States and Canada in 1958 |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iLoXAAAAYAAJ |page=210}}</ref> The Montana and Idaho agricultural experiment stations released Betzes in 1957. It is a midshort, medium strength-strawed, midseason-maturing barley. It has a midsize-to-large kernels with yellow aleurones. Betzes is susceptible to loose and [[Covered smut (barley)|covered smut]]s, [[rust (disease)|rust]]s, and [[Scald (barley disease)|scald]].
* 'Bowman', a two-rowed, smooth-awned variety, was jointly released by NDSU and USDA in 1984 as a feed barley, spring variety developed in North Dakota. It has good test weight and straw strength. It is resistant to wheat stem rust, but is susceptible to loose smut and [[barley yellow dwarf virus]].
* 'Celebration', a variety developed by the barley breeding program at Busch Agricultural Resources, was released in 2008. Through a collaborative agreement between the NDSU Foundation Seedstocks (NDFSS) project and Busch Agricultural Resources, all foundation seed of 'Celebration' barley will be produced and distributed by the NDFSS. 'Celebration' has excellent agronomic performance and malt quality. It is a Midwestern variety, well-adapted for Minnesota, North Dakota, Idaho, and Montana, with medium-early maturity, medium-early heading, medium-short height, mid-lax head type, rough awns, short rachilla hairs, and colorless aleurone, moderately resistant to ''[[Septoria]]'' and [[net blotch]]. It has improved reaction to ''Fusarium'' head blight and consistently lower DON content.
* 'Centennial', a Canadian variety, was developed from the cross of 'Lenta' x 'Sanalta' by the [[University of Alberta]]. It is a two-row, relatively short, stiff-strawed, late-maturing variety. The kernel is midlong with yellow aleurone. It was released as a feed barley.
*[[File:7258 Canterbury Agricultural College research showing seven varieties of barley.jpg|thumb|Seven mid-20th-century malt barley varieties studied at [[Lincoln University (New Zealand)|Canterbury Agricultural College]]]]'Compana', an American variety, was developed from a composite cross by the Idaho and Montana Agricultural Experiment Stations in cooperation with the USDA's Plant Science Research Division. It was released by Montana in 1941. 'Compana' is a two-row variety with moderately weak straw, midshort with midseason maturity. The kernels are long and wide with yellow aleurone. This variety is resistant to loose smut and moderately resistant to covered smut.
* 'Conlon', a two-row barley, was released by NDSU in 1996. Test weight and yield are better than 'Bowman'. Yield is equal to 'Stark'. 'Conlon' heads earlier than 'Bowman' and shows good heat tolerance by kernel plumpness. It is resistant to [[Powdery mildew (barley)|powdery mildew]] and net blotch, but is moderately susceptible to [[Spot blotch (barley)|spot blotch]]. It is prone to lodging under high-yield growing conditions. It appears best adapted to western North Dakota and adjacent western states.
* 'Diamant', a Czech high-yield, is a short-height, [[Mutation breeding|mutant variety]] created with X-rays.
* 'Dickson', a six-row, rough-awned variety, was released by NDSU in 1965. It had good straw strength and was resistant to stem rust, but susceptible to loose smut. 'Dickson' had more resistance to prevalent leaf spot diseases than 'Trophy', 'Larker', and 'Traill'. It was similar to 'Trophy' in heading date, plant height, and straw strength. It had less plumpness than 'Trophy' and 'Larker', but more than 'Traill' and 'Kindred'.
* 'Drummond', a six-row malting variety, was released by NDSU in 2000. It has white aleurone, long rachilla hairs and semismooth awns. 'Drummond' has better straw strength than current six-row varieties. Heading date is similar to Robust and plant height is similar to Stander. It is resistant to spot blotch and moderately susceptible to net blotch. However, its net blotch resistance is better than any current variety. ''Fusarium'' head blight reaction is similar to that of 'Robust'. It is resistant to prevalent races of wheat stem rust, but is susceptible to pathotype Pgt-QCC. 'Drummond' is on the [[American Malting Barley Association]]'s list of recommended varieties. In two years of plant-scale evaluation, 'Drummond' was found satisfactory by Anheuser-Busch, Inc. and Miller Brewing.
* 'Excel', a six-row, white-aleurone malting barley, was released by Minnesota in 1990. Shorter in height than other six-row barleys grown at that time, it is high-yielding with medium-early maturity, moderately strong straw, smooth awns, and long rachilla hairs. It has high resistance to stem rust and moderate resistance to spot blotch, but is susceptible to loose smut. Malting traits are equal or greater than 'Morex' with plum kernel percentage lower than 'Robust'.
* 'Foster', a six-row, white-aleurone malting barley, was released by NDSU in 1995. About one day earlier and slightly shorter than 'Robust', it is higher-yielding than 'Morex', 'Robust', and 'Hazen'. Straw strength is similar to 'Excel' and 'Stander', but better than 'Robust'. It is moderately susceptible to net blotch, but resistant to spot blotch. Protein is 1.5% lower than 'Robust' and 'Morex'.
* 'Glenn', a six-row, white-aleurone variety, was released by NDSU in 1978. 'Glenn' was resistant to prevalent races of loose and covered smut with better resistance to leaf spot diseases than 'Larker'. It matured about two days earlier than 'Larker' and yielded about 10% more than 'Larker' and 'Beacon'.
* 'Golden Promise', an English semidwarf, is a salt-tolerant, mutant variety (created with gamma rays<ref>Broad, William J. [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/28/science/28crop.html "Useful Mutants, Bred With Radiation"], ''[[The New York Times]]'', 2007-08-28. Retrieved on 2015-08-10.</ref>) used to make beer and whisky.
* 'Hazen', a six-row, smooth-awn, white-aleurone feed barley, was released by NDSU in 1984. 'Hazen' heads two days later than 'Glenn'. It is susceptible to loose smut.
* [[Highland barley]] is a crop cultivated on the [[Tibetan Plateau]].
* 'Kindred' was released in 1941 and developed from a selection made by S.T. Lykken, a [[Kindred, North Dakota]] farmer. It was a six-row, rough-awned, medium-early Manchurian-type malting variety that gave good yields. 'Kindred' had stem rust resistance, but was moderately susceptible to spot blotch and ''[[Septoria]]''. It was less susceptible to blight and [[root rot]] than 'Wisconsin 38'. It was medium-height with weak straw.
* 'Kindred L' is a reselection made to eliminate blue Manchurian types.
* 'Larker', a six-rowed, semi-smooth-awn malting barley, was first released in 1961. It was medium-maturity with moderate straw strength and medium height. 'Larker' was rust-resistant, but susceptible to leaf diseases and loose smut. It was superior to all other malt varieties for kernel plumpness at the time of release.
* 'Logan', released by NDSU in 1995, is classed as a nonmalting barley. It is a white-aleurone, two-row barley similar to 'Bowman' in heading date and plant height and similar to 'Morex' for [[foliar disease]]s. It has better yield, test weight, and lodging score, and lower protein, than 'Bowman' and 'Morex'.
