Indo-Roman trade relations

2022-03-20T20:05:58Z

59.94.230.23:

{{short description|Trade between the Indian subcontinent and the Roman Empire}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2016}}

[[File:Indo-Roman trade.jpg|thumb|upright=2|Roman trade in the subcontinent according to the ''[[Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' 1st century CE]]
[[File:Roman gold coins excavated in Pudukottai India one coin of Caligula 31 41 and two coins of Nero 54 68.jpg|thumb|upright=2|Roman gold coins excavated in [[Pudukottai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]. One coin of [[Caligula]] (37–41 CE), and two coins of [[Nero]] (54–68). [[British Museum]].]]
[[File:Kushan ring with Septimus Severus and Julia Domna.jpg|thumb|[[Kushan]] ring with portraits of [[Septimus Severus]] and [[Julia Domna]].]]
'''Indo-Roman trade relations''' (see also the [[spice trade]] and [[incense road]]) was trade between the [[Indian subcontinent]] and the [[Roman Empire]] in [[Europe]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Trade through the overland caravan routes via [[Asia Minor]] and the [[Middle East]], though at a relative trickle compared to later times, preceded the southern trade route via the [[Red Sea]] which started around the beginning of the [[Common Era]] (CE) following the reign of [[Augustus]] and [[Egypt (Roman province)|his conquest]] of [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Egypt]] in 30 BCE.<ref name=Shaw1/>

The southern route so helped enhance trade between the ancient [[Roman Empire]] and the Indian subcontinent, that Roman politicians and historians are on record decrying the loss of silver and gold to buy silk to pamper Roman wives, and the southern route grew to eclipse and then totally supplant the overland trade route.<ref name=Young1/> Roman and Greek traders frequented the [[Indian subcontinent]], present day [[Southern India]] and [[Sri Lanka]], securing trade with the seafaring [[Tamil people|Tamil]] states of the [[Pandyan Empire|Pandyan]], [[Chola Empire|Chola]] and [[Chera Empire|Chera]] dynasties and [[Economy of ancient Tamil#Foreign trade|establishing trading settlements]] which secured trade with the Indian subcontinent by the [[Greco-Roman world]] since the time of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]]<ref name="Lindsay1" /> a few decades before the start of the [[Common Era]] and remained long after the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]].<ref name="Curtin1">Curtin 1984: 100</ref>

Sometime after the sundering of communications between the Christian [[Kingdom of Axum]] and the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] in the 7th century, the Kingdom of Axum fell into a slow decline, fading into obscurity in western sources. It survived, despite pressure from Islamic forces, until the 11th century, when it was reconfigured in a dynastic squabble. Communications were reinstated after the Muslim forces retreated.

==Background==
{{main|Indo-Roman relations}}
[[File:Diadochen1.png|thumb|right|500px|The Seleucid and the Ptolemaic dynasties controlled trade networks to India before the establishment of Roman Egypt.
{{legend|#787CAD|Kingdom of [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]]}}{{legend|#C3B933|Kingdom of [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucus]]}}]]
The [[Seleucid dynasty]] controlled a developed network of trade with the Indian Subcontinent which had previously existed under the influence of the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. The Greek-Ptolemaic dynasty, controlling the western and northern end of other trade routes to [[Southern Arabia]] and the Indian Subcontinent,<ref name="Potter1">Potter 2004: 20</ref> had begun to exploit trading opportunities in the region prior to the Roman involvement but, according to the historian [[Strabo]], the volume of commerce between Indians and the Greeks was not comparable to that of later Indo-Roman trade.<ref name=Young1/>

The [[Periplus Maris Erythraei]] mentions a time when sea trade between Egypt and the subcontinent did not involve direct sailings.<ref name=Young1>Young 2001: 19</ref> The cargo under these situations was shipped to [[Aden]]:<ref name=Young1/>

{{quote|Aden – Arabia Eudaimon was called the fortunate, being once a city, when, because ships neither came from India to [[Egypt]] nor did those from Egypt dare to go further but only came as far as this place, it received the cargoes from both, just as [[Alexandria]] receives goods brought from outside and from Egypt.|Gary Keith Young|Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy}}

The [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] had developed trade with Indian kingdoms using the Red Sea ports.<ref name=Shaw1>Shaw 2003: 426</ref> With the establishment of [[Roman Egypt]], the Romans took over and further developed the already existing trade using these ports.<ref name=Shaw1/>

