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Cassia fistula

2024-05-18T20:33:21Z

80.2.6.163:

{{short description|Species of plant}}
{{redirect|Canafistula|text=This can also refer to ''[[Pseudalbizzia inundata]]'' (Maloxo)}}
{{redirect|Golden shower}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Golden shower tree.jpg
| image_caption = Golden shower tree in bloom
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{cite iucn | author1 = Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) | author2 = IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group | name-list-style = amp | title = ''Cassia fistula'' | page = e.T136142327A136142329 | year = 2018 | access-date = 7 May 2022}}</ref>
| taxon = Cassia fistula
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| synonyms =
{{Plainlist | style = margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; |
*''Bactyrilobium fistula'' Willd.
*''Cassia bonplandiana'' DC.
*''Cassia excelsa'' Kunth
*''Cassia fistuloides'' Collad.
*''Cassia rhombifolia'' Roxb.
*''Cathartocarpus excelsus'' G.Don
*''Cathartocarpus fistula'' Pers.
*''Cathartocarpus fistuloides'' (Collad.) G.Don
*''Cathartocarpus rhombifolius'' G.Don
}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/ild-1022
|title=The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species
|access-date=June 19, 2014}}</ref>
}}
[[File:Golden shower tree in Malappuram.jpg|alt=Blossomed golden shower tree in Kerala|thumb|Blossomed golden shower tree]]
'''''Cassia fistula''''', also known as '''golden shower''',<ref>{{PLANTS|id=CAFI3|taxon=Cassia fistula|access-date=January 11, 2016}}</ref> '''purging cassia''',<ref name=BSBI07>{{BSBI 2007 |access-date=2014-10-17 }}</ref> '''Indian laburnum''',<ref>{{GRIN | access-date = April 2, 2019}}</ref> '''Kani Konna''',<ref name="kani-konna">{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/early-konna-blooms-in-kochi-set-off-alarm-bells/article26262332.ece|date=February 14, 2019|title=Early konna blooms in Kochi set off alarm bells}}</ref> or '''pudding-pipe tree''',<ref name="Saunders 1891">U. S. Department of Agriculture, William Saunders; Catalogue of Economic Plants in the Collection of the U. S. Department of Agriculture; Washington D. C.; June 5, 1891</ref> is a [[flowering plant]] in the family [[Fabaceae]]. The species is native to the [[Indian subcontinent]] and adjacent regions of [[Southeast Asia]]. It is the official [[floral emblem|state flower]] of [[Kerala]] state in [[India]].<ref name="kani-konna"/> It is also a popular [[ornamental plant]] and is also used in [[Herbalism|herbal medicine]].

==Description==
The golden shower tree is a medium-sized tree, growing to {{convert|10|–|20|m|abbr=on}} tall with fast growth. The leaves are [[deciduous]], {{convert|15|–|60|cm|0|abbr=on}} long, and pinnate with three to eight pairs of leaflets, each leaflet {{convert|7|–|21|cm|0|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|4|–|9|cm|abbr=on|frac=2}} broad. The flowers are produced in pendulous [[raceme]]s {{convert|20|–|40|cm|0|abbr=on}} long, each flower {{convert|4|–|7|cm|abbr=on|frac=8}} diameter with five yellow petals of equal size and shape. The fruit is a [[legume]], {{convert|30|–|60|cm|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|1.5|–|2.5|cm|frac=16|abbr=on}} broad, with a pungent odor and containing several seeds. The tree has strong and very durable wood, and has been used to construct "Ehela Kanuwa", a site at [[Adam's Peak]], [[Sri Lanka]], which is made of ''C. fistula'' (''ahala, ehela'', or ''aehaela'', ඇහැල in Sinhala <ref>[http://dh-web.org/place.names/bot2sinhala.html#Aehaela sinhala botany website ]</ref>) heartwood. The golden shower tree is not a nitrogen fixer.<ref name="CABIISC">{{cite web | url=http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/11434 | first1=Marianne Jennifer | last1=Datiles | first2=Pedro | last2=Acevedo-Rodríguez | title=''Cassia fistula'' (Indian laburnum)| website=[[Invasive Species Compendium]] (ISC) | publisher=CABI ([[Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International]])}}</ref>