* 'Lux' is a Danish variety.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lababidi S, Mejlhede N, Rasmussen SK, Backes G, Al-Said W, Baum M, Jahoor A | year = 2009 | title = Identification of barley mutants in the cultivar 'Lux' at the Dhn loci through TILLING | journal = Plant Breeding | volume = 128 | issue = 4| pages = 332–336 | doi = 10.1111/j.1439-0523.2009.01640.x | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* 'Manchurian', a blue-aleurone malting variety, was released by NDSU in 1922. It had weak to moderate-stiff straw and was susceptible to stem rust. It was developed from [[Barley stripe mosaic virus|false stripe virus]]-free stock.
* 'Manscheuri', also designated 'Accession No. 871', is a six-row barley that may have been first released by NDSU before 1904. It outyielded most of the common types being grown in North Dakota at the time. It had stiffer straw than varieties at the time and a longer head filled with large, plump kernels.
* 'Mansury', also designated 'Accession No. 172', is a two-row barley first released by NDSU about 1905.
* '[[Maris Otter]]' is an English two-row winter variety commonly used in the production of malt for traditional British beers or as a 'maltier' two-row substitute in any style. It remains popular for [[craft beer]] and among homebrewers.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wheeler|first1=Graham|last2=Protz|first2=Roger | name-list-style = vanc |title=Brew Your Own British Real Ale: Recipes for More Than 100 Brand-name Real Ales|date=1993|publisher=Storey Books|isbn=9781580171021|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mOtJAAAAYAAJ|language=en|quote=Maris Otter is the premier brewing barley, and the most expensive}}</ref>
* 'Morex', a six-row, white-aleurone, smooth-awn malting variety, was released by Minnesota in 1978. 'Morex', which stands for "more extract", is highly resistant to stem rust, moderate to spot blotch, and susceptible to loose smut.
* 'Nordal', a spring ''nutans'' variety from [[Carlsberg Sweden]], was released in 1971.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://genbank.vurv.cz/barley/pedigree/krizeni2.asp?id=1554|title=Barley Pedigree Catalogue|access-date=6 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nyegaard Kristiansen | first1 = Klaus | name-list-style = vanc | year = 1984 | title = Biosynthesis of proanthocyanidins in barley: Genetic control of the conversion of dihydroquercetin to catechin and procyanidins | journal = Carlsberg Research Communications | volume = 49 | issue = 5| pages = 503–524 | doi = 10.1007/BF02907552 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* 'Nordic', a six-row, colorless-aleurone feed barley, was released in 1971. It had rough awns and short rachilla hairs. Yield was similar to 'Dickson', but greater than 'Larker'. Kernel plumpness and test weight was superior to 'Dickson', but less than 'Larker'. Lodging, spot, and net blotch resistance was similar to 'Dickson', but it had higher resistance to ''Septoria'' leaf blotch. It showed less leaf rust symptoms compared to other varieties at the time.
* 'Optic'
* 'Pallas'
* 'Park', a six-row, white-aleurone, malting barley, was released in 1978. 'Park' had better resistance to leaf spot diseases, spot blotch, net blotch, and ''Septoria'' leaf blotch than 'Larker'.
* 'Plumage Archer' is an English malt variety.
* 'Pearl'
* 'Pinnacle', a variety released by the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station in 2006, has high yield, low protein, long rachilla hairs, smooth awns, white aleurone, medium-late maturity, medium height, and strong straw strength.
* 'Proctor' is a parent cultivar of 'Maris Otter'.
* 'Pioneer' is a parent cultivar of 'Maris Otter'.
* 'Rawson', a variety developed by the NDSU Barley Breeding Program, was released by the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station in 2005. 'Rawson's' general characteristics were very large kernels, loose hull, long rachilla hairs, rough awns, white aleurone, medium maturity, medium height, and medium straw strength.
* 'Robust', a six-row, white-aleurone malting variety, was released by Minnesota in 1983. Maturity is two days later than 'Morex'.
* 'Sioux', a selection from Tregal released by NDSU, was a six-row, medium-early variety with white aleurone, rough awns, and long rachilla hairs. It was high-yielding with plump kernels. Its disease reaction was similar to 'Tregal'.
* 'Stark', a two-row nonmalting barley released by NDSU in 1991, has stiff straw and large kernels, and appears best adapted to western North Dakota and adjacent western states. 'Stark' is about one day later and two inches shorter than 'Bowman', with equal or better test weight. 'Stark' yields about 10% better than 'Bowman'. It is moderately resistant to net and spot blotch, but is susceptible to loose smut, leaf rust and the QCC race of wheat stem rust.
* 'Steptoe', a white-kerneled, rough-awned feed variety, was released by Washington State University in 1973. 'Steptoe' is widely adapted and has been one of the highest yielding and most popular six-rowed feed varieties in the inland Pacific northwest for many years.
* 'Tradition', a variety with excellent agronomic performance and malt quality, is well-adapted to Minnesota, North Dakota, Idaho, and Montana. 'Tradition' has medium relative maturity, medium-short height, and very strong straw. It has a nodding head type, semismooth awns, long rachilla hairs. and white aleurone.
* 'Traill', a medium-early, rough-awn, white-aleurone malting variety, was released by NDSU in 1956. It was resistant to stem rust and had the same reaction to spot blotch and ''Septoria'' as 'Kindred'. 'Traill' had greater yield and straw strength than 'Kindred', but had smaller kernel size.
* 'Tregal', a high-yield, smooth-awn, six-row feed barley, was released by NDSU in 1943. It was medium-early with short, stiff straw, erect head, and high resistance to loose smut. 'Tregal' was similar to 'Kindred' for reaction to spot blotch with similar tolerance to ''Septoria''.
* 'Trophy', a six-row, rough-awn malting variety with colorless aleurone, was released by NDSU in 1964. Similar to 'Traill' and 'Kindred' in plant height, heading date, and test weight, it had a higher percentage of plump kernels. Its yield in North Dakota was greater than 'Kindred' and similar to 'Traill'. Similar to 'Kindred' and 'Traill', it was resistant to stem rust, but susceptible to loose smut and ''Septoria'' leaf blotch. It had some field resistance to net blotch. It had greater straw strength than 'Kindred'. 'Trophy' had greater enzymatic activity and quality than 'Traill'.
* 'Windich' is a Western Australian grain cultivar named after [[Tommy Windich]] (''circa'' 1840–1876).
* 'Yagan' is a Western Australian grain cultivar named after [[Yagan]] (''circa'' 1795–1833).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ag.ndsu.nodak.edu/aginfo/seedstock/varieties/VA-BARL.htm|title=Barley varieties developed at North Dakota State University|access-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106093659/http://www.ag.ndsu.nodak.edu/aginfo/seedstock/varieties/VA-BARL.htm|archive-date=6 November 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