Classical geographers such as [[Strabo]] and [[Pliny the Elder]] were generally slow to incorporate new information into their works and, from their positions as [[auctoritas|esteemed scholars]], were seemingly prejudiced against lowly merchants and their [[topographical]] accounts.<ref name="parker 2008 p118">Parker 2008: 118.</ref> [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Geography (Ptolemy)|Geography]]'' represents somewhat of a break from this since he demonstrated an openness to their accounts and would not have been able to chart the [[Bay of Bengal]] so accurately had it not been for the input of traders.<ref name="parker 2008 p118"/> It is perhaps no surprise then that Marinus and Ptolemy relied on the testimony of a Greek sailor named Alexander for how to reach "[[Cattigara]]" (most likely [[Oc Eo]], [[Vietnam]], or [[Kathiawar]], [[India]], where [[Antonine]]-period [[Sino-Roman relations|Roman artefacts]] have been discovered) in the ''[[Magnus Sinus]]'' (i.e. [[Gulf of Thailand]] and [[South China Sea]]) located east of the [[Golden Chersonese]] (i.e. [[Malay Peninsula]]).<ref name="young 2001 29">Young 2001: 29.</ref><ref>Mawer 2013: 38.</ref> In the 1st-century CE ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'', its anonymous Greek-speaking author, a merchant of [[Roman Egypt]], provides such vivid accounts of trade cities in Arabia and India, including [[Guide book|travel times from rivers and towns]], where to drop [[anchor]], the locations of royal courts, lifestyles of the locals and goods found in their markets, and favorable times of year to sail from Egypt to these places in order to catch the [[monsoon]] winds, that it is clear he visited many of these locations.<ref name="schoff 1912 web">{{cite web|orig-year=1912|date=2004|author=William H. Schoff|editor=Lance Jenott|url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/periplus/periplus.html |title="The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century" in The Voyage around the Erythraean Sea |publisher=[[University of Washington]]|website=Depts.washington.edu|access-date=19 September 2016}}</ref>

==Early Common Era==
[[File:Silver denarius of Tiberius 14CE 37CE found in India Indian copy of a the same 1st century CE Coin of Kushan king Kujula Kadphises copying a coin of Augustus.jpg|thumb|upright=2|Silver denarius of [[Tiberius]] (14–37 CE) found in India. Indian copy of the same, 1st century CE. Coin of [[Kushan]] king [[Kujula Kadphises]] copying a coin of [[Augustus]].]]
[[File:Indian ship on lead coin of Vashishtiputra Shri Pulumavi.jpg|thumb|Indian ship on lead coin of [[Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi]], 1st–2nd century CE]]
Prior to Roman expansion, the various peoples of the subcontinent had established strong maritime trade with other countries. The dramatic increase in the importance of Indian ports, however, did not occur until the opening of the Red Sea by the Greeks and the Romans' attainment concerning the region’s seasonal monsoons. The first two centuries of the Common Era indicate a marked increase in trade between western India and the Roman east by sea. The expansion of trade was made possible by the stability brought to the region by the Roman Empire from the time of Augustus (r. 27 BCE–14 CE) which allowed for new explorations and the creation of a sound silver and gold coinage. .

The west coast of present-day India is mentioned frequently in literature, such as the [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]. The area was noted for its strong tidal currents, turbulent waves and rocky sea-beds were dangerous for shipping experience. The anchors of ships would be caught by the waves and quickly detach to capsize the vessel or cause a shipwreck. Stone anchors have been observed near [[Bet Dwarka]], an island situated in the [[Gulf of Kachchh]], from ship lost at sea. Onshore and offshore explorations have been carried out around Bet Dwarka Island since 1983. The finds discovered include lead and stone objects buried in sediment and considered to be anchors due to their axial holes. Though it is unlikely that the remains of the shipwreck’s hull survived, offshore explorations in 2000 and 2001 have yielded seven differently-sized amphoras, two lead anchors, forty-two stone anchors of different types, a supply of potsherds, and a circular lead ingot. The remains of the seven amphoras were of a thick, coarse fabric with a rough surface, which was used for exporting wine and olive oil from the Roman Empire. Archeologists have concluded that most of these were wine amphoras, since olive oil was in less demand in the subcontinent. [[File:TrajanCoinAhinposhBuddhistMonasteryAfghanistan.jpg|thumb|A coin of [[Trajan]], found together with coins of the [[Kushan]] ruler [[Kanishka]], at the [[Ahin Posh]] Buddhist Monastery, [[Afghanistan]].]]
Since the discoveries at Bet Dwarka are significant for the maritime history of the region, archeologists have researched the resources in India.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} Despite the unfavorable conditions the island is situated in, the following items have made Bet Dwarka as well as the rest of western India an important place for trade. From Latin literature, Rome imported Indian tigers, rhinoceros, elephants, and serpents to use for circus shows – a method employed as entertainment to prevent riots in Rome. It has been noted in the [[Periplus]] that Roman women also wore [[Indian Ocean]] pearls and used a supply of herbs, spices, pepper, [[lycium]], costus [<nowiki/>[[Saussurea costus]]], sesame oil and sugar for food. Indigo was used as a color while cotton cloth was used as articles of clothing. Furthermore, the subcontinent exported ebony for fashioned furniture in Rome. The Roman Empire also imported Indian lime, peach, and various other fruits for medicine. Western India, as a result, was the recipient of large amounts of Roman gold during this time.

Since one must sail against the narrow gulfs of western India, special large boats were used and ship development was demanded. At the entrance of the gulf, large ships called trappaga and cotymba helped guide foreign vessels safely to the harbor. These ships were capable of relatively long coastal cruises, and several seals have depicted this type of ship. In each seal, parallel bands were suggested to represent the beams of the ship. In the center of the vessel is a single mast with a tripod base.