==Cultivation==
''Cassia fistula'' is widely grown as an [[ornamental plant]] in tropical and subtropical areas. It blooms in late spring/early summer in hot, dry weather. Flowering is profuse, with trees being covered with yellow flowers, many times with almost no visible leaves. It grows well in dry climates. Growth for this tree is best in full sun on well-drained soil; it is relatively drought-tolerant and slightly salt-tolerant. It will tolerate light brief frost, but can get damaged if the cold persists. It can be subject to [[mildew]] or [[leaf spot]], especially during the second half of the growing season. The tree blooms better with pronounced differences between summer and winter temperatures.<ref name="ayer">
{{citation
|url = http://www.4to40.com/ayurveda/index.asp?p=Cassia_Fistula&c=Herbs&k=Ahala_Kanuwa
|title = Cassia Fistula (aburnum, Purging Fistula, Golden Shower, Amaltas)
|publisher = 4 to 40
|work = Ayurveda - Herbs
|access-date = 2011-01-20
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110714110438/http://www.4to40.com/ayurveda/index.asp?p=Cassia_Fistula&c=Herbs&k=Ahala_Kanuwa
|archive-date = 2011-07-14
}}</ref>

==Pollinators and seed dispersal==
Various species of bees and butterflies are known to be pollinators of ''C. fistula'' flowers, especially [[carpenter bee]]s (''Xylocopa'' sp.).<ref>Murali, KS (1993) Differential reproductive success in Cassia fistula in different habitats—A case of pollinator limitations? In: Current Science (Bangalore), 65 (3). pp. 270-272.</ref> In 1911, [[Robert Scott Troup]] conducted an experiment to determine how the seeds of ''C. fistula'' are dispersed. He found that [[golden jackal]]s feed on the fruits and help in seed dispersal.<ref>Troup, R.S. (1911).Silviculture of Indian Trees. Published under the authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council. Oxford Clarendon Press</ref>

==Uses==

===Food===
In India, flowers of the golden shower tree are sometimes eaten by people. The leaves have also been used to supplement the diets of cattle, sheep, and goats fed with low-quality forages.<ref>Heuzé V., Thiollet H., Tran G., Hassoun P., Lebas F., 2018. Golden tree (Cassia fistula). Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/325</ref>

===Medical===
In [[Ayurvedic medicine]], the golden shower tree is known as ''aragvadha'', meaning "disease killer". The fruit pulp is considered a [[purgative]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Ayurvedic Medicine: The Principles of Traditional Practice |first=Sebastian |last=Pole |publisher=Singing Dragon |year=2012 |isbn=978-1848191136 |page=129 |access-date=November 10, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yKaVpwB7USYC&q=purgative+aragvadha&pg=PA129}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Materia Medica Of Ayurveda |first=Vaidya |last=Bhagwan Dash |publisher=[[B. Jain]] |location=India |year=2002 |isbn= 9788170214939|pages=41–42 |access-date=November 10, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-IU3D6Cl3sC&q=purgative+aragvadha&pg=PA41}}</ref> and [[self-medication]] or any use without medical supervision is strongly advised against in Ayurvedic texts. Though it has been used in [[herbalism]] for millennia, little research has been conducted in modern times, although it is an ingredient in some mass-produced herbal laxatives. When used as such, it is known as "cassia pods".<ref name="Saunders 1891" />

In India, a cathartic made from the pulp is sometimes added to tobacco.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hargreaves|first1=Dorothy|last2=Hargreaves|first2=Bob|title=Tropical Trees of the Pacific|year=1970|publisher=Hargreaves|location=Kailua, Hawaii|page=14}}</ref>

A paste of the flowers is used as an ointment for pimples.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}

==Culture==
''Cassia fistula'' is both the [[List of national trees|national tree]] and [[Floral emblem#Thailand|national flower]] of Thailand – in Thai ''ratchaphruek'' (Thai: ราชพฤกษ์) and the blossoms commonly referred to as ''dok khun'' (Thai: ดอกคูน).<ref name="ASEANnationalflowers">{{Cite web |title=ASEAN National Flowers |publisher=[[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN) |url=http://www.asean.org/18204.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120052549/http://www.asean.org/18204.htm |archive-date=20 January 2012 |url-status=dead |df=dmy}}</ref> Its yellow flowers symbolize [[Chakri Dynasty|Thai royalty]]. A 2006–2007 flower festival, the [[Royal Flora Ratchaphruek]], was named after the tree. ''Cassia fistula'' is also featured on a 2003 joint [[Canada|Canadian]]-Thai design for a 48-[[Canadian cent|cent]] stamp, part of a series featuring [[national emblem]]s.<ref name="ayer"/>