{{expand list|date=August 2013}}

===Chemistry===
''H. vulgare'' contains the phenolics [[caffeic acid]] and [[p-coumaric acid]], the [[ferulic acid]] [[8,5'-diferulic acid]], the [[flavonoid]]s [[catechin-7-O-glucoside]],<ref>{{cite journal|title=Identification of a new flavanol glucoside from barley (''Hordeum vulgare'' L.) and malt|author1=Wolfgang Friedrich |author2=Rudolf Galensa |s2cid=84221785 |name-list-style=amp |journal=European Food Research and Technology|year= 2002|volume=214|issue=5|pages=388–393|doi=10.1007/s00217-002-0498-x}}</ref> [[saponarin]],<ref name="pmid22681491">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kamiyama M, Shibamoto T | title = Flavonoids with potent antioxidant activity found in young green barley leaves | journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume = 60 | issue = 25 | pages = 6260–7 | date = June 2012 | pmid = 22681491 | doi = 10.1021/jf301700j }}</ref> [[catechin]], [[procyanidin B3]], [[procyanidin C2]], and [[prodelphinidin B3]], and the [[alkaloid]] [[hordenine]].

Barley is often assessed by its [[malting enzyme]] content.<ref name="Hayes-et-al-2003">{{cite book |editor=Roland von Bothmer |editor2=Theo van Hintum |editor3=Helmut Knüpffer |editor4=Kazuhiro Sato | title=Diversity in Barley (''Hordeum vulgare'') | publisher=[[Elsevier]] | publication-place=Amsterdam Boston | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-444-50585-9 | oclc=162130976 | pages=201–226 | chapter=Genetic diversity for quantitatively inherited agronomic and malting quality traits | last1=Hayes | first1=Patrick M. | last2=Castro | first2=Ariel | last3=Marquez-Cedillo | first3=Luis | last4=Corey | first4=Ann | last5=Henson | first5=Cynthia | last6=Jones | first6=Berne L. | last7=Kling | first7=Jennifer | last8=Mather | first8=Diane | last9=Matus | first9=Ivan | last10=Rossi | first10=Carlos | last11=Sato | first11=Kazuhiro |doi=10.1016/S0168-7972(03)80012-9 | issn=0168-7972}} {{ISBN|0-444-50585-7}} {{ISBN|1865843830}}</ref>

== History ==

===Origin===
[[File:Genetic analysis on the spread of barley from 9000 to 2000 BCE.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Genetic analysis on the spread of barley from 9,000 to 2,000 BCE<ref name="BHE"/>]]
Barley was one of the [[Neolithic founder crops|first domesticated grains]] in the [[Fertile Crescent]], an area of relatively abundant water in Western Asia, and near the [[Nile]] river of northeast Africa.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Badr A, Müller K, Schäfer-Pregl R, El Rabey H, Effgen S, Ibrahim HH, Pozzi C, Rohde W, Salamini F | title = On the origin and domestication history of Barley (Hordeum vulgare) | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 499–510 | date = April 2000 | pmid = 10742042 | doi = 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026330 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The grain appeared in the same time as [[einkorn]] and [[emmer wheat]].<ref>-Saltini Antonio, ''I semi della civiltà. Grano, riso e mais nella storia delle società umane,'', prefazione di Luigi Bernabò Brea Avenue Media, Bologna 1996</ref> Wild barley (''H. vulgare'' ssp. ''spontaneum'') ranges from [[North Africa]] and [[Crete]] in the west, to [[Tibet]] in the east.<ref name = Zohary/> The earliest evidence of the consumption of wild barley in an [[archaeology|archaeological]] context comes from the [[Epipaleolithic]] at [[Ohalo II]] at the southern end of the [[Sea of Galilee]], where grinding stones with traces of starch were found. The remains were dated to about 23,000 BCE.<ref name = Zohary/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nadel |first1=Dani |last2=Piperno |first2=Dolores R. |last3=Holst |first3=Irene |last4=Snir |first4=Ainit |last5=Weiss |first5=Ehud |title=New evidence for the processing of wild cereal grains at Ohalo II, a 23 000-year-old campsite on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, Israel |journal=Antiquity |date=December 2012 |volume=86 |issue=334 |pages=990–1003 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00048201 |s2cid=162019976 |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00048201 |language=en |issn=0003-598X|quote=Traces of starch found on a large flat stone discovered in the hunter-fisher-gatherer site of Ohalo II famously represent the first identification of Upper Palaeolithic grinding of grasses. Given the importance of this discovery for the use of edible grain, further analyses have now been undertaken. Meticulous sampling combined with good preservation allow the authors to demonstrate that the Ohalo II stone was certainly used for the routine processing of wild cereals, wheat, barley and now oats among them, around 23 000 years ago.}}</ref> The earliest evidence for the domestication of barley, in the form of cultivars that cannot reproduce without human assistance, comes from Mesopotamia, specifically the [[Jarmo]] region of modern-day Iraq, around 9,000-7,000 BCE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ucko |first1=Peter John |last2=Dimbleby |first2=G. W. |title=The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals |date=1 January 2007 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-0-202-36557-2 |page=164 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lY9Q4vnrCEC&pg=PA164 |language=en|quote=This feature allows us to describe the Jarmo barley as the earliest "domesticated" two-row barley yet found.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mitchell |first1=John William |last2=Loegering |first2=William Quenn |last3=Livingston |first3=George Adelbert |title=Barley: Origin, Botany, Culture, Winterhardiness, Genetics, Utilization, Pests |date=1967 |publisher=Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture |page=14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dmFsRJ48XEsC&pg=RA5-PA14 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=Helena H. |title=The Origin and Early History of the Cultivated Barleys: A Botanical and Archaeological Synthesis |journal=The Agricultural History Review |date=1967 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=10–11 |jstor=40273219 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40273219 |issn=0002-1490}}</ref><ref name="BHE"/>