Apart from the recent explorations, close trade relations, as well as the development of ship building, were supported by the discovery of several Roman coins. On these coins were depictions of two strongly constructed masted ships. Thus, these depictions of Indian ships, originating from both coins and literature (Pliny and Pluriplus), indicate Indian development in seafaring due to the increase in Indo-Roman commerce. In addition, the silver Roman coins discovered in western India primarily come from the 1st, 2nd, and 5th centuries. These Roman coins also suggest that the Indian peninsula possessed a stable seaborne trade with Rome during 1st and 2nd century AD. Land routes, during the time of Augustus, were also used for Indian embassies to reach Rome.

The discoveries found on Bet Dwarka and on other areas on the western coast of India strongly indicate that there were strong Indo-Roman trade relations during the first two centuries of the Common Era. The 3rd century, however, was the demise of the Indo-Roman trade. The sea-route between Rome and India was shut down, and as a result, the trading reverted to the time prior to Roman expansion and exploration.

==Establishment==
[[File:AugustusCoinPudukottaiHoardIndia.jpg|thumb|Coin of the Roman emperor [[Augustus]] found at the [[Pudukottai]] hoard. [[British Museum]].]]
[[File:Indian copy of an aureaus of Faustina 2nd century CE.jpg|thumb|Indian copy of an [[aureus]] of [[Faustina Major]], 2nd century CE. British Museum.]]
The replacement of Greek kingdoms by the Roman empire as the administrator of the eastern [[Mediterranean]] basin led to the strengthening of direct maritime trade with the east and the elimination of the taxes extracted previously by the middlemen of various land based trading routes.<ref name=Lach1>Lach 1994: 13</ref> [[Strabo|Strabo's]] mention of the vast increase in trade following the Roman annexation of Egypt indicates that monsoon was known from his time.<ref>Young 2001: 20</ref>

The trade started by [[Eudoxus of Cyzicus]] in 130 BCE kept increasing according to Strabo (II.5.12.):<ref name=Strabo1>{{cite web| title = The Geography of Strabo published in Vol. I of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1917|url = http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/2E1*.html}}</ref>

{{quote|At any rate, when [[Cornelius Gallus|Gallus]] was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the [[Nile]] as far as [[Aswan|Syene]] and the frontiers of [[Kingdom of Aksum]] ([[Ethiopia]]), and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from [[Myos Hormos]] to the subcontinent, whereas formerly, under the [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Ptolemies]], only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise.|Strabo}}

By the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from [[Myos Hormos]] to India.<ref name=Strabo1/> So much gold was used for this trade, and apparently recycled by the [[Kushan Empire]] (Kushans) for their own coinage, that [[Pliny the Elder]] (NH VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to India:<ref>"minimaque computatione miliens centena milia sestertium annis omnibus India et Seres et paeninsula illa imperio nostro adimunt: tanti nobis deliciae et feminae constant. quota enim portio ex illis ad deos, quaeso, iam vel ad inferos pertinet?" Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84.</ref>

{{quote|India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million [[sesterce]]s from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries and women cost us. For what fraction of these imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead?|Pliny|Historia Naturae 12.41.84.<ref>Original Latin: "minimaque computatione miliens centena milia sestertium annis omnibus India et Seres et paeninsula illa imperio nostro adimunt: tanti nobis deliciae et feminae constant. quota enim portio ex illis ad deos, quaeso, iam vel ad inferos pertinet?"</ref>}}

<gallery>
File:Gold coin of Claudius 50 51CE excavated in South India.jpg|Gold coin of [[Claudius]] (50–51 CE) excavated in South India.
File:Gold coin of Justinian I 527CE 565CE excavated in India probably in the south.jpg|Gold coin of [[Justinian I]] (527–565 CE) excavated in India probably in the south.
</gallery>

==Trade of exotic animals==
[[File:Sri Lankan imitations of 4th century Roman coins 4th to 8th century CE.jpg|thumb|[[Sri Lanka]]n imitations of 4th-century Roman coins, 4th–8th century CE.]]
There is evidence of animal trade between Indian Ocean harbours and the [[Mediterranean]]. This can be seen in the [[mosaics]] and [[frescoes]] of the remains of [[Roman villas]] in [[Italy]]. For example, the [[Villa Romana del Casale|Villa del Casale]] has mosaics depicting the capture of animals in [[India]], [[Indonesia]] and [[Africa]]. The intercontinental trade of animals was one of the sources of wealth for the owners of the villa. In the [http://www.villadelcasale.it/ambulacro-grande-caccia.html?lang=en Ambulacro della Grande Caccia], the hunting and capture of animals is represented in such detail that it is possible to identify the species. There is a scene that shows a technique to distract a [[tiger]] with a shimmering ball of [[glass]] or [[mirror]] in order to take her cubs. Tiger hunting with red ribbons serving as a distraction is also shown. In the mosaic there are also numerous other animals such as [[rhinoceros]], an [[Indian elephant]] (recognized from the ears) with his Indian conductor, and the [[Indian peafowl]], and other exotic birds. There are also numerous animals from [[Africa]]. Tigers, [[leopard]]s and Asian and African [[lion]]s were used in the [[arena]]s and [[circus]]es. The [[European lion]] was already extinct at that time. Probably the last lived in the [[Balkan Peninsula]] and were hunted to stock arenas. The birds and monkeys entertained the guests of many villas. Also in the [[Villa Romana del Tellaro]] there is a mosaic with a tiger in the jungle attacking a man with Roman clothes, probably a careless hunter. The animals were transported in cages by ship.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.villadelcasale.it/|title=Il Blog sulla Villa Romana del Casale Piazza Armerina|work=villadelcasale.it|access-date=12 February 2017}}</ref>

==Ports==

===Roman ports===
The three main Roman ports involved with eastern trade were [[Arsinoe (Gulf of Suez)|Arsinoe]], [[Berenice Troglodytica|Berenice]] and [[Myos Hormos]]. Arsinoe was one of the early trading centers but was soon overshadowed by the more easily accessible Myos Hormos and Berenice.

