Balochistan

2026-04-30T02:32:02Z

82.132.184.152:

{{Short description|Region of southwestern Asia}}
{{About|the geographic region|the province in Pakistan|Balochistan, Pakistan|other uses|Balochistan (disambiguation)}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Balochistan
| native_name = بلۏچستان
| native_name_lang = bal
| settlement_type = [[Region]]
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| image_map = Balochistan (orthographic projection).svg
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| map_caption = The region of Balochistan (shown in dark green) on the globe
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*[[Afghanistan]]
*[[Iran]]
*[[Pakistan]]}}
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| parts = [[Sistan and Balochistan province|Iranian Balochistan]], [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Pakistani Balochistan]], [[Balochistan, Afghanistan|Afghan Balochistan]]
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| population_total = c. 18–19 million<ref name="Iran Profile, Library of Congress">[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf Iran], ''Library of Congress, Country Profile'' . Retrieved 5 December 2009.</ref><ref name="CIA Afghanistan">[https://web.archive.org/web/20260118080019/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/afghanistan/ Afghanistan], ''The World Factbook'' . Retrieved 5 December 2009.</ref><ref name=EthnicGroups>{{cite web|last=Central Intelligence Agency|title=The World Factbook: Ethnic Groups|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613003008/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 June 2007|access-date=3 November 2014|year=2013}}</ref>
| population_as_of = 2013
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| demographics_type1 = Demographics
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| demographics1_title1 = [[Ethnic groups]]
| demographics1_info1 = [[Baloch people|Baloch]] ''Minor:'' [[Brahui people|Brahui]], [[Pashtuns]], [[Hazaras]], [[Jadgal people|Jadgals]], [[Sindhis]], [[Tajiks]], [[Sistani people|Sistanis]], [[Persians]], [[Khetrans]]
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| demographics1_title2 = Languages
| demographics1_info2 = [[Balochi language|Balochi]] ''Minor:'' [[Brahui language|Brahui]], [[Jadgali language|Jadgali]], [[Pashto]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Khetrani language|Khetrani]], [[Urdu]]
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| blank_name = Largest cities
| blank_info = {{Collapsible list
| list_style = text-align:left;
|1 = {{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Kharan, Pakistan|Kharan]] 
{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Turbat]] 
{{flagicon|Iran}} [[Zahedan]] 
{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Khuzdar]] 
{{flagicon|Afghanistan}} [[Zaranj]] 
{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Uthal]] 
{{flagicon|Iran}} [[Iranshahr, Iran|Iranshahr]] 
{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Dera Allah Yar]] 
{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Sibi]] 
{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Mauripur]] 
{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Lyari]] 
{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Kalat, Pakistan|Kalat]] 
{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Dera Murad Jamali|D.M. Jamali]] 
{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Dera Bugti]] 
{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Gwadar]] 
{{flagicon|Iran}} [[Chabahar]] 
{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Nushki]]
}}
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{{Baloch people}}
'''Balochistan'''{{efn|({{IPAc-en|b|ə|ˈ|l|oʊ|tʃ|ᵻ|s|t|ɑː|n|,_|b|ə|ˌ|l|oʊ|tʃ|ᵻ|ˈ|s|t|ɑː|n|,_|-|s|t|æ|n}} {{respell|bə|LOHTCH|ist|a(h)n|,_-|A(H)N}}; {{langx|bal|بلۏچستان|Balòcestàn|engvar=gb}}, {{IPA|bal|baˈloːt͡ʃest̪ɑːn|}}), also spelled '''Baluchistan''', '''Balochestan''', '''Baluchestan''', and, especially on French maps, '''Beloutchistan''' or '''Baloutchistan'''; also '''Baloch Land''' or '''Baluch Land'''}} is a [[historical region]] in [[West Asia|West]] and [[South Asia]], located in the [[Iranian plateau]]'s far southeast and bordering the [[Indian plate]] and the [[Arabian Sea]] coastline. This [[arid]] region of [[desert]] and mountains is primarily populated by ethnic [[Baloch people]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dashti |first1=Naseer |title=The Baloch and Balochistan: A Historical Account from the Beginning to the Fall of the Baloch State |date=October 2012 |publisher=Trafford Publishing |isbn=978-1-4669-5896-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xIjyLNpusbAC&q=baloch+live+in+balochistan |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The History of Baloch and Balochistan: A Critical Appraisal |url=http://journals.pu.edu.pk/journals/index.php/IJSAS/article/view/3087 |journal=South Asian Studies |date=22 September 2020 |volume=32 |issue=1 (2017) |via=University of the Punjab |last1=Ahmed |first1=Manzoor |last2=Khan |first2=Gulawar }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dames |first1=Mansel Longworth |title=The Baloch Race: A Historical and Ethnological Sketch |date=1904 |publisher=Royal Asiatic Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b4RCAAAAIAAJ&q=baloch+are+living+in+Balochistan |language=en}}</ref> Balochistan is very significant because of its strategic location, [[Mining|mineral wealth]], long coastline along the Arabian Sea, the [[Gulf of Oman]] and potential for discoveries of [[Petroleum|oil]] and [[Natural gas|gas]].<ref name="Rizwan" />