===Spread of cultivated barley: genetic analysis===
{{See also|Neolithic revolution}}
One of the world's most important crops, barley was domesticated in the Near East around 11,000 years ago (circa 9,000 BCE).<ref name="BHE"/> Barley is a highly resilient crop, able to be grown in varied and marginal environments, such as in regions of high altitude and latitude.<ref name="BHE"/> Archaeobotanical evidence shows that barley had spread throughout Eurasia by 2,000 BCE.<ref name="BHE"/> To further elucidate the routes by which barley cultivation was spread through Eurasia, genetic analysis was used to determine genetic diversity and population structure in extant barley taxa.<ref name="BHE"/> Genetic analysis shows that cultivated barley spread through Eurasia via several different routes, which were most likely separated in both time and space.<ref name="BHE">[[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License] {{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Martin K. |last2=Kovaleva |first2=Olga |title=Barley heads east: Genetic analyses reveal routes of spread through diverse Eurasian landscapes |journal=PLOS ONE |date=18 July 2018 |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=e0196652 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0196652 |pmid=30020920 |pmc=6051582 |language=en |issn=1932-6203|bibcode=2018PLoSO..1396652L |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Dispersal===
[[File:Issue of barley rations.JPG|thumb|left|upright|An [[accounting|account]] of barley rations issued monthly to adults (30 or 40 pints) and children (20 pints) written in [[cuneiform]] on clay tablet, written in year 4 of King [[Urukagina]] (''circa'' 2350 BCE), from [[Girsu]], Iraq, [[British Museum]], London]]
Some scholars suppose domesticated barley (''Hordeum vulgare'') originally spread from [[Central Asia]] to [[India]], [[Persia]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]].<ref name=Stachowski>{{Cite book| last = Stachowski| first = Kamil| title = Names of Cereals in the Turkic Languages| access-date = 2018-02-12| url = https://www.academia.edu/1270994}}</ref> Some of the earliest domesticated barley occurs at aceramic ("pre-pottery") [[Neolithic]] sites, in the Near East such as the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]] layers of [[Tell (archaeology)|Tell]] Abu Hureyra, in [[Syria]].{{citation needed|date=February 2018}} By 4200 BCE domesticated barley occurs as far as in Eastern Finland<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.helsinki.fi/hum/ajankohtaista/2013/01/0128b.htm|title=Maanviljely levisi Suomeen Itä-Aasiasta jo 7000 vuotta sitten - Ajankohtaista - Tammikuu 2013 - Humanistinen tiedekunta - Helsingin yliopisto|access-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> and had reached [[Greece]] and [[Italy]] around the 4th c. BCE.<ref name=Stachowski /> Barley has been grown in the Korean Peninsula since the Early [[Mumun Pottery Period]] (''circa'' 1500–850 BCE) along with other crops such as millet, wheat, and legumes.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Crawford | first = Gary W. |author2=Gyoung-Ah Lee | year = 2003 | title = Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula | journal = Antiquity | volume = 77 | issue = 295 | pages = 87–95 | doi = 10.1017/s0003598x00061378 }}</ref>

Barley (known as {{IAST|Yava}} in both [[Vedic Sanskrit|Vedic]] and [[Classical Sanskrit]]) is only{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} crop which has been mentioned many times in [[Rigveda]] and other Indian scriptures as one of the principal grains in ancient India.<ref name="yava">{{cite web|last1=Witzel |first1=Michael E.J | name-list-style = vanc |title=The Linguistic History of Some Indian Domestic Plants|url=https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/8954814/Witzel_Linguistic.pdf?sequence=1|website=dash.harvard.edu|publisher=Harvard University|access-date=25 August 2016}}</ref> Traces of Barley cultivation have also been found in [[Indus Valley Civilization|post-Neolithic Bronze Age Harappan civilization]] 5700–3300 years before present.<ref name="IVS">{{cite web|title=Indus Valley civilization|url=https://iitkgp.org/content/iit-kgp-researchers-say-indus-valley-civilization-india-older-thought|website=iitkgp.org|publisher=IIT Kharagpur|access-date=25 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918225301/https://iitkgp.org/content/iit-kgp-researchers-say-indus-valley-civilization-india-older-thought|archive-date=18 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning book ''[[Guns, Germs, and Steel]]'', [[Jared Diamond]] proposed that the availability of barley, along with other domesticable crops and animals, in southwestern [[Eurasia]] significantly contributed to the broad historical patterns that human history has followed over approximately the last 13,000 years; ''i.e.'', why Eurasian civilizations, as a whole, have survived and conquered others.<ref name="guns_germs_and_steel">{{Cite book | last1 = Diamond | first1 = Jared M. | name-list-style = vanc | title = Guns, germs, and steel: the fates of human societies | url = https://archive.org/details/gunsgermssteelfa0000diam | url-access = registration | year = 1997 | publisher = W.W. Norton | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-393-03891-0 | page = [https://archive.org/details/gunsgermssteelfa0000diam/page/141 141] }}</ref> Jared Diamond's proposition was criticized, however, for underemphasizing individual and cultural choice and autonomy.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livinganthropologically.com/archaeology/guns-germs-and-steel-jared-diamond/|title=''Guns, Germs, and Steel by Jared Diamond: Against History''|website=Living Anthropologically|first=Jason|last=Antrosio|date=July 7, 2011|access-date=November 20, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119045103/https://www.livinganthropologically.com/archaeology/guns-germs-and-steel-jared-diamond/|archive-date=November 19, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

Barley beer was probably one of the first alcoholic drinks developed by Neolithic humans.<ref name=Pellechia2006>{{Cite book| last = Pellechia | first=Thomas | name-list-style = vanc |year=2006| title=Wine : the 8,000-year-old story of the wine trade |page=10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K6OTKiIlyAIC&q=barley+beer+first+drink&pg=PA10| isbn=978-1-56025-871-1 |publisher=Running Press |location=Philadelphia}}</ref> Barley later on was used as currency.<ref name=Pellechia2006/> The [[Sumerian language|ancient Sumerian]] word for barley was ''akiti''. In ancient [[Mesopotamia]], a stalk of barley was the primary symbol of the goddess [[Shala]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Black|first1=Jeremy|first2=Anthony|last2=Green | name-list-style = vanc |title=Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=05LXAAAAMAAJ&q=Inana|publisher=The British Museum Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-7141-1705-8|page=39}}</ref> Alongside emmer wheat, barley was a staple cereal of [[ancient Egypt]], where it was used to make [[bread]] and [[beer]]. The general name for barley is ''jt'' (hypothetically pronounced "eat"); ''šma'' (hypothetically pronounced "SHE-ma") refers to [[Upper Egypt]]ian barley and is a symbol of Upper Egypt. According to [[Deuteronomy]] [[s:en:Bible (King James)/Deuteronomy#8:8|8:8]], barley is one of the "[[Seven Species]]" of crops that characterize the fertility of the [[Promised Land]] of [[Canaan]], and it has a prominent role in the [[Israelite]] [[sacrifices]] described in the [[Pentateuch]] (see e.g. [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] [[s:en:Bible (King James)/Numbers#5:15|5:15]]). A religious importance extended into the [[Middle Ages]] in Europe, and saw barley's use in [[justice]], via [[alphitomancy]] and the [[corsned]].