====Arsinoe====
[[File:Egypt-region-map-cities-2.gif|thumb|260px|right|Sites of Egyptian Red Sea ports, including [[Alexandria]] and [[Berenice Troglodytica|Berenice]].]]
The Ptolemaic dynasty exploited the strategic position of [[Alexandria]] to secure trade with the subcontinent.<ref name=Lindsay1>Lindsay 2006: 101</ref> The course of trade with the east then seems to have been first through the harbor of Arsinoe, the present day [[Suez]].<ref name=Lindsay1/> The goods from the [[East Africa]]n trade were landed at one of the three main Roman ports, Arsinoe, Berenice or Myos Hormos.<ref>O'Leary 2001: 72</ref> The Romans repaired and cleared out the silted up canal from the Nile to harbor center of Arsinoe on the Red Sea.<ref name=Fayle1>Fayle 2006: 52</ref> This was one of the many efforts the Roman administration had to undertake to divert as much of the trade to the maritime routes as possible.<ref name=Fayle1/>

Arsinoe was eventually overshadowed by the rising prominence of Myos Hormos.<ref name=Fayle1/> The navigation to the northern ports, such as Arsinoe-Clysma, became difficult in comparison to Myos Hormos due to the northern winds in the [[Gulf of Suez]].<ref name=Freeman1>Freeman 2003: 72</ref> Venturing to these northern ports presented additional difficulties such as [[shoals]], [[reef]]s and treacherous [[Ocean current|currents]].<ref name=Freeman1/>

====Myos Hormos and Berenice====
Myos Hormos and Berenice appear to have been important ancient trading ports, possibly used by the [[Pharaonic]] traders of ancient Egypt and the Ptolemaic dynasty before falling into Roman control.<ref name=Shaw1/>

The site of Berenice, since its discovery by [[Giovanni Battista Belzoni|Belzoni]] (1818), has been equated with the ruins near [[Ras Banas]] in Southern Egypt.<ref name=Shaw1/> However, the precise location of Myos Hormos is disputed with the latitude and longitude given in [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Geographia (Ptolemy)|Geography]]'' favoring Abu Sha'ar and the accounts given in [[classical literature]] and [[satellite images]] indicating a probable identification with Quseir el-Quadim at the end of a fortified road from [[Koptos]] on the [[Nile]].<ref name=Shaw1/> The Quseir el-Quadim site has further been associated with Myos Hormos following the excavations at el-Zerqa, halfway along the route, which have revealed [[ostraca]] leading to the conclusion that the port at the end of this road may have been Myos Hormos.<ref name=Shaw1/>

===Major regional ports===
[[File:ArikameduRomanCeramic.jpg|thumb|Roman piece of pottery from [[Arezzo]], [[Latium]], found at Virampatnam, [[Arikamedu]] (1st century CE). [[Musee Guimet]].]]
[[File:Etched carnelian beads Egypt Ptolemaic Period, London, Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology UC51264 (detail).jpg|thumb|Characteristic Indian etched [[carnelian]] bead, found in Ptolemaic Period excavations at [[Saft el-Hinna|Saft el Henna]], [[Ptolemaic Egypt]]. [[Petrie Museum]].]]
The regional ports of [[Barbarikon|Barbaricum]] (modern [[Karachi]]), [[Wari-Bateshwar|Sounagoura]] (central [[Bangladesh]]), [[Bharuch|Barygaza]] (Bharuch in Gujarat), [[Muziris]] (present day [[Kodungallur]]), [[Korkai]], [[Kaveripattinam]] and [[Arikamedu]] ([[Tamil Nadu]]) on the southern tip of present-day India were the main centers of this trade, along with [[Kodumanal]], an inland city. The [[Periplus Maris Erythraei]] describes Greco-Roman merchants selling in Barbaricum "thin clothing, figured linens, [[topaz]], [[coral]], [[storax]], [[frankincense]], vessels of glass, silver and gold plate, and a little wine" in exchange for "[[Saussurea_costus|costus]], [[bdellium]], [[boxthorn|lycium]], [[spikenard|nard]], [[turquoise]], [[lapis lazuli]], [[Silk#Clothing|Seric skins]], cotton cloth, [[silk]] yarn, and [[indigo dye|indigo]]".<ref name=Periplus1/> In Barygaza, they would buy wheat, rice, sesame oil, cotton and cloth.<ref name=Periplus1/>