The Balochistan region is split among three countries: [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]], and [[Pakistan]]. Administratively it comprises the Pakistani province of [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]]; the Iranian province of [[Sistan and Baluchestan]], along with southern [[Kerman province]],<ref name="Iran News">{{cite web |last1=Aslani |first1=Mostafa |title=Baluch People Deprived of Wealth in Iran - Iran News Update |url=https://irannewsupdate.com/news/economy/baluch-people-deprived-of-wealth-in-iran/ |website=Iran News Update |access-date=3 October 2025 |quote=This titanium mine, located in the Baloch areas of Rudbar Zamin (south of Kerman)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251003092023/https://irannewsupdate.com/news/economy/baluch-people-deprived-of-wealth-in-iran/?amp |archive-date=3 October 2025 |date=16 April 2024}}</ref> southern [[South Khorasan province]] and eastern [[Hormozgan province]];<ref name="UNPO">{{cite web |title=West Balochistan |url=https://unpo.org/west-balochistan/ |website=UNPO |access-date=3 October 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251003133029/https://unpo.org/west-balochistan/ |archive-date=3 October 2025 |date=22 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{multiref2
| 1 = {{cite web |last1=Shirani Naroui |first1=Shira Ahmad |title="Development Plan for Makran Coasts" or "Internal and External Colonization"? |url=https://www.peace-mark.org/en/articles/166-14-2/ |access-date=3 October 2025 |quote=In recent decades, changes in the country’s divisions have led to parts of Balochistan being annexed to the provinces of Kerman, Hormozgan, and South Khorasan.}}
| 2 = {{cite web |title=West Baluchistan Unrepresented United Nations, Inter Governments Organization |url=https://www.unrepresentedunitednations.org/en/unrepresented-united-nations-directory/west-baluchistan |website=www.unrepresentedunitednations.org |access-date=3 October 2025 |quote=The parts of West Baluchistan were divided into three neighboring provinces, in southeast Iran: Khorasan, Kerman and Hormozgan.}}
| 3 = {{cite web |title=Iran's Troubled Provinces: Baluchistan |url=https://iranprimer.usip.org/blog/2020/aug/06/irans-troubled-provinces-baluchistan |website=The Iran Primer |date=6 August 2020 |access-date=3 October 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250930062335/https://iranprimer.usip.org/blog/2020/aug/06/irans-troubled-provinces-baluchistan |archive-date=30 September 2025 |language=en}}
| 4 = {{cite web |title=An article on the historical geography of Makran region and the Gulf of Oman |url=http://english.ifsri.ir/news/view-52919.aspx |website=english.ifsri.ir |access-date=2 October 2025}}
| 5 = {{cite web |title=The Baloch in Iran: Systematic Suppression of Freedom of Assembly and Association – Zagros Human Rights Center |url=https://www.zagros-centre.org/en/?p=1393 |access-date=3 October 2025}}
| 6 = {{cite web |title=Criticism on the division plan of Sistan and Baluchistan province - current situation |url=https://haalvsh.org/en/2021/11/10/%D9%86%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C-%D8%A8%D8%B1-%D8%B7%D8%B1%D8%AD-%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%85-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%88-%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%88%DA%86%D8%B3%D8%AA/ |website=haalvsh.org |access-date=3 October 2025 |language=en}}
}}</ref> and the [[Balochistan, Afghanistan|southern areas]] of Afghanistan, which include [[Nimruz Province|Nimruz]], [[Helmand Province|Helmand]], and [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]] provinces.<ref name="A Brief History of Balochistan">{{cite web|last1=Pillalamarri|first1=Akhilesh|title=A Brief History of Balochistan|url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/02/a-brief-history-of-balochistan/|website=thediplomat.com|publisher=THE DIPLOMAT|access-date=18 June 2016|date=12 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="Human Rights in Balochistan: A Case Study in Failure and Invisibility">{{cite news|title=Human Rights in Balochistan: A Case Study in Failure and Invisibility|url=http://m.huffpost.com/us/entry/9541436.html|access-date=18 June 2016|work=HuffPost|date=25 March 2016}}</ref> It borders what was historically the [[Pashtunistan]] region to the north, [[Sindh]] and [[Punjab region|Punjab]] to the east, and [[Iran|southeastern Iran]] to the west. Its southern coastline, including the [[Makran Coast]], is washed by the [[Arabian Sea]], in particular by its western part, the [[Gulf of Oman]].