{|style="float:right;clear:right;font-size:9pt;margin:2em 0 1em 1em;"
|-
|+''' Barley in [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s'''
|''jt'' barley [[determinative]]/[[ideogram]]
|<hiero>M34</hiero>
|-
|''jt'' (common) spelling
|<hiero>i-t-U9:M33</hiero>
|-
|''šma'' determinative/ideogram
|<hiero>U9</hiero>
|}

Rations of barley for workers appear in [[Linear B]] tablets in Mycenaean contexts at [[Knossos]] and at [[Pylos#Prehistoric and Mycenaean Pylos|Mycenaean Pylos]].<ref>[[John Chadwick]], 1976. ''The Mycenaean World'' pp 118f ''et passim''.</ref> In mainland Greece, the ''ritual'' significance of barley possibly dates back to the earliest stages of the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]]. The preparatory ''[[kykeon]]'' or mixed drink of the initiates, prepared from barley and [[herb]]s, referred in the [[Homeric hymn]] to [[Demeter]], whose name some scholars believe meant "Barley-mother".<ref name="cereals_and_cereal_products_technology_and_chemistry">{{Cite book | last1 = J. Dobraszczyk | first1 = Bogdan | name-list-style = vanc | title = Cereals and cereal products: chemistry and technology | year = 2001 | publisher = Aspen Publishers | location = Gaithersburg, Md. | isbn = 978-0-8342-1767-6 | page = 7 }}</ref> The practice was to dry the barley [[groats]] and roast them before preparing the porridge, according to [[Pliny the Elder]]'s ''[[Pliny's Natural History|Natural History]]'' (xviii.72). This produces [[malt]] that soon ferments and becomes slightly alcoholic.

Pliny also noted barley was a special food of gladiators known as ''hordearii'', "barley-eaters". However, by Roman times, he added that wheat had replaced barley as a staple.<ref name=Mcgee235/>

Tibetan barley has been a [[staple food]] in [[Tibetan cuisine]] since the fifth century CE. This grain, along with a cool climate that permitted storage, produced a civilization that was able to raise great armies.<ref name=Fernandez2001>{{Cite book |last=Fernandez |first=Felipe Armesto | name-list-style = vanc |year=2001 |title=Civilizations: Culture, Ambition and the Transformation of Nature| page = 265| isbn = 978-0-7432-1650-0 }}</ref> It is made into a flour product called ''[[tsampa]]'' that is still a staple in Tibet.<ref name=By2006>{{Cite book | last1=Dreyer | first1=June Teufel |last2=Sautman |first2=Barry | name-list-style = vanc |year = 2006| title = Contemporary Tibet : politics, development, and society in a disputed region| page = 262| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Ou4f4q8gGcIC&q=tsampa&pg=PA262| isbn = 978-0-7656-1354-7 |publisher=Sharpe |location=Armonk, New York }}</ref> The flour is roasted and mixed with butter and [[butter tea]] to form a stiff dough that is eaten in small balls.

In medieval Europe, bread made from barley and rye was peasant food, while wheat products were consumed by the upper classes.<ref name=Mcgee235/> [[Potatoes]] largely replaced barley in Eastern Europe in the 19th century.<ref name="Roden97">{{cite book|last=Roden|first=Claudia|name-list-style=vanc|title=The Book of Jewish Food|publisher=Knopf|year=1997|page=[https://archive.org/details/bookofjewishfood00rode/page/135 135]|isbn=978-0-394-53258-5|url=https://archive.org/details/bookofjewishfood00rode/page/135}}</ref>

== Genetics ==
The genome of barley was sequenced in 2012,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mayer KF, Waugh R, Brown JW, Schulman A, Langridge P, Platzer M, Fincher GB, Muehlbauer GJ, Sato K, Close TJ, Wise RP, Stein N | s2cid = 10170672 | title = A physical, genetic and functional sequence assembly of the barley genome | journal = Nature | volume = 491 | issue = 7426 | pages = 711–6 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 23075845 | doi = 10.1038/nature11543 | display-authors = 8 | bibcode = 2012Natur.491..711T | hdl = 2440/76951 | url = https://iris.unito.it/bitstream/2318/125624/1/A%20physical%2c%20genetic%20and%20functional%20sequence%20assembly%20of%20the%20barley%20genome.pdf | doi-access = free }}</ref> due to the efforts of the International Barley Genome Sequencing Consortium and the UK Barley Sequencing Consortium.

The genome is composed of seven pairs<ref name="Hayes-et-al-2003" /> of [[nuclear DNA|nuclear chromosome]]s (recommended designations: 1H, 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H and 7H), and one [[mitochondrial DNA|mitochondrial]] and one [[chloroplast DNA|chloroplast chromosome]], with a total of 5000 Mbp.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mapview/map_search.cgi?chr=barley.inf|title=barley genome at ncbi.nlm.nih.gov|author=mapview|access-date=6 October 2014}}</ref>

Abundant biological information is already freely available in several barley databases.<ref>[http://www.barleygenome.org.uk/resources Barley-resources]</ref>

The wild barley (''H. vulgare'' ssp.'' spontaneum'') found currently in the [[Fertile Crescent]] might not be the progenitor of the barley cultivated in [[Eritrea]] and [[Ethiopia]], indicating that separate domestication may have occurred in eastern Africa.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Orabi J, Backes G, Wolday A, Yahyaoui A, Jahoor A | s2cid = 31695204 | title = The Horn of Africa as a centre of barley diversification and a potential domestication site | journal = TAG. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. Theoretische und Angewandte Genetik | volume = 114 | issue = 6 | pages = 1117–27 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 17279366 | doi = 10.1007/s00122-007-0505-5 }}</ref>

Being the final end product of food/feed barley and malting barley, both total yield by weight and [[malting quality]] are probably influenced by most genes, respectively.<ref name="Hayes-et-al-2003" />

For durable [[barley disease|disease]] resistance, [[quantitative resistance]] is more important than [[qualitative resistance]]. The most important [[foliar disease]]s have corresponding resistance gene regions on all chromosomes of barley.<ref name="Hayes-et-al-2003" />

===Hybridization===
Barley has been crossed with wheat with mixed results that have yet to prove commercially viable. The resulting hybrids have further been crossed with [[rye]], but with even more limited results.<ref>[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00295452 Production of trigeneric (barley × wheat) × rye hybrids]</ref>

== Production ==

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:left; width:18em; text-align:center;"
! colspan=2|Barley production, 2018
|-
! style="background:#ddf; width:75%;"| Country
! style="background:#ddf; width:25%;"| (Millions of [[tonne]]s)
|-
| {{RUS}} || 16.99
|-
| {{FRA}} || 11.19
|-
| {{GER}} || 9.58
|-
| {{AUS}} || 9.25
|-
| {{ESP}} || 9.12
|-
| {{CAN}} ||8.37
|-
| {{UKR}} || 7.34
|-
| {{TUR}} ||7.00
|-
| {{UK}} ||6.51
|-
| {{ARG}} ||5.06
|-
| {{KAZ}} ||3.97
|-
| {{DEN}} ||3.48
|-
| {{USA}} ||3.33
|-
| '''World''' || '''141.42'''
|-
|colspan=2|Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]] Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division, 2018<ref name="faostat16">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |title= Crops/Regions/World List/Production Quantity for Barley, 2017 (pick list)|date=2018|publisher=UN [[Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database]] (FAOSTAT)|access-date=8 September 2018}}</ref>
|}