====Barigaza====
Trade with Barigaza, under the control of the [[Indo-Scythian]] [[Western Satrap]] [[Nahapana]] ("Nambanus"), was especially flourishing:<ref name=Periplus1>{{cite web| last = Halsall | first = Paul | title = Ancient History Sourcebook: The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century| publisher = Fordham University| url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/periplus.html}}</ref>

{{quote|There are imported into this market-town ([[Barigaza]]), wine, Italian preferred, also Laodicean and Arabian; copper, tin, and lead; coral and topaz; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide; storax, sweet clover, flint glass, realgar, antimony, gold and silver coin, on which there is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these places spikenard, costus, bdellium, ivory, agate and carnelian, lycium, cotton cloth of all kinds, silk cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from the various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town from Egypt make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi.|Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (paragraph 49).}}

====Muziris====
[[File:TabulaPeutingerianaMuziris.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Muziris, as shown in the ''[[Tabula Peutingeriana]]'', with a "Templum Augusti"]]
[[Muziris]] is a lost port city on the south-western coast of India which was a major center of trade in the ancient Tamil land between the Chera kingdom and the Roman Empire.<ref name=BBC1>{{cite news | title = Search for India's ancient city| publisher = BBC| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4970452.stm | date=11 June 2006 | access-date=4 January 2010}}</ref> Its location is generally identified with modern-day [[Cranganore]] (central Kerala).<ref>George Menachery (1987) ''Kodungallur City of St. Thomas''; (2000) ''Azhikode alias Kodungallur Cradle of Christianity in India''</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1090803/jsp/frontpage/story_11313800.jsp|title= Signs of ancient port in Kerala|work=telegraphindia.com|publisher=The Telegraph |location= Calcutta (Kolkata) |access-date=12 February 2017}}</ref> Large hoards of coins and innumerable shards of [[amphora]]e found at the town of [[Pattanam]] (near Cranganore) have elicited recent archeological interest in finding a probable location of this port city.<ref name=BBC1/>

According to the [[Periplus]], numerous Greek seamen managed an intense trade with Muziris:<ref name=Periplus1/>

{{quote|Then come Naura and Tyndis, the first markets of [[Damirica]] (Limyrike), and then Muziris and Nelcynda, which are now of leading importance. Tyndis is of the [[Chera Dynasty|Kingdom of Cerobothra]]; it is a village in plain sight by the sea. Muziris, of the same Kingdom, abounds in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia, and by the Greeks; it is located on a river, distant from Tyndis by river and sea five hundred stadia, and up the river from the shore twenty stadia"|The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (53–54)}}


====Arikamedu====
The [[Periplus Maris Erythraei]] mentions a marketplace named Poduke (ch. 60), which [[G.W.B. Huntingford]] identified as possibly being [[Arikamedu]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], a centre of [[Early Cholas|early Chola]] trade (now part of [[Ariyankuppam]]), about {{convert|3|km|mi}} from the modern [[Pondicherry (city)|Pondicherry]].<ref name=Huntingford1>Huntingford 1980: 119.</ref> Huntingford further notes that Roman pottery was found at Arikamedu in 1937, and [[archeology|archeological]] excavations between 1944 and 1949 showed that it was "a trading station to which goods of Roman manufacture were imported during the first half of the 1st century AD".<ref name=Huntingford1/>

==Cultural exchanges==
{{further|Buddhism and the Roman world}}
[[File:AugustusIndianImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg|thumb|A 1st century CE Indian imitation of a coin of Augustus, [[British Museum]].]]
[[File:Bronze imitation of Roman coin Sri Lanka South India 4th to 8th century CE.jpg|thumb|Bronze imitation of a Roman coin, [[Sri Lanka]], 4th–8th century CE]]
The Rome-subcontinental trade also saw several cultural exchanges which had a lasting effect on both the civilizations and others involved in the trade. The [[Ethiopia]]n kingdom of [[Aksum]] was involved in the Indian Ocean trade network and was influenced by Roman culture and Indian architecture.<ref name=Curtin1/> Traces of Indian influences are visible in Roman works of silver and ivory, or in Egyptian cotton and silk fabrics used for sale in [[Europe]].<ref name=Lach2>Lach 1994: 18</ref> The Indian presence in Alexandria may have influenced the culture but little is known about the manner of this influence.<ref name=Lach2/> [[Clement of Alexandria]] mentions the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] in his writings and other [[Indian religion]]s find mentions in other texts of the period.<ref name=Lach2/>