The Indian laburnum is the [[floral emblem|state flower]] of [[Kerala]]. The flowers are of ritual importance in the [[Vishu]] festival of Kerala.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.kerenvis.nic.in/Database/Goldenshower_8812.aspx |title= State Flower Golden shower |publisher= ENVIS Hub: Kerala |access-date= 25 May 2022}}</ref> The tree has been depicted on a 20-[[Indian rupee|rupee]] stamp. The tree is frequently cultivated in Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka where the Sinhala name is ''Ehela'', ඇහැල.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dh-web.org/place.names/bot2sinhala.html#Aehaela|title = Botany Plant-names → Sinhala Plant names උද්භිද නම් → සිංහල නම්}}</ref>

In [[Laos]], its blooming flowers known locally as ''dok khoun'' are associated with the [[Songkran (Lao)|Lao New Year]]. People use the flowers as offerings at the temple and also hang them in their homes for the New Year in belief that the flowers will bring happiness and good luck to the households.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DGnxy9QzmjQ Lao NEWS on LNTV: When the golden shower trees, known as Dok Khoun in Laos blossom.17/4/2014]</ref>

The laburnum is the school tree of [[National Taiwan Normal University]], thought to be because of the seed pods' similarity to the whips used by teachers in times past.<ref>{{Cite web |title=School tree |url=http://archives.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/c2/c2_4_eng.jsp |access-date=2022-11-14 |website=NTNU University Archives}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200">
File:Amaltas tree in Delhi,India.jpg|Amaltas Tree in [[Delhi]]
File:Golden shower full bloom.jpg|Tree at full bloom
File:Cassia fistula-flower-detail.jpg|Flower detail
File:Cassia.jpg|Flower in [[Chandigarh]], India
File:Golden Shower Seeds.jpg|Seeds
File:Amaltas (Cassia fistula) leaves in Hyderabad, AP W 289.jpg|Leaves in [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]], [[Telangana]], India
File:Cassia fistula MHNT.BOT.2007.26.54.jpg|Fruit
File:Tree Bark of Cassia fistula.jpg|Bark in Hong Kong
</gallery>

{{clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category inline|Cassia fistula}}
*{{aut|Database on state of environment, Kerala}} (2008): [https://web.archive.org/web/20080307101819/http://www.kerenvis.nic.in/isbeid/kerala-symbols.htm Kerala Symbols] (archived 7 March 2008)

{{Taxonbar|from=Q161117}}

[[Category:Cassia (genus)|fistula]]
[[Category:Flora of tropical Asia]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Territorial symbols of Chandigarh (India)]]
[[Category:National symbols of Thailand]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Trees in Buddhism]]

Gayal

2024-05-18T18:11:03Z

80.2.6.163:

{{Short description|Species of domestic cattle}}
{{distinguish|Ghayal (disambiguation){{!}}Ghayal}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Gayal
| image = B4 darjeling para-5.jpg
| image_caption = A gayal bull in Bangladesh
| status = DOM
| taxon = Bos frontalis
| authority = [[Aylmer Bourke Lambert|Lambert]], 1804
| range_map =
| synonyms = * Species Level:
**''Bibos frontalis''
* Subspecies Level:
**''Bos gaurus frontalis''
**''Bibos gaurus frontalis''
| range_map_captio n =
}}

The '''gayal''' ('''''Bos frontalis'''''), also known as the '''Drung ox'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scherf |first=Beate |date=2000 |title=World Watch List for Domestic Animal Diversity |url=https://www.fao.org/3/x8750e/x8750e.pdf |journal=World Watch List for Domestic Animal Diversity |publisher=FAO |pages=651}}</ref> or '''mithun''', is a large domestic [[bos|cattle]] distributed in [[Northeast India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Myanmar]] and in [[Yunnan]], [[China]].<ref name=Simoons1984>Simoons, F. J. (1984). ''Gayal or mithan''. In: Mason, I. L. (ed.) ''Evolution of Domesticated Animals''. Longman, London. Pages 34–38.</ref>

== Taxonomy ==
In his first description of 1804, [[Aylmer Bourke Lambert]] applied the [[Binomial nomenclature|binomial]] ''Bos frontalis'' to a domestic specimen probably from [[Chittagong]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ellerman |first1=J. R. |last2=Morrison-Scott |first2=T. C. S. |year=1966 |url=https://archive.org/stream/checklistofindia00elle#page/380/mode/2up |title=Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals 1758 to 1946 |edition=Second |location=London |publisher=British Museum of Natural History |page=380 }}</ref>

In 2003, the [[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature]] fixed the first available [[specific name (zoology)|specific name]] based on a wild population that the name for this wild species is valid by virtue of its being antedated by a name based on a domestic form. Most authors have adopted the binomial ''Bos frontalis'' for the domestic species as valid for the [[taxon]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gentry |first1=A. |last2=Clutton-Brock |first2=J. |last3=Groves |first3=C. P. |year=2004 |url=http://arts.anu.edu.au/grovco/J%20Arch%20Sci.pdf |title=The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=31 |issue= 5|pages=645–651 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110408044739/http://arts.anu.edu.au/grovco/J%20Arch%20Sci.pdf |archive-date=2011-04-08 }}</ref>

[[Phylogenetics|Phylogenetic analysis]] corroborates the taxonomic assessment that the gayal is an independent ''Bos'' species originating [[Matrilineality|matrilineally]] from [[gaur]], [[zebu]] and [[cattle]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guolong |first1=M. |last2=Hong |first2=C. |last3=Shiping |first3=L. |last4=Hongyu |first4=C. |last5=Dejun |first5=J. |last6=Rongqing |first6=G. |last7=Chunfang |first7=C. |last8=Yonghong |first8=L. |year=2007 |title=Phylogenetic Relationships and Status Quo of Colonies for Gayal Based on Analysis of Cytochrome b Gene Partial Sequences |journal=Journal of Genetics and Genomics |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=413–419 |doi=10.1016/S1673-8527(07)60045-9 |pmid=17560527 }}</ref>

==Characteristics==
The gayal differs in several important particulars from the [[gaur]]:<ref name=Lydekker1888>Lydekker, R. (1888–1890). [https://archive.org/stream/newnatuhist02lyderich#page/178/mode/2up ''The new natural history'' Volume 2]. Printed by order of the Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History), London. Pages 179–181.</ref>
* It is somewhat smaller, with proportionately shorter limbs, and stands much lower at the [[withers]].
* The ridge on the back is less developed, and bulls have a larger [[dewlap]] on the throat.
* The head is shorter and broader, with a perfectly flat forehead and a straight line between the bases of the [[Horn (anatomy)|horns]].
* The thick and massive horns are less flattened and much less curved than in the gaur, extending almost directly outwards from the sides of the head, and curving somewhat upwards at the tips, but without any inward inclination. Their extremities are thus much farther apart than in the gaur.
* The female gayal is much smaller than the bull, and has scarcely any dewlap on the throat.
* The skin colour of the head and body is blackish-brown in both sexes, and the lower portion of the limbs are white or yellowish.
* The horns are of uniform blackish tint from base to tip.
Some domesticated gayals are parti-coloured, while others are completely white.{{cn|date=June 2019}}

There are two major hypotheses on the origin of the gayal:
* It was domesticated from wild [[gaur]];<ref name=Simoons1984 />
* It is a [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] descendant from crossing of wild gaur and domestic cattle, either ''[[Zebu|Bos indicus]]'' or ''[[Cattle|Bos taurus]]''.<ref name=Payne1970>{{cite book |last1=Payne |first1=W. J. A. |year=1970 |chapter=Breeds and Breeding VI |title=Cattle Production in the Tropics: General introduction and breeds |location=London |publisher=Longman Group Ltd. }}</ref>

In 2020, Ranganathan Kamalakkannan et Al. found "phylogenetic analysis using complete mitochondrial genome sequences unambiguously suggested that gaur is the maternal ancestor of domestic mithun."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kamalakkannan |first1=Ranganathan |title=The complete mitochondrial genome of Indian gaur, Bos gaurus and its phylogenetic implications |journal=Sci Rep |date=20 July 2020 |volume=10 |issue=11936 |page=11936 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-68724-6 |pmid=32686769 |pmc=7371690 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Uzzaman |first1=M. R. |last2=Bhuiyan |first2=M. S. A. |last3=Edea |first3=Z. |last4=Kim |first4=K.-S. |date=2014 |title=Semi-domesticated and Irreplaceable Genetic Resource Gayal (''Bos frontalis'') Needs Effective Genetic Conservation in Bangladesh: A Review |journal=Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=1368–1372 |doi=10.5713/ajas.2014.14159 |pmid=25178382 |pmc=4150205 |issn=1011-2367}}</ref>

Analysis of the [[genome]] of the gayal was published in 2017.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Y.-P. |last2=Wu|first2=D.-D. |last3=Dong |first3=Y. |last4=Wang |first4=W. |last5=Yang |first5=M.-M. |last6=Yan |first6=S.-Q. |last7=Qu |first7=K.-X. |last8=Wang|first8=S. |last9=Xiong|first9=Z.-J. |date=2017 |title=Draft genome of the gayal, ''Bos frontalis'' |journal=GigaScience |volume=6 |issue=11 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1093/gigascience/gix094 |pmc=5710521 |pmid=29048483}}</ref>

== Distribution and habitat ==
[[File:Mithun, Glao Lake.jpg|thumb|A gayal cow and calf at Arunachal Pradesh]]
Gayals are essentially inhabitants of hill-forests. In India, semi-domesticated gayals are kept by several [[South Asian ethnic groups|ethnic groups]] living in the hills of [[Tripura]], [[Mizoram]], [[Assam]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Manipur]] and [[Nagaland]]. They also occur in the [[Chittagong Hill Tracts]].<ref name=Lydekker1888/> In northern Burma, they occur in the [[Kachin State]], and in adjacent Yunnan are found only in the Trung ({{zh|s=独龙河}}) and [[Salween River]] basins.<ref name=Simoons1984/>

The role of the mithun is central to the lives of many residents of these areas, including [[transhumance|transhumant]] ones who pair mithun management with [[sago palm]] harvesting:{{quote|Although livestock is highly characteristic of the high Himalayan way of life in general, with yaks and sheep being predominant species until recently, the mithun, or gayal (''Bos frontalis'') is the most prominent animal exploited by Eastern Himalayan groups ... The mithun is a semi-domesticate, managed in fenced tracts of forests rather than being kept in or near villages. Outside North East India, mithun are primarily imported for the purpose of cross- breeding with other bovids, for example in Bhutan. It is very common among Eastern Himalayan languages to find lexical sets denoting fauna in which the mithun is lexicalized as a “prototypical” meat animal, with all other terms being derived ... Terms for ‘mithun’ in other languages of Arunachal Pradesh are typically cognate with Aka fu (e.g. Miji ʃu, Koro sù, Puroik ʧa and Proto-Tani *ɕo), suggesting that this is probably not a case of semantic shift from a wild species. The implication is that the semi-wild mithun was seen as the core species, and the true domesticates such as cattle, which arrived subsequently, as marginal to the system.<ref>{{cite book |author=Blench, R. and M. W. Post |editor1-last=Owen-Smith |editor1-first=T. |editor2-last=Hill |editor2-first=N. |title=Trans-Himalayan Linguistics Historical and Descriptive Linguistics of the Himalayan Area |date=2013 |publisher=De Gruyter |location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-11-031083-2|pages=71–104|chapter=Rethinking Sino-Tibetan phylogeny from the perspective of North East Indian languages: Blench, R. and M. W. Post}}</ref>}}

{{Unreferenced section|date=November 2017}}
In Nagaland, the animals are kept semi-wild, and live in herds, being watched over by special caretakers assigned by the villages or the owner of the herd. They respond to a horn kept specially for the individual caretaker or actual owner to call them. From birth until the time of butchering or market, the Mithun remain in the herd, and roam mostly freely throughout the forests.
== In culture ==
[[File:Mithun.jpg|thumb|left|An albino akin mithun in [[Thrissur Zoo]]]]
{{Unreferenced section|date=November 2017}}
To the Idu Mishmi, Nyishi people or [[Adi people]] (Bangni-Booker [[Lhoba]]s incl pasi, padam, minyong, Galong now Galo), the possession of gayal is the traditional measure of a family's wealth. Gayal are not milked or put to work but given supplementary care while grazing in the woods, until they are ritually slaughtered or killed for local consumption. Mithuns are wild and each family has a very indigenous marking as a cut on the ear.

The gayal is the state animal of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] and [[Nagaland]]. Gayals play an important role in the social life of the people in Arunachal Pradesh. Marriages are not fixed until the bridegroom's family gives at least one gayal to the bride's household.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}}

Gayals are left in the forest, where they usually stay within a small perimeter. Females are usually aggressive when with calves, and there are instances known when people have been severely injured after being gored by one. Males are usually more docile.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}}

In Mizoram and [[Manipur]], it is called Sial, Siel, Se/Sia amongst the tribes of the [[Chin-Kuki-Mizo]]. It is the most essential and valuable commodity; the wealth of a person is often counted by the number of gayals. It is the sole animal used for sacrificial purposes and feast of merit. The tribes regard a human to be honourable if and when he holds a community feast of one or more gayal on one or more occasions.
{{Clear left}}

== National Research Centre on Mithun ==
The [[National Research Centre on Mithun]] was established at [[Medziphema]] in the [[Chümoukedima district|Chümoukedima District]] of [[Nagaland]] under the [[Indian Council of Agricultural Research]].

The mandate of the institute was redefined in 1997 and 2006. Currently, the [[National Research Centre on Mithun]] is functioning for developing the scientific and sustainable mithun rearing system and for catering the needs of mithun farmers with the following mandates:
* Identification, evaluation and characterization of mithun [[germplasm]] available in the country.
* Conservation and improvement of mithun for meat and milk.
* Act as a repository of germplasm and information centre on mithun.

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==External links==
*
*
{{Artiodactyla|R.4}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q45079}}

[[Category:Bovines]]
[[Category:Mammals of China]]
[[Category:Provincial symbols of Arunachal Praant (India)]]
[[Category:Mammals of India]]
[[Category:Mammals of Myanmar]]
[[Category:Mammals of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1804]]
[[Category:Domesticated animals]]
[[Category:Symbols of Arunachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Symbols of Nagaland]]

Bhatura

2024-05-18T16:41:24Z

80.2.6.163:

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox prepared food
| name = Bhatoora
| image = Bhatura.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| caption =
| alternate_name =
| country = [[Punjab]]
| region = Northern regions of the Indian subcontinent
| national_cuisine = [[Indian cuisine|India]], [[Bangladeshi cuisine|Bangladesh]], [[Pakistani cuisine|Pakistan]]
| creator =
| course =
| served =
| main_ingredient = [[Maida]], [[dahi (curd)|dahi]] (yogurt), ''[[ghee]]'' or oil, yeast
| variations =[[Puri (food)|Puri]], [[Luchi]]
| calories =
| other =
}}
'''Bhatoora''' (also known as '''batoora''', '''bhatura''', '''batura''', or '''pathora''') ({{lang-hi|भटूरा}}, {{lang-pa|ਭਟੂਰਾ}}) is a fluffy [[Deep fry|deep-fried]] [[Leavening agent|leavened]] sourdough bread originating from the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Bhanwar|first=Seema|last2=Bamnia|first2=Meenakshi|last3=Ghosh|first3=Moushumi|last4=Ganguli|first4=Abhijit|date=2012|title=Use of Lactococcus lactis to enrich sourdough bread with g-aminobutyric acid|journal=International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition|pages=1-5}}</ref> It is commonly served as a midday meal or a breakast dish in northern and [[India]].<ref name=":0" /> Paired with [[chickpea]] [[curry]], called ''[[chana masala|'''chhole''']]'' or ''channe,'' it forms a traditional dish called ''[[chole bhature|chhole bhature]]'' which originated in Punjab.

This bread is like the [[Puri (food)|puri]] bread but is made with leavened dough.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ramineni |first=Shubhra |title=Entice With Spice: Easy Indian Recipes for Busy People |date=28 February 2012 |isbn=9781462905270 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LpXTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT206}}</ref>

==Preparation==
A typical recipe includes all-purpose flour (''maida''), [[dahi (curd)|dahi]] (yogurt), ''[[ghee]]'' or oil, and either [[yeast]] or baking powder. Once kneaded well, the dough is left to rise, and then small balls of this dough are either hand-rolled or flattened using a rolling pin. The bread pieces are then deep fried until they puff up into a lightly browned, soft, fluffy bread, which is elastic and chewy.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gadia|first=Madhu|title=The Indian Vegan Kitchen|publisher=Penguin Publishing Group|year=2009|pages=300}}</ref>

Bhatura is often eaten with yogurt, pickle, or vegetables. When eaten with chole, it forms a popular traditional dish known as [[chole bhature]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Patel|first=Varsha|title=Recipes from My Home Kitchen|publisher=Xlibris Corporation|year=2013|pages=28}}</ref>

== Variations ==
A variation of this dish is to use semolina flour instead of all purpose flour. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Godbole|first=Nandita|title=A Dozen Ways to Celebrate: Twelve Decadent Feasts for the Culinary Indulgent|publisher=Curry Cravings|year=2014}}</ref> Other variations include ''aloo bhatura'' (bhatura filled with potato) and paneer bhatura (bhatura filled with [[paneer]]).

A nonfried variant is the ''[[kulcha]]'', which can be baked or cooked on a flat pan and is garnished with coriander leaves.

==See also==
*''[[Chana masala]]''
*[[Punjabi cuisine]]
*[[Puri (food)|''Puri'']]
*''[[Paratha]]''
*''[[Roti]]''
*''[[Naan]]''
*''[[Kulcha]]''
*[[List of Indian breads]]
*[[List of Pakistani breads]]
* ''[[Fried bake]]'', a very similar fried bread found in [[Trinidad]], in the Caribbean

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{cookbook}}
*[http://www.sonzyskitchen.com/bhatura.htm ''Bhatura'' recipe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705154313/http://www.sonzyskitchen.com/bhatura.htm |date=5 July 2017 }}
*[http://vegika.com/instant-bhatura-with-soda-water-instant-bhatura-recipe-with-soda-water/ ''Bhatura'' recipe]
*http://www.tarladalal.com/Chole-Bhature-2810r

{{Indian Dishes}}
{{Indian bread}}
{{Flatbreads}}
{{Doughnut}}

[[Category:Indian breads]]
[[Category:Flatbreads]]
[[Category:Punjabi cuisine]]
[[Category:Deep fried foods]]
[[Category:Pakistani breads]]
[[Category:Territorial symbols of Delhi (India)]]

{{india-cuisine-stub}}
{{bread-stub}}
{{Breakfast-stub}}

Barilius bendelisis

2024-05-18T01:53:24Z

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{{Short description|Species of fish}}
{{Italic title}}
{{speciesbox
| name = ''Barilius bendelisis''
| image = Barilius bendelisis Minten 148.jpg
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name = IUCN>{{Cite journal | author = Vishwanath, W. | title = ''Barilius bendelisis'' | journal = [[The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] | volume = 2010 | page = e.T166594A6243552 | publisher = [[IUCN]] | date = 2010 | url = http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/166594/0 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-4.RLTS.T166594A6243552.en | access-date = 13 January 2018}}</ref>
| genus = Barilius
| species = bendelisis
| authority = ([[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton|F. Hamilton]], 1807)<ref>{{Fishbase|Barilius|bendelisis}}</ref>
}}

'''''Barilius bendelisis''''' is a fish in genus ''[[Barilius]]'' of the family [[Cyprinidae]]. It is found in [[Pakistan]], [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Bhutan]] and [[Myanmar]].

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q3758138}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Barilius Bendelisis}}
[[Category:Barilius]]
[[Category:Provincial symbols of Arunachal Praant (India)]]
[[Category:Fish of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Fish of India]]
[[Category:Fish of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Freshwater fish of Sri Lanka]]
[[Category:Fish described in 1807]]

{{Cyprinidae-stub}}

Clouded Leopard

2024-05-18T01:48:19Z

80.2.6.163:

[[Image:Clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa by Dr Raju Kasambe DSC 7497 (28).JPG|thumb|230px|[[Camouflage]] in action]]

The '''clouded leopard''' (''Neofelis nebulosa'') is a rare cat species.<ref name="msw3" /> It is a medium-sized [[felid]], found from the [[Himalaya]]n foothills through mainland [[Southeast Asia]] into [[China]]. It is 55 to 110 cm (2 ft to 3 ft 6 in) long and weighs between 15 and 23 [[kilograms|kg]] (33 to 50 lb). It is classified as [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]] in 2008 by [[IUCN]].<ref name="iucn">{{IUCN2006|assessors=Cat Specialist Group|year=2002|id=14519|title=Neofelis nebulosa|downloaded=11 May 2006}} Database entry includes justification for why this species is vulnerable</ref> Its total population may be fewer than 10,000 mature individuals.<ref name="iucnredlist">Sanderson J. ''et al'' 2008. ''Neofelis nebulos''. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. [http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/14519/0]</ref> In [[Bangladesh]] it is considered as the "National Predator of Bangladesh",

==Related==
*[[Clouded Leopard National Park]]

==References==
<references />

{{Biology-stub}}

[[Category:Felines]]
[[Category:National symbols of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Former provincial symbols of East Bengal (Pakistan)]]
[[Category:Provincial symbols of Meghalaya Praant (India)]]
[[Category:Provincial symbols of Arunachal Praant (India)]]

Coconut palm

2024-05-12T12:57:01Z

80.2.6.163:

{{Taxobox
| name = Coconut
| status =
| image = Singapore coconut.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = Coconut palm (''Cocos nucifera'')
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Arecales]]
| familia = [[Arecaceae]]
| genus = ''Cocos''
| binomial = ''Cocos nucifera''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]}}
[[File:Coconut.png|thumb|right|200px|Coconut from [[Ivory Coast]]]]
[[File:Coconut trunk.jpg|thumb|Coconut trunk]]
[[File:2019 Jan 15 - Kumbh Mela - Coconuts For Sale.jpg|thumb|Kumbh Mela - Coconuts For Sale]]
The '''coconut palm''' is a [[palm tree]] in the [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Arecaceae]] (palm family). It is a large palm, growing to 30 [[Metre|m]] tall. It has [[leaf|leaves]] that are 4–6 m long. The term ''coconut'' refers to the fruit of the coconut palm.

There are many coconut palms on the [[coast]]s of Indonesia, [[India]], America, South Sudan, [[Bangladesh]] and Tanzania. People of this area use [[coconut milk]] in cooking. Women use [[coconut oil]] as oil for their [[hair]]. The coconut's shell is relatively hard, but can be broken. Because its shell is hard, it can be used as an ingredient to make craftworks.

Coconut milk is also used in many drinks. Coconut oil is often in food and soaps. People in [[Sri Lanka]] use coconut flowers for wedding celebrations. In the [[Maldives]] it is the [[List of national trees|National tree]].

The coconut is not actually a [[Nut (fruit)|nut]], but is in fact a [[drupe]]. Coconuts grow in [[tropical]] countries. The flesh of a coconut is [[white]] and can be eaten [[raw]] or used in [[cooking]]. It is used in many of the foods we eat for flavour. It is native to tropical areas.

== Seed dispersal ==
Coconuts floats on water and can float to another island and germinate there. It has often been noted that coconuts can travel up to 110 days, or 3000 miles, by sea and still be able to germinate.

{{Fruits}}

{{multistub|biology|food}}

[[Category:Trees]]
[[Category:Arecaceae]]
[[Category:National symbols of India]]
[[Category:Provincial symbols of Konkani Praant (India)]]
[[Category:Territorial symbols of Lakshadweep (India)]]
[[Category:National symbols of the Maldives]]
[[Category:State symbols of Sierra Leone]]
[[Category:State symbols of Togo]]
[[Category:National Symbols Of the Independent Republic of Chagossia Nation-Island State]]
[[Category:Coconuts| ]]