In 2017, world production of barley was 149 million tonnes, led by [[Russia]] producing 14% of the world total. [[Australia]], [[Germany]], [[France]], and [[Ukraine]] were major producers.<ref name=faostat16/>

== Cultivation ==
[[File:Barley-Turkyurdu Village-Gaziantep-ali riza.jpg|thumb|Barley harvesting in [[Gaziantep]], [[Turkey]] ]]
Barley is a widely adaptable crop. It is currently popular in temperate areas where it is grown as a summer crop and tropical areas where it is sown as a [[winter crop]]. Its [[germination]] time is one to three days. Barley grows under cool conditions, but is not particularly [[Hardiness (plants)#Winter hardiness|winter hardy]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

Barley is more tolerant of [[soil salinity]] than wheat, which might explain the increase of barley cultivation in [[Mesopotamia]] from the second millennium BCE onwards. Barley is not as cold tolerant as the winter wheats (''Triticum aestivum''), fall [[rye]] (''Secale cereale'') or winter [[triticale]] (× ''Triticosecale'' Wittm. ex A. Camus.), but may be sown as a winter crop in warmer areas of [[Australia]] and [[Great Britain]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

Barley has a short growing season and is also relatively drought tolerant.<ref name=Mcgee235>{{harvnb|McGee|1986|p=235}}</ref>

== Plant diseases ==
{{Main|List of barley diseases}}

Barley is known or likely to be susceptible to [[barley mild mosaic bymovirus]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://image.fs.uidaho.edu/vide/refs.htm |editor=Brunt, A. A. |editor2=Crabtree, K. |editor3=Dallwitz, M. J. |editor4=Gibbs, A. J. |editor5=Watson, L. |editor6=Zurcher, E. J. |title=Plant Viruses Online: Descriptions and Lists from the VIDE Database |date=20 August 1996 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061018063001/http://image.fs.uidaho.edu/vide/refs.htm |archive-date=October 18, 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://image.fs.uidaho.edu/vide/descr059.htm |title=Barley mild mosaic bymovirus |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061208214019/http://image.fs.uidaho.edu/vide/descr059.htm |archive-date=2006-12-08 }}</ref> as well as [[Bacterial blight (barley)|bacterial blight]]. [[Barley yellow dwarf virus 5'UTR|Barley yellow dwarf virus]], vectored by the [[Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominale|rice root aphid]], can also cause serious crop injury.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jedlinski|first=H.|date=1981|title=Rice Root Aphid,Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominalis,a Vector of Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus in Illinois, and the Disease Complex|journal=Plant Disease|volume=65|issue=12|pages=975|doi=10.1094/pd-65-975|issn=0191-2917}}</ref> It can be susceptible to many diseases, but plant breeders have been working hard to incorporate resistance. The devastation caused by any one disease will depend upon the susceptibility of the variety being grown and the environmental conditions during disease development. Serious diseases of barley include powdery mildew caused by ''[[Blumeria graminis]]'' f.sp. ''hordei'', leaf scald caused by ''[[Rhynchosporium secalis]]'', barley rust caused by ''Puccinia hordei'', crown rust caused by ''[[Puccinia coronata]]'', and various diseases caused by ''[[Cochliobolus sativus]]''. Barley is also susceptible to [[Fusarium ear blight|head blight]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

==Food==
{{Infobox nutritional value
| name = Cooked barley
| image = Barley grains 3.jpg
| image_alt =
| caption =
| kJ=515
| protein=2.3 g
| fat=0.4 g
| carbs=28.2 g
| fiber=3.8 g
| sugars=0.3 g
| calcium_mg=11
| iron_mg=1.3
| magnesium_mg=22
| phosphorus_mg=54
| potassium_mg=93
| sodium_mg=3
| zinc_mg=0.82
| copper_mg=0.105
| manganese_mg=0.259
| vitC_mg=0
| thiamin_mg=0.083
| riboflavin_mg=0.062
| niacin_mg=2.063
| pantothenic_mg=0.135
| vitB6_mg=0.115
| folate_ug=16
| vitB12_ug=0
| vitA_ug=0
| choline_mg=13.4
| betacarotene_ug=5
| lutein_ug=56
| vitD_iu =0
| vitE_mg=0.01
| vitK_ug=0.8
| water =68.8 g
| cholesterol =0 mg
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170285/nutrients= Link to USDA Database entry]
}}

===Nutrition===
[[File:Various grains.jpg|thumb|left|Barley, oats, and some products made from them]]
In a 100-gram reference serving, cooked barley provides {{convert|515|kJ|kcal}} of [[food energy]] and is a good source (10% or more of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of [[essential nutrients]], including, [[dietary fiber]], the [[B vitamin]], [[niacin]] (14% DV), and [[dietary minerals]] including [[iron]] (10% DV) and [[manganese]] (12% DV) (table).

===Preparation===
Hulled barley (or covered barley) is eaten after removing the inedible, fibrous, outer hull. Once removed, it is called dehulled barley (or pot barley or scotch barley).<ref name=Simon>Simon, André (1963). ''Guide to Good Food and Wines: A Concise Encyclopedia of Gastronomy Complete and Unabridged''. p. 150 Collins, London</ref> Considered a [[whole grain]], dehulled barley still has its [[bran]] and [[Cereal germ|germ]], making it a commonly consumed food.

[[Pearl barley]] (or pearled barley) is dehulled barley which has been steam-processed further to remove the bran.<ref name=Simon/> It may be polished, a process known as "pearling". Dehulled or pearl barley may be processed into various barley products, including [[flour]], flakes similar to [[oatmeal]], and [[grits]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

Barley meal, a wholemeal [[barley flour]] lighter than wheat meal but darker in colour, is used in [[gruel]],<ref name=Simon/> in contrast to [[porridge]] which is made from oats.

Barley meal gruel is known as سويق : ''sawīq'' in the [[Arab world]].<ref name=Tabarip89>{{cite book|title=The History of Al-Tabari |volume=VII: The Foundation of the Community |chapter=Muhammad at Al-Madina, A. D. 622-626/ijrah-4 A. H. |author=Tabari |translator=W. Montgomery Watt |translator2=M. V. McDonald|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1987|isbn=978-0-88706-344-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ctvk-fdtklYC&q=barley+sawiq&pg=PA89}}</ref>

With a long history of cultivation in the [[Middle East]], barley is used in a wide range of traditional [[Arab cuisine|Arabic]], [[Assyrian cuisine|Assyrian]], [[Ancient Israelite cuisine|Israelite]], [[Kurdish cuisine|Kurdish]], and [[Persian cuisine|Persian]] foodstuffs including [[Keşkek|kashkak]], [[kashk]] and [[Murri (condiment)|murri]]. Barley soup is traditionally eaten during [[Ramadan]] in [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Long|first=David E.|name-list-style=vanc|title=Culture and customs of Saudi Arabia|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2005|page=[https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00long/page/50 50]|isbn=978-0-313-32021-7|url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00long/page/50}}</ref>

[[Cholent|''Cholent'' or ''hamin'']] (in Hebrew) is a traditional [[Jewish]] stew often eaten on [[Shabbat|Sabbath]], in numerous recipes by both [[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrachi]] and [[Ashkenazi]] [[Jews]].