[[File:Statuetta indiana di Lakshmi, avorio, da pompei, 1-50 dc ca., 149425, 02.JPG|thumb|left|Indian art also found its way into Italy: in 1938 the [[Pompeii Lakshmi]] was found in the ruins of [[Pompeii]] (destroyed in an eruption of [[Mount Vesuvius]] in 79 CE).]]
[[Han China]] was perhaps also [[Sino-Roman relations|involved in the Roman trade]], with [[Daqin|Roman embassies]] recorded for the years 166, 226, and 284 that allegedly landed in [[Rinan]] ([[Jianzhi]]) in northern [[Vietnam]], according to [[Twenty-Four Histories|Chinese histories]].<ref name="young 2001 29"/><ref name="ball 2016 152 153">Ball 2016: 152–53</ref><ref>Hill 2009: 27</ref><ref>Yule 1915: 53–54</ref> [[Roman coin]]s and goods [[Roman glass|such as glasswares]] and [[Roman metallurgy|silverwares]] have been found in China,<ref>An 2002: 83</ref><ref>Harper 2002: 99–100, 106–07</ref> as well as Roman coins, bracelets, glass beads, a bronze lamp, and [[Antonine]]-period medallions in Vietnam, especially at [[Oc Eo]] (belonging to the [[Funan Kingdom]]).<ref name="young 2001 29"/><ref name="ball 2016 152 153"/><ref>O'Reilly 2007: 97</ref> The 1st-century ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|Periplus]]'' notes how a country called ''This'', with a great city called ''Thinae'' (comparable to ''[[Sinae]]'' in [[Geography (Ptolemy)|Ptolemy's ''Geography'']]), [[History of silk|produced silk]] and exported it to [[Bactria]] before it traveled overland to [[Barygaza]] in India and down the [[Ganges River]].<ref>Schoff 2004 [1912]: [http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/periplus/periplus.html paragraph #64]. Retrieved 24 September 2016.</ref> While [[Marinus of Tyre]] and [[Ptolemy]] provided vague accounts of the [[Gulf of Thailand]] and [[Southeast Asia]],<ref>Suárez (1999): 90–92</ref> the Alexandrian Greek monk and former merchant [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]], in his ''[[Christian Topography]]'' (c. 550), spoke clearly about China, how to sail there, and how it was involved in the [[clove]] trade stretching to [[Ceylon]].<ref>Yule 1915: 25–28</ref><ref>Lieu 2009: 227</ref> Comparing the small amount of Roman coins found in China as opposed to India, [[Warwick Ball]] asserts that most of the Chinese [[silk]] purchased by the Romans was done so in India, with [[Silk Road|the land route]] through [[ancient Persia]] playing a secondary role.<ref>Ball 2016: 153–54.</ref>

[[Christians|Christian]] and [[Jew]]ish settlers from Rome continued to live in India long after the decline in bilateral trade.<ref name=Curtin1/> Large hoards of Roman coins have been found throughout India, and especially in the busy maritime trading centers of the south.<ref name=Curtin1/> The Tamilakkam kings reissued Roman coinage in their own name after defacing the coins in order to signify their sovereignty.<ref name=Kulke1>Kulke 2004: 108</ref> Mentions of the traders are recorded in the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[Sangam literature]] of India.<ref name=Kulke1/> One such mention reads: "The beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with gold and returned with pepper, and Muziris resounded with the noise." (from poem no. 149 of 'Akananuru' of Sangam Literature)"<ref name=Kulke1/>
{{Clear}}

==Decline and aftermath==
===Roman decline===
[[File:Ajanta Theodosius II 402-450.jpg|thumb|Coin of Byzantine [[Theodosius II]], found in the excavation of a monastery in [[Ajanta Caves]], [[India]].]]
Trade declined from the mid-3rd century during [[Crisis of the Third Century|a crisis in the Roman Empire]], but recovered in the 4th century until the early 7th century, when [[Khosrow II]], Shah of the [[Sasanian Empire]], [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628#Persian ascendancy|occupied the Roman parts of the Fertile Crescent and Egypt]] until [[Battle of Nineveh (627)|being defeated]] by the Eastern Roman emperor [[Heraclius]]<ref>Farrokh 2007: 252</ref> at the end of 627, after which the lost territories were returned to the Eastern Romans. [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] ('Cosmas who sailed to India') was a Greek-Egyptian trader, and later monk, who wrote about his trade trips to India and Sri Lanka in the 6th century.

===Ravaging of the Gupta Empire by the Huns===
In India, the [[Alchon Huns]]' invasions (496–534 CE) are said to have seriously damaged India's trade with [[Europe]] and [[Central Asia]].<ref name="Eraly">The First Spring: The Golden Age of India by Abraham Eraly [https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA48 pp. 48 sq]</ref> The [[Gupta Empire]] had been benefiting greatly from Indo-Roman trade. They had been exporting numerous luxury products such as [[silk]], leather goods, fur, iron products, [[ivory]], [[pearl]] or pepper from centers such as [[Nasik|Nashik]], [[Paithan|Prathisthana]], [[Pataliputra]] and [[Benares|Varanasi]]. The Huna invasions probably disrupted these trade relations and the tax revenues that came with it.<ref>Longman History & Civics ICSE 9 by Singh [https://books.google.com/books?id=EXPouL4BYTMC&pg=PA81 p. 81]</ref> Soon after the invasions, the Gupta Empire, already weakened by these invasions and the rise of local rulers, ended as well.<ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen [https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA221 p. 221]</ref> Following the invasions, northern India was left in disarray, with numerous smaller Indian powers emerging after the crumbling of the Guptas.<ref>A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India [https://books.google.com/books?id=gE7udqBkACwC&pg=PA174 p. 174]</ref>