==Etymology==
[[File:Balochi-speakers by Pakistani District - 2017 Census.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.6|
<div style="text-align: center">The proportion of people with [[Balochi language|Balochi]] as their [[mother tongue]] in each Pakistani [[Districts of Pakistan|District]] as of the [[2017 Pakistan census]]</div>]]
[[File:Brahui-speakers by Pakistani District - 2017 Census.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.6|
<div style="text-align: center">The proportion of people with [[Brahui language|Brahui]] as their [[mother tongue]] in each Pakistani [[Districts of Pakistan|District]] as of the [[2017 Pakistan census]]</div>]]
The name "Balochistan" is generally believed to derive from the name of the [[Baloch people]].<ref name="A Brief History of Balochistan"/> Since the Baloch people are not mentioned in pre-Islamic sources, it is likely that the Baloch were known by some other name in their place of origin and that they acquired the name "Baloch" only after arriving in Balochistan some time in the 10th century.<ref name="Elfenbein Iranica">{{citation |first= J. |last= Elfenbein |chapter= Baluchistan iii. Baluchi Language and Literature |title= Encyclopaedia Iranica |chapter-url= http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baluchistan-iii |year= 1988}}</ref>

John Hansman relates the term "Baloch" to ''[[Meluhha|Meluḫḫa]]'', the name by which the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] is believed to have been known to the [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Sumerians]] (2900–2350 BCE) and [[Akkadian civilization|Akkadians]] (2334–2154 BCE) in [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Parpola|2015|loc= Ch. 17}}: "The identification of Meluhha with the Greater Indus Valley is now almost universally accepted."</ref> ''Meluḫḫa'' disappears from the Mesopotamian records at the beginning of the second millennium BCE.{{sfn|Hansman|1973|p= 564}} However, Hansman states that a trace of it in a modified form, as ''Baluḫḫu'', was retained in the names of products imported by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] (911–605 BCE).{{sfn|Hansman|1973|p= 565}} [[Al-Maqdisi|Al-Muqaddasī]], who visited the capital of [[Makran]], [[Bannajbur]], wrote {{circa}} 985 CE that it was populated by people called ''Balūṣī'' (Baluchi), leading Hansman to postulate "Baluch" as a modification of ''Meluḫḫa'' and ''Baluḫḫu''.{{sfn|Hansman|1973|pp= 568–569}}

[[Asko Parpola]] relates the name ''Meluḫḫa'' to Indo-Aryan words ''[[mleccha]]'' ([[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]) and ''milakkha/milakkhu'' ([[Pali language|Pali]]) etc., which do not have an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] etymology even though they were used to refer to non-Aryan people. Taking them to be [[Dravidian languages|proto-Dravidian]] in origin, he interprets the term as meaning either a proper name ''milu-akam'' (from which ''tamilakam'' was derived when the Indus people migrated south) or ''melu-akam'', meaning "high country", a possible reference to Balochistani high lands.{{sfn|Parpola|Parpola|1975|pp= 217–220}} Historian [[Romila Thapar]] also interprets ''Meluḫḫa'' as a proto-Dravidian term, possibly ''mēlukku'', and suggests the meaning "western extremity" (of the Dravidian-speaking regions in the Indian subcontinent). A literal translation into [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]], ''aparānta'', was later used to describe the region by the [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryans]].{{sfn|Thapar|1975|p=10}}