In Eastern and Central [[Europe]], barley is also used in soups and stews such as [[ričet]]. In [[Africa]], where it is a traditional food plant, it has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development, and support sustainable landcare.<ref>{{cite book |author=National Research Council |title=Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains |url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305 |access-date=2008-07-25 |series=Lost Crops of Africa |volume=1 |date=1996-02-14 |publisher=National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-04990-0 |doi= 10.17226/2305|page=243 |chapter=Other Cultivated Grains |chapter-url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305&page=237 }}</ref>

The six-row variety ''[[Bere (grain)|bere]]'' is cultivated in [[Orkney]], [[Shetland]], [[Caithness]] and the [[Western Isles]] in the Scottish Highlands and islands. When milled into ''beremeal'', it is used locally in [[bread]], [[biscuit]]s, and the traditional beremeal [[Bannock (food)|bannock]].<ref name='Whisky'>{{cite journal|title=Bere Whisky: rediscovering the spirit of an old barley|journal=The Brewer & Distiller International|date=June 2008|first1=Peter|last1=Martin| first2 = Xianmin | last2 = Chang | name-list-style = vanc|volume=4|issue=6|pages=41–43|url=http://www.ibd.org.uk|access-date=2008-11-14 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081201011938/http://www.ibd.org.uk/| archive-date= 1 December 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref>

In [[Japanese cuisine|Japanese]] and [[Korean cuisine|Korean]] cuisines, barley is steamed like [[steamed rice]]. In Japanese, it is mixed with [[rice]].

===Health implications===
According to [[Health Canada]] and the US [[Food and Drug Administration]], consuming at least 3 grams per day of barley [[beta-glucan]] or 0.75 grams per serving of [[soluble fiber]] can lower levels of [[blood cholesterol]], a risk factor for [[cardiovascular diseases]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr=101.81|title=21 CFR Part 101 [Docket No. 2004P-0512], Food Labeling: Health Claims; Soluble Dietary Fiber From Certain Foods and Coronary Heart Disease|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|date=22 May 2006|access-date=2 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/label-etiquet/claims-reclam/assess-evalu/barley-orge-eng.php|title=Summary of Health Canada's Assessment of a Health Claim about Barley Products and Blood Cholesterol Lowering|publisher=Health Canada|date=12 July 2012|access-date=2 December 2015}}</ref>

Eating whole-grain barley, as well as other high-fiber grains, improves regulation of [[blood sugar]] (i.e., reduces blood glucose response to a meal).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Harris KA, Kris-Etherton PM | s2cid = 29100975 | title = Effects of whole grains on coronary heart disease risk | journal = Current Atherosclerosis Reports | volume = 12 | issue = 6 | pages = 368–76 | date = November 2010 | pmid = 20820954 | doi = 10.1007/s11883-010-0136-1 }}</ref> Consuming [[breakfast cereal]]s containing barley over weeks to months also improved cholesterol levels and glucose regulation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Williams PG | title = The benefits of breakfast cereal consumption: a systematic review of the evidence base | journal = Advances in Nutrition | volume = 5 | issue = 5 | pages = 636S–673S | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25225349 | pmc = 4188247 | doi = 10.3945/an.114.006247 }}</ref>

Like [[wheat]], [[rye]], and their hybrids and derivatives, barley contains [[gluten]], which makes it an unsuitable grain for consumption by people with [[gluten-related disorders]], such as [[celiac disease]], [[non-celiac gluten sensitivity]] and [[wheat allergy]] sufferers, among others.<ref name=TovoliMasi>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tovoli F, Masi C, Guidetti E, Negrini G, Paterini P, Bolondi L | title = Clinical and diagnostic aspects of gluten related disorders | journal = World Journal of Clinical Cases | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages = 275–84 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25789300 | pmc = 4360499 | doi = 10.12998/wjcc.v3.i3.275 }}</ref> Nevertheless, some wheat allergy patients can tolerate barley or rye.<ref name=Pietzak>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pietzak M | title = Celiac disease, wheat allergy, and gluten sensitivity: when gluten free is not a fad | journal = Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition | volume = 36 | issue = 1 Suppl | pages = 68S–75S | date = January 2012 | pmid = 22237879 | doi = 10.1177/0148607111426276 }}</ref>

==Beverages==
{{See also|List of barley-based beverages}}

===Alcoholic beverages===
[[File:HectorTurning.jpg|thumb|upright|Traditional floor malting of barley in Scotland]]

Barley is a key ingredient in [[beer]] and [[whisky]] production. Two-row barley is traditionally used in [[German beer|German]] and [[Beer in England|English]] beers. Six-row barley was traditionally used in [[Beer in the United States|US beers]], but both varieties are in common usage now.<ref name=Ogle2006>{{Cite book| last = Ogle | first = Maureen| year = 2006| title = Ambitious brew : the story of American beer| pages = [https://archive.org/details/ambitiousbrewsto00maur/page/70 70]–72| url = https://archive.org/details/ambitiousbrewsto00maur| url-access = registration | quote = and six-row barley was traditionally used in US beers. | isbn = 978-0-15-101012-7| location = Orlando| publisher = Harcourt}}</ref> Distilled from green beer,<ref name=Mcgee481>{{harvnb|McGee|1986|p=481}}</ref> whisky has been made primarily from barley in Ireland and Scotland, while other countries have used more diverse sources of alcohol, such as the more common corn, rye and wheat in the USA. In the US, a grain type may be identified on a whisky label if that type of grain constitutes 51% or more of the ingredients and certain other conditions are satisfied.<ref name=Mcgee490>{{harvnb|McGee|1986|p=490}}</ref> About 25% of the United States' production of barley is used for [[malt]]ing, for which barley is the best-suited grain.<ref name=Mcgee471>{{harvnb|McGee|1986|p=471}}</ref>

[[Barley wine]] is a style of strong beer from the English brewing tradition. Another alcoholic drink known by the same name, enjoyed in the 18th century, was prepared by boiling barley in water, then mixing the barley water with white wine and other ingredients, such as [[borage]], lemon and sugar. In the 19th century, a different barley wine was made prepared from recipes of ancient Greek origin.<ref name=Ayto1990/>