===Arab expansion===
[[File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|thumb|350px|Egypt under the rule of the [[Rashidun]] and [[Ummayad]] Caliphates, drawn on the modern state borders.]]
The Arabs, led by [['Amr ibn al-'As]], crossed into Egypt in late 639 or early 640 CE.<ref name=Meri1>Meri 2006: 224</ref> This advance marked the beginning of the [[Islamic conquest of Egypt]].<ref name=Meri1/> The capture of Alexandria and the rest of the country, <ref name="Holl1">Holl 2003: 9</ref> brought an end to 670 years of Roman trade with the subcontinent.<ref name=Lindsay1/>

Tamil speaking south India turned to [[Southeast Asia]] for international trade where Indian culture influenced the native culture to a greater degree than the sketchy impressions made on Rome seen in the adoption of Hinduism and then Buddhism.<ref>Kulke 2004: 106</ref> However, knowledge of the Indian subcontinent and its trade was preserved in Byzantine books and it is likely that the court of the emperor still maintained some form of diplomatic relation to the region up until at least the time of [[Constantine VII]], seeking an ally against the rising influence of the Islamic states in the Middle East and Persia, appearing in a work on ceremonies called [[De Ceremoniis]].<ref>Luttwak 2009: [https://books.google.com/books?id=cUVJKJejPY8C&lpg=PP1&hl=da&pg=PA167#v=onepage&q&f=false 167–68]</ref>

The [[Ottoman Turks]] conquered [[Constantinople]] in the 15th century (1453), marking the beginning of Turkish control over the most direct trade routes between Europe and Asia.<ref>The Encyclopedia Americana 1989: 176</ref> The Ottomans initially cut off eastern trade with Europe, leading in turn to the attempt by Europeans to find a sea route around Africa, spurring the European [[Age of Discovery]], and the eventual rise of European [[Mercantilism]] and [[Colonialism]].

==See also==
{{columnslist|colwidth=30em|
* [[Ancient Greece–Ancient India relations]]
* [[Buddhism and the Roman world]]
* [[Chronology of European exploration of Asia]]
* [[Economic history of India]]
* [[List_of_regions_by_past_GDP_(PPP)#Indian|Historic GDP of India (1-1947 CE)]]
* [[Indus–Mesopotamia relations]]
* [[Indian maritime history]]
* [[Indo-Roman relations]]
* [[Meluhha#Trade_with_Sumer|Meluhha trade with Sumer]]
* [[Sino-Roman relations]]
}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book
| last = An
| first = Jiayao
| editor = Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner
| title = Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road
| chapter = When Glass Was Treasured in China
| pages = 79–94
| publisher = Brepols Publishers
| year = 2002
| isbn = 2-503-52178-9
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Ball
| first = Warwick
| title = Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire
| edition = 2nd
| publisher = Routledge
| year = 2016
| isbn = 978-0-415-72078-6
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Curtin
| first = Philip DeArmond
|author2=el al.
| title = Cross-Cultural Trade in World History
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| year = 1984
| isbn = 0-521-26931-8
}}
* {{cite book
| title = [[Encyclopedia Americana|The Encyclopedia Americana]] (1989)
| publisher = Grolier
| isbn = 0-7172-0120-1}}
* {{cite book
| last = Farrokh
| first = Kaveh
|author-link = Kaveh Farrokh
| title = Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War
| publisher = Osprey Publishing
| year = 2007
| isbn = 1-84603-108-7}}
* {{cite book
| last = Fayle
| first = Charles Ernest
| title = A Short History of the World's Shipping Industry
| publisher = Routledge
| year = 2006
| isbn = 0-415-28619-0}}
* {{cite book
| last = Freeman
| first = Donald B.
| title = The Straits of Malacca: Gateway Or Gauntlet?
| publisher = McGill-Queen's Press
| year = 2003
| isbn = 0-7735-2515-7}}
* {{cite book
| last = Harper
| first = P.O.
| editor = Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner
| title = Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road
| chapter = Iranian Luxury Vessels in China From the Late First Millennium B.C.E. to the Second Half of the First Millennium C.E.
| pages = 95–113
| publisher = Brepols Publishers
| year = 2002
| isbn = 2-503-52178-9
}}
* {{cite book
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| first = John E.
| title = Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, First to Second Centuries CE
| publisher = BookSurge
| year = 2009
| isbn = 978-1-4392-2134-1}}
* {{cite book
| last = Holl
| first = Augustin F. C.
| title = Ethnoarchaeology of Shuwa-Arab Settlements
| publisher = Lexington Books
| year = 2003
| isbn = 0-7391-0407-1}}
* {{cite book
| last = Huntingford
| first = G.W.B.
| title = The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
| publisher = Hakluyt Society
| year = 1980
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Kulke
| first = Hermann
|author2=Dietmar Rothermund
| title = A History of India
| publisher = Routledge
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-415-32919-1
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Lach
| first = Donald Frederick
| title = Asia in the Making of Europe: The Century of Discovery. Book 1.
| publisher = University of Chicago Press
| year = 1994
| isbn = 0-226-46731-7
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Lieu
| first = Samuel N.C.
| title = Exegisti monumenta Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams
| chapter = Epigraphica Nestoriana Serica
| pages = 227–46
| publisher = Harrassowitz Verlag
| year = 2009
| isbn = 978-3-447-05937-4
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Lindsay
| first = W S
| title = History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce
| publisher = Adamant Media Corporation
| year = 2006
| isbn = 0-543-94253-8}}
* {{cite book
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| first = Edward
| title = The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire
| publisher = Harvard University Press
| year = 2009
| isbn = 0-674-03519-4}}
* {{cite book
| last = Mawer
| first = Granville Allen
| editor = Nichols, Robert and Martin Woods
| chapter = The Riddle of Cattigara
| pages = 38–39
| title = Mapping Our World: Terra Incognita to Australia
| publisher = National Library of Australia
| year = 2013
| isbn = 9780642278098}}
* {{cite book
| last = Meri
| first = Josef W.
|author-link = Josef W. Meri
|author2=Jere L. Bacharach
| title = Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia
| publisher = Routledge
| year = 2006
| isbn = 0-415-96690-6}}
* {{cite book
| last = O'Leary
| first = De Lacy
| author-link = De Lacy O'Leary
| title = Arabia Before Muhammad
| publisher = Routledge
| year = 2001
| isbn = 0-415-23188-4
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/BuddhistBirthStories
}}
* {{cite book
| last = O'Reilly
| first = Dougald J.W.
| title = Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia
| publisher = AltaMira Press, Division of Rowman and Littlefield Publishers
| year = 2007
| isbn = 0-7591-0279-1}}
* {{cite book
| last = Parker
| first = Grant
| title = The Making of Roman India
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| year = 2008
| isbn = 978-0-521-85834-2}}
* {{cite book
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| first = David Stone
| title = The Roman Empire at Bay: Ad 180–395
| publisher = Routledge
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-415-10058-5
}}
* {{cite web|orig-year=1912|date=2004|author=Schoff, Williamm H.|editor=Lance Jenott|url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/periplus/periplus.html |title="The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century" in The Voyage around the Erythraean Sea |publisher=[[University of Washington]]|website=Depts.washington.edu|access-date=19 September 2016}}
* {{cite book
| last = Shaw
| first = Ian
| author-link = Ian Shaw (Egyptologist)
| title = The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 2003
| isbn = 0-19-280458-8
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw
}}
* {{cite book |last1=Suresh |first1=S. |title=SYMBOLS OF TRADE Roman and Pseudo-Roman Objects found in India |date=2004 |publisher=Manohar |url=http://www.imperium-romana.org/uploads/5/9/3/3/5933147/suresh_s._symbols_of_trade_roman_and_pseudo-roman_objects_found_in_india._2004.pdf}}
* {{cite book
| last = Young
| first = Gary Keith
| title = Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC–AD 305
| publisher = Routledge
| year = 2001
| isbn = 0-415-24219-3}}
* {{cite book
| last = Yule
| first = Henry
| title = Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route
| editor = Henri Cordier
| publisher = Hakluyt Society
| year = 1915
| volume = 1}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* Lionel Casson, ''The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text With Introduction, Translation, and Commentary''. [[Princeton University Press]], 1989. {{ISBN|0-691-04060-5}}.
* Chakrabarti D.K. (1990). The External Trade of the Indus Civilization. Delhi: Manoharlal Publishers Private Limited
* Chami, F. A. 1999. “The Early Iron Age on Mafia island and its relationship with the mainland.” ''Azania'' Vol. XXXIV.
* McLaughlin, Raoul. (2010). ''Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and China''. Continuum, London and New York. {{ISBN|978-1-84725-235-7}}.
* Miller, J. Innes. 1969. ''The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641''. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. {{ISBN|0-19-814264-1}}.
* Sidebotham, Steven E. (2011). ''Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route''. University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-520-24430-6}}.
{{refend}}
* Van der Veen, Marijke (2011). ''[https://books.google.com/books/about/Consumption_Trade_and_Innovation.html?id=wruovzCWdBsC&redir_esc=y Consumption, Trade and Innovation. Exploring the Botanical Remains from the Roman and Islamic Ports at Quseir al-Qadim, Egypt]''. Frankfurt: Africa Magna Verlag. {{ISBN|978-3-937248-23-3}}
* Raith, M. – Hoffbauer, R. – Euler, H. – Yule, P. – Damgaard, K. (2013). “The view from Ẓafār –An archaeometric study of the Aqaba late Roman period pottery complex and distribution in the 1st millennium CE”. ''Zeitschrift für Orient-Archäologie'' 6, 320–50. {{ISBN|978-3-11-019704-4}}.

==External links==
{{commons category|Indo-Roman trade and relations}}
* [http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/periplus/periplus.html English translation of the Periplus Maris Erythraei (Voyage around the Erythraean Sea)]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4970452.stm BBC News: Search for India's ancient city]
* [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/silk/hd_silk.htm Trade between the Romans and the Empires of Asia]

{{Trade route 2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Indo-Roman Trade And Relations}}
[[Category:Foreign relations of ancient India]]
[[Category:Ancient international relations]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of ancient Rome]]
[[Category:Bilateral trading relationships]]
[[Category:Maritime history of India]]
[[Category:Economic history of India]]
[[Category:Foreign trade of India]]
[[Category:Indian Ocean trade]]
[[Category:Historic trails and roads in India]]

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Indo-Roman trade relations