During the time of [[Alexander the Great]] (356–323 BCE), the [[Classical Greece|Greeks]] called the land ''[[Gedrosia]]'' and its people ''Gedrosoi'', terms of unknown origin.<ref name="Bevan2015">{{citation |last= Bevan |first= Edwyn Robert |title= The House of Seleucus |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=EWdSCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA272 |date= 12 November 2015 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn= 978-1-108-08275-4 |page= 272}}</ref> Using etymological reasoning, H. W. Bailey reconstructs a possible [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] name, ''uadravati'', meaning "the land of underground channels", which could have been transformed to ''badlaut'' in the 9th century and further to ''balōč'' in later times. This reasoning remains speculative.<ref>{{harvnb|Hansman|1973|at= Appendix C. Gadrōsia, by H. W. Bailey}}</ref>

==History==
{{main|History of Balochistan}}

=== Prehistoric ===
[[File:Baluch mid 19th C..jpeg|thumb|Large Baluch carpet, from the mid 19th century. Alternating rows depict cypress trees and [[Turkmens|Turkmen]] Gül motifs in offset colouration. The sombre background colours are characteristic of Baluch weavings. This likely was a commission for a tribal Khan or chieftain for ceremonial use.]]
Balochistan is among the earliest human settlements in the world,<ref name="Rizwan" /> and the oldest evidence of human occupation in it is dated to the [[Paleolithic]] era. Evidence includes hunting camps, [[lithic scatter]], and chipped and flaked stone tools. The earliest settled villages in the region date to the ceramic Neolithic ({{circa|7000}}–6000 BCE) and include the site of [[Mehrgarh]] in the [[Bolan District|Kachi Plain]], which may make Balochistan the oldest civilisation in the world.<ref name="Rizwan">{{cite book |last1=Zeb |first1=Rizwan |title=Ethno-political conflict in Pakistan: the Baloch movement |date=2021 |publisher=Routledge |location=London New York |isbn=978-0367331450 |edition=First issued in paperback |quote=The present significance that Balochistan enjoys is solely based on its strategic location and mineral wealth. As Selig Harrison once wrote, 'were it not for its strategic location, long coastline at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, and potential for discoveries of oil and gas and other minerals, Balochistan may not have assumed the importance it currently enjoys.' Balochistan is among the earliest human settlements in the world. The site discovered by French archaeologists in Mehrgarh or Mehregan arguably makes Balochistan the earliest civilization in the world, with a few claiming that it predates both the Egyptian and the Mesopotamian civilizations. The evidence collected at Mehrgarh indicates that it was inhabited from 7000 to 2000 B.C.}}</ref>

These villages expanded in size during the subsequent Chalcolithic when interaction was amplified. This involved the movement of finished goods and raw materials, including [[Turbinella|chank shell]], [[lapis lazuli]], [[turquoise]], and ceramics. By 2500 BCE (the Bronze Age), the region now known as [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Pakistani Balochistan]] had become part of the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] cultural orbit,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/what-did-harappans-eat-how-did-they-look-rakhigarhi-has-the-answers/article1-1348101.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150517092306/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/what-did-harappans-eat-how-did-they-look-rakhigarhi-has-the-answers/article1-1348101.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 May 2015|date=17 May 2015|first=Riddhi|last=Doshi|title=What did Harappans eat, how did they look? Haryana has the answers|work=Hindustan Times}}</ref> providing key resources to the expansive settlements of the Indus river basin to the east.

=== Classical period ===
From the 1st century to the 3rd century CE, the region was ruled by the [[Paratarajas|Pāratarājas]] ({{lit|Pārata Kings}}), a Hindu dynasty of [[Indo-Parthian|Indo-Scythian]] kings. The dynasty of the Pāratas is thought to be identical with the [[Paradas|Pāradas]] of the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', the [[Puranas]] and other Vedic and Iranian sources.{{sfn|Tandon|2006|p=183}} The Parata kings are primarily known through their coins, which typically exhibit the bust of the ruler (with long hair in a headband) on the obverse, and a [[swastika]] within a circular legend on the reverse, written in [[Brāhmī script|Brahmi]] (usually silver coins) or [[Kharoshthi]] (copper coins). These coins are mainly found in [[Loralai]] in today's western Pakistan.

During the wars between [[Alexander the Great]] (356–323 BCE) and Emperor [[Darius III]] (380–330 BCE, ruled 336–330 BCE), the Baloch were allied with the last [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] emperor. According to Shustheri (1925), Darius III, after much hesitation, assembled an army at Arbela to counter the army of invading Greeks. His cousin Besius was the commander, leading the horsemen from Balkh. Berzanthis was the commander of the Baloch forces, Okeshthra was the commander of the forces from [[Khuzestan province|Khuzestan]], Maseus was the commander of the [[Syrians|Syrian]] and [[Egyptians|Egyptian]] contingent, Ozbed was the commander of the [[Medes]], and Phirthaphirna was leading the Sakas and forces from [[Tabaristan]], Gurgan, and Khurasan. Obviously, as part of a losing side, the Baloch certainly got their share of punishment from the victorious Macedonian forces.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/ |access-date=21 April 2022 |website=britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

[[Herodotus]] in 450 BCE described the ''Paraitakenoi'' as a tribe ruled by [[Deiokes]], a Persian king, in northwestern Persia (History I.101). [[Arrian]] describes how [[Alexander the Great]] encountered the ''Pareitakai'' in [[Bactria]] and [[Sogdiana]], and had them conquered by [[Craterus]] (Anabasis Alexandrou IV). The [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]] (1st century CE) describes the territory of the ''Paradon'' beyond the Ommanitic region, on the coast of modern Balochistan.{{sfn|Tandon|2006|pp=201–202}}

=== Medieval period ===
During the reign of Arab dynasties, medieval Iran suffered the onslaught of [[Ghaznavids]], [[Mongols]], [[Timurid Empire|Timurids]], and the incursions of [[Oghuz Turks|Oguhz Turks]]. The relationship between the Baloch and nearly all these powers were hostile, and the Baloch suffered enormously during this long period. The Baloch encounters with these powers and the subsequent Baloch miseries forced the Baloch tribes to move from the areas of conflicts and to settle in the far-flung and inaccessible regions. The bloody conflicts with [[Buyid dynasty|Buyids]] and [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuqs]] were instrumental in waves of migration by the Baloch tribes from [[Kerman province|Kerman]] to further east.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pillalamarri |first=Akhilesh |title=A Brief History of Balochistan |url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/02/a-brief-history-of-balochistan/ |access-date=21 April 2022 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

The [[Hindu Sewa Dynasty]] ruled parts of Balochistan, chiefly [[Kalat, Pakistan|Kalat]].<ref name="FowleRai1923">{{cite book |last1=Fowle |first1=T. C. |last2=Rai |first2=Diwan Jamiat |title=Baluchistan |date=1923 |publisher=Directorate of Archives, Government of Balochistan |page=100 |language=en |quote=The Hindus of Kalat town may indeed be far more indigenous since they claim descent from the ancient Sewa dynasty that ruled Kalat long before the Brahui came to Baluchistan.}}</ref><ref name="Nisa1979">{{cite book |title=Balochistan Through the Ages: Geography and history |date=1979 |publisher=Nisa Traders |page=316 |language=en |quote=The country up to and including Multan was conquered by the Arabs and the Hindu dynasty of Sind and probably also the Sewa dynasty of Kalat came to an end.}}</ref> The [[Sibi Division]], which was carved out of [[Quetta Division]] and [[Kalat Division]] in 1974, derives its name from Rani Sewi, the queen of the Sewa dynasty.<ref name="Quddus1990">{{cite book |last1=Quddus |first1=Syed Abdul |title=The Tribal Baluchistan |date=1990 |publisher=[[Ferozsons]] |isbn=978-969-0-10047-4 |page=49 |language=en|quote=The Sibi division was carved out of the Quetta and Kalat Divisions in April, 1974, and comprises districts of Sibi, Kachhi, Nasirabad, Kohlu and Dera Bugti. The Division derives its name from the town of Sibi or Sewi. The local tradition attributes the origin of this name to Rani Sewi of the Sewa dynasty which ruled this part of the country in ancient times.}}</ref>
[[File:1730_Ottens_Map_of_Persia_(Iran,_Iraq,_Turkey)_-_Geographicus_-_RegnumPersicum-ottens-1730_(Mecran).jpg|thumb|Map of independent Balochistan under the Brahui [[Kalat Khanate]] in 1730.]]
The region was fully Islamised by the 9th century and became part of the territory of the [[Saffarid dynasty|Saffarids]] of [[Zaranj]], followed by the [[Ghaznavids]], then the [[Ghorids]]. The relation between the Ghaznavids and the Baloch had never been peaceful. Turan and Makuran came under the Ghaznavids founder [[Sabuktigin|Sebuktegin]]'s suzerainty as early as 976–977 CE (Bosworth, 1963). The Baloch tribes fought against Sebuktegin when he attacked Khuzdar in 994. The Baloch were in the army of Saffarids [[Amir Khalaf]] and fought against Mahmud when the Ghaznavids forces invaded Sistan in 1013 (Muir, 1924). Many other occasions were mentioned by the historians of the Ghaznavids era in which the Baloch came into confrontation with the Ghaznavids forces (Nizam al-Mulk, 1960).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Regions of Sind, Baluchistan, Multan and Kashmir: The Historical, Social and Economic Setting – Programme des Routes de la Soie |url=https://fr.unesco.org/silkroad/node/591 |access-date=21 April 2022 |website=fr.unesco.org}}</ref>

There are only passing references of Baloch encounters with the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] hordes. In one of the classical Balochi ballads, there is mention of a Baloch chieftain, Shah Baloch and the Baloch community of [[Herat]]'s Kahdestan, who, according to Saif Heravi, was the governor or ruler of Kahdestan and heroically resisted the advance of the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] to [[Herat]] and [[Sistan]] with his [[Baloch people|Baloch army]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Al-Harawi |first1=Sayf Ibn Muhammad Ibn Yaqub |title=The Tarikh Nama-I-Harat |language=fa |trans-title=The history of Herat}}</ref>

During the long period of en masse migrations, the Baloch were travelling through settled territories, and it could not have been possible to survive simply as wandering nomads. Perpetual migrations, hostile attitudes of other tribes and rulers, and adverse climactic conditions ruined much of their cattle breeding. Settled agriculture became a necessity for the survival of herds and an increased population. They began to combine settled agriculture with animal husbandry. The Baloch tribes now consisted of sedentary and nomadic population, a composition that remained an established feature of the Baloch tribes until recently.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Engaged review of contemporary art and thought |url=http://www.nakedpunch.com/ |access-date=21 April 2022 |website=nakedpunch.com}}</ref>

=== Early Modern era ===
The Khanate of Kalat was the first unified polity to emerge in the [[history of Balochistan]].<ref name=s/> It took birth from the confederacy of nomadic [[Brahui people|Brahui tribes]] native to the central Balochistan in 1666<ref name=q>{{Cite book |last=Minahan |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abNDLZQ6quYC&pg=PA48 |title=Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia |date=2012 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-659-1 |language=en}}</ref> which under [[Mir Ahmad Khan I]] declared independence from the Mughal suzeraignty<ref name=s>{{Cite web |title=Brahui |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/brahui |website=Encyclopedia Irannica}}</ref> and slowly absorbed the Baloch principalities in the region.<ref name=q/> It was ruled over by the Brahui Ahmadzai dynasty till 1948.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bhc.gov.pk/district-judiciary/mastung/introduction/history|title=Mastung > History of district|access-date=28 June 2021|quote=The Brahui Khans of Qalat were dominant from the 17th century onwards until the arrival of the British in the 19th century.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Siddiqi |first=Farhan Hanif |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tDb6i9x1FKgC&dq=brahui+khanate+of+kalat+sits+at+the+apex+of&pg=PA53 |title=The Politics of Ethnicity in Pakistan: The Baloch, Sindhi and Mohajir Ethnic Movements |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-68614-3 |pages=53 |language=en|quote="The Brahui Khanate of Kalat sits at the apex of..."}}</ref> [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] made it vassal of the [[Durrani Empire|Afghan Durrani Empire]] in 1749. In 1758 the Khan of Kalat, [[Nasir Khan I Ahmadzai]], revolted against [[Ahmed Shah Durrani]], defeated him, and made his Khanate independent from the Durrani Empire.

=== Tribalism and nomadism ===
Baloch tribalism in medieval times was synonymous with pastoral nomadism. Nomadic people, as observed by Heape (1931), regard themselves as the superior of sedentary or agriculturist. It is, perhaps, because the occupation of nomads made them strong, active, and inured to hardship and the dangers which beset a mobile life.<ref name="Gale – Institution Finder">{{Cite web |title=Gale – Institution Finder |url=https://galeapps.gale.com/apps/auth?userGroupName=&origURL=https%3A%2F%2Fgo.gale.com%2Fps%2Fi.do&prodId=GVRL |access-date=21 April 2022 |website=galeapps.gale.com}}</ref>

The areas of Balochistan where the Baloch tribes moved in had a sedentary population, and the Baloch tribes were compelled to deal with their sedentary neighbours. Being in a weaker position, the Baloch tribes were in need of constant vigils for their survival in new lands. To deal with this problem, they began to make alliances and organised themselves into a more structured way. The structural solution to this problem was to create tribal confederacies or unions. Thus, in conditions of insecurity and disorder or when threatened by a predatory regional authority or a hostile central government, several tribal communities would form a cluster around a chief who had demonstrated his ability to offer protection and security.<ref name="Gale – Institution Finder"/>

=== British occupation ===
The British took over Balochistan in 1839.<ref name="balochistan.gov.pk">{{Cite web |title=History – Government of Balochistan |url=https://balochistan.gov.pk/explore-balochistan/history/ |access-date=21 April 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref>

In the 1870s, [[Baluchistan Agency|Baluchistan]] came under control of the [[British Indian Empire]] in [[colonial India]].<ref name="Henige1970">{{cite book |last1=Henige |first1=David P. |url=https://archive.org/details/colonialgovernor0000heni |title=Colonial Governors from the Fifteenth Century to the Present: A Comprehensive List |date=1970 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |isbn=9780299054403 |page=[https://archive.org/details/colonialgovernor0000heni/page/89 89] |language=en |quote=The British began to assume control over the rough desert region in extreme western India known as Baluchistan in the 1870s. |url-access=registration}}</ref> The fundamental objective of the British to enter into a treaty agreement with the Khanate of Kalat was to provide a passage and supplies to the "Army of Indus" on its way to Kandahar through Shikarpur, Jacobabad (Khangadh), Dhadar, Bolan Pass, Quetta, and Khojak Pass. It is interesting to note that the British imperialist interests in Balochistan were not primarily economic as was the case with other regions of India. Rather, it was of a military and geopolitical nature. Their basic objective in their advent in Balochistan was to station garrisons so as to defend the frontiers of British India from any threat coming from Iran and Afghanistan.<ref name="balochistan.gov.pk"/>

Beginning from 1840, there began a general insurrection against the British rule throughout Balochistan. The Baloch were not ready to accept their country as part of an occupied Afghanistan and to be ruled under a puppet Khan. The Mari tribe rose in revolt and the British retaliated in force. A British contingent under the command of Major Brown on 11 May 1840, attacked the Mari headquarter of Kahan and occupied Kahan Fort and the surrounding areas (Masson, 1974). The Mari forces withdrew from the area, regrouped, and in an ambush wiped out a whole convoy of British troops near Filiji, killing more than one hundred.<ref name="balochistan.gov.pk"/>
[[File:Map of Baluchistān region (crop).png|thumb|Map of Balochistan released by the CIA in 1980]]
During the time of the [[Indian independence movement]], "three pro-Congress parties were still active in Balochistan's politics", such as the [[Anjuman-i-Watan Baluchistan]], which [[Opposition to the partition of India|favoured a united India and opposed its partition]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Afzal |first1=M. Rafique |title=Pakistan: History and Politics 1947–1971 |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-579634-6 |page=40 |quote=Besides the Balochistan Muslim League, three pro-Congress parties were still active in Balochistan's politics: the Anjuman-i Watan, the Jamiatul Ulama u Hind, and the Qalat State National Party.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ranjan |first1=Amit |title=Partition of India: Postcolonial Legacies |date=2018 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9780429750526 |language=en |quote=Furthermore, Congress leadership of Balochistan was united and there was no disagreement over its president, Samad Khan Achakzai. On the other hand, Qazi Isa was the president of the League in Balochistan. Surprisingly, he was neither a Balochi nor a Sardar. Consequently, all Sardars except Jaffar Khan Jamali, were against Qazi Isa for contesting this seat.}}</ref>

=== Post-colonial history ===

In 2021, there was an earthquake that killed dozens of people. This came to be known as the [[2021 Balochistan earthquake]]. There were other major earthquakes in 2013 ([[2013 Balochistan earthquake]] and [[2013 Saravan earthquake]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asian Disaster Reduction Center（ADRC） |url=https://www.adrc.asia/view_disaster_en.php?NationCode=&Lang=en&Key=2491 |access-date=5 June 2023 |website=adrc.asia |quote="A 5.9 magnitude quake struck Balochistan province, Pakistan at 03:01 am on 7 October 2021 local time at a depth of 20km. According to the Disaster Management Authority, at least 20 people were killed and about 300 injured."}}</ref>
== Culture ==
{{Main|Balochi culture}}

{{See also|Balochi clothing|Baloch cuisine|Balochi handicrafts|Balochi rug|Culture of Balochistan}}[[File:Baloch people (4).jpg|thumb|Baloch children photographed in [[Ashkutu]], [[Iran]], in March 2017]]

The cultural values which are the pillars of the Baloch individual and national identity were firmly established during the twelfth and sixteenth centuries, a period which not only brought sufferings for the Baloch and forced them into en masse migrations but also brought fundamental sociocultural transformation of the Baloch society. An overlapping of pastoral ecology and tribal structure had shaped contemporary Baloch social values. The [[pastoralism|pastoralist]] [[nomad]]ic way of life and the inclination to resist the assimilation attempts of various powerful ethnic identities shaped the peculiar Baloch ethnic identity. It was the persecution by strong and organised religions for the last two thousand years that has shaped their secular attitude about religion in social or community affairs. Their independent and stubborn behaviour as the distinctive feature of the Baloch identity is consistent with their nomadic or agro-pastoral past.{{or|date=April 2026}}

[[Med people|Med]] o Maraka, for resolution of disputes among the Baloch, is a much-honoured tradition. In a broader context, it is, in a way, accepting the guilt by the accused or offender and asking for forgiveness from the affected party. Usually, the offender himself does this by going to the home of the affected person and asking for forgiveness.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite web |title=Baloch |publisher=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Baloch |access-date=21 April 2022 |website=britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

[[Balochi clothing|Dress]] code and personal upkeeping are among the cultural values, which distinguish a Baloch from others. The Baloch dress and personal upkeeping very much resemble the [[Medes|Median]] and [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] ways. Surprisingly, no significant changes can be observed in the Balochi dress since the ancient times. A typical Balochi outfit consisted of loose-fitting and many-folded trousers held by garters, bobbed hair, shirt (''qamis''), and a head turban. Generally, both hair and beard were carefully curled, but, sometimes, they depended on long straight locks. A typical dress of a Baloch woman consists of a long frock and trouser (''[[Salwar|shalwaar]]'') with a headscarf.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Balochi culture dress |url=https://aboutpakistanidresses.blogspot.com/2019/04/balochi-culture-dress.html |access-date=21 April 2022 |website=Balochi culture dress}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/balochracehistor00damerich/page/8/mode/2up |title=The Baloch race. A historical and ethnological sketch|date=1904 }}{{source-attribution}}</ref>

=== Music ===
{{See also|Balochi music}}

[[Zahirok]] is one of the most important and well-known Balochi song genres, often described as the “Balochi classical music” by the Baloch themselves.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1754254 |title=CULTURE: BUDDING LOVE FOR MUSIC|date=21 May 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.academia.edu/9219983 |title=Zahirok: The Musical Base of Baloch Minstrelsy |last1=Khan |first1=Badal }}</ref>

Instruments in traditional [[Balochi Music|Balochi music]] include [[suroz]], [[donali]], [[ghaychak]], [[dohol]], [[sorna]], [[Rubab (instrument)|rubab]], [[kemenche]], [[Tambourine|tamburag]], and [[benju]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Frishkopf |first=Michael |date=2006 |title=Music of Makran: Traditional Fusion from Coastal Balochistan |url=https://sites.ualberta.ca/~michaelf/Makran |journal=Asian Music |publisher=University of Texas Press |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=164–171 |doi=10.1353/amu.2007.0002 |access-date=5 January 2024 |via=[[University of Alberta]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Massoudieh |first=M. T. |date=21 June 2016 |title=BALUCHISTAN iv. Music of Baluchistan