===Nonalcoholic beverages===
Nonalcoholic drinks such as [[barley water]]<ref name=Ayto1990>{{Cite book| last = Ayto | first = John| year = 1990| title = The glutton's glossary : a dictionary of food and drink terms| pages = [https://archive.org/details/gluttonsglossary00ayto/page/16 16]–17| url = https://archive.org/details/gluttonsglossary00ayto| url-access = registration | quote = barley water was used. | isbn = 978-0-415-02647-5| publisher = Routledge| location = London}}</ref> and [[roasted barley tea]]<ref name=Clarke1988>{{Cite book| last = Clarke | first = ed by R J| year = 1988| title = Coffee| page = 84| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=n9ZEMquvPoYC&q=mugicha&pg=PA84| isbn = 978-1-85166-103-9| publisher = Elsevier Applied Science| location = London}}</ref> have been made by boiling barley in water. In [[Italy]], barley is also sometimes used as coffee substitute, ''[[caffè d'orzo]]'' (coffee of barley).{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

==Other uses==

=== Animal feed ===
Half of the United States' barley production is used as livestock feed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Barley.html |title=Barley |access-date=2008-02-02| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080216192802/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Barley.html| archive-date= 16 February 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref> Barley is an important feed grain in many areas of the world not typically suited for maize production, especially in northern climates—for example, northern and eastern Europe. Barley is the principal feed grain in [[Canada]], Europe, and in the [[northern United States]].<ref>[http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/ansci/beef/eb70w.htm AG.ndsu.edu]</ref> A [[cattle feeding|finishing diet]] of barley is one of the defining characteristics of western Canadian beef used in marketing campaigns.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/beef/news/vbn0804a3.htm|title=OMAFRA.gov.on.ca|access-date=6 October 2014}}</ref>

As of 2014, an enzymatic process can be used to make a high-protein fish feed from barley, which is suitable for carnivorous fish such as [[trout]] and [[salmon]].<ref>{{Cite web
| last = Avant
| first = Sandra
| title = Process Turns Barley into High-protein Fish Food
| work = USDA Agricultural Research Service
| access-date = 2014-09-09
| date = 2014-07-14
| url = https://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2014/140714.htm
}}</ref>

=== Algistatic ===
[[File:Antialg in vijver Zoet Water Oud-Heverlee B.jpg|thumb|Barley straw used in a pond in [[Oud-Heverlee]], [[Belgium]]]]

Barley straw, in [[England]], is placed in mesh bags and floated in fish ponds or water gardens to help prevent algal growth without harming pond plants and animals. Barley straw has not been approved by the EPA for use as a pesticide and its effectiveness as an algae regulator in ponds has produced mixed results, with either more efficacy against phytoplankton algae versus mat-forming algae, or no significant change, during university testing in the US and the UK.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.btny.purdue.edu/pubs/APM/APM-1-W.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030408210226/http://www.btny.purdue.edu/Pubs/APM/APM-1-W.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2003-04-08|title=Barley straw for algae control|author=Lembi, Carole A|publisher=Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana}}</ref>

===Measurement===
Barley grains were used for measurement in England, there being three or four [[Barleycorn (unit)|barleycorns]] to the inch and four or five [[poppy seed]]s to the barleycorn.<ref>{{Cite dictionary |url=http://dictionary.oed.com|dictionary=Oxford English Dictionary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009}}</ref> The statute definition of an inch was three barleycorns, although by the 19th century, this had been superseded by standard inch measures.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url=https://archive.org/details/pennycyclopdias16longgoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/pennycyclopdias16longgoog/page/n440 436]|encyclopedia=The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge|author=George Long|title=The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Vol. 26, Ungulata - Wales|year=1842|publisher=C. Knight}}</ref> This unit still persists in the [[shoe size]]s used in Britain and the USA.<ref>{{cite book|title=About the Size of It|first=Warwick|last=Cairns | name-list-style = vanc |isbn=978-0-230-01628-6|publisher=Macmillan|year=2007}}</ref>

As modern studies show, the actual length of a kernel of barley varies from as short as {{convert|4-7|mm|in|frac=32|abbr=on}} to as long as {{convert|12-15|mm|in|frac=32|abbr=on}} depending on the cultivar.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ullrich|first1=Steven E. | name-list-style = vanc |title=Barley: Production, Improvement, and Uses|date=2011|page=454|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nFfyy66UioC&pg=PA545|isbn=9780470958629}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sýrkorová|first1=Alena | name-list-style = vanc |title=Size Distribution of Barley Kernels|journal=Czech Journal of Food Sciences|date=2009|volume=27|issue=4|pages=249–58|url=http://www.agriculturejournals.cz/publicFiles/10118.pdf|display-authors=etal|doi=10.17221/26/2009-CJFS |doi-access=free}}</ref> Older sources stated the average length of a grain of barley to be {{convert|0.345|in|mm|abbr=on|order=flip}}.<ref>{{cite book|title=Supplement to the Encyclopædia Britannica|volume=2|date=1824|location=Edinburgh|page=462|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FMcnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA462|chapter=Brewing}}</ref>

The barleycorn was known as ''arpa'' in Turkish, and the feudal system in [[Ottoman Empire]] employed the term ''arpalik'', or "barley-money", to refer to a second allowance made to officials to offset the costs of fodder for their horses.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Houtsma M, Arnold TW, Wensinck AJ | title = E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936|publisher=Brill|year=1993|page=460|isbn=978-90-04-09796-4}}</ref>

===Ornamental===
A new stabilized [[variegated]] variety of ''H. vulgare'', billed as ''H. vulgare'' variegate, has been introduced for cultivation as an ornamental and pot plant for pet cats to nibble.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.loghouseplants.com/images/catgrass2.pdf|title=Variegated Cat Grass}}</ref>

===Cultural===

In English folklore, the figure of [[John Barleycorn]] in the [[folksong]] of the same name is a personification of barley, and of the alcoholic beverages made from it: beer and whisky. In the song, John Barleycorn is represented as suffering attacks, death, and indignities that correspond to the various stages of barley cultivation, such as reaping and malting.<ref name="deVries76">{{cite book |last=de Vries |first=Ad |name-list-style=vanc |title=Dictionary of Symbols and Imagery |year=1976 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofsymb0000vrie/page/34 34–35] |publisher=North-Holland Publishing Company |location=Amsterdam |isbn=978-0-7204-8021-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofsymb0000vrie/page/34 }}</ref>
{{clear}}

== See also ==
* [[Barley wine]]
*[[Pearl barley]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|32em}}

=== General bibliography ===
* {{cite book| last=McGee |first=Harold | title=On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen | publisher=Unwin| year=1986 | isbn=978-0-04-440277-0}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Barley|volume=3}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150918103213/http://www.extension.org/pages/32458/barley-information-for-growers Barley Information for Growers, eXtension]

{{Barley}}
{{Cereals}}
{{Agriculture country lists|state=collapsed}}
{{Bioenergy}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q11577}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Barley| ]]
[[Category:Forages]]
[[Category:National symbols of Mesopelagia]]
[[Category:Hordeum|vulgare]]
[[Category:Phytoremediation plants]]

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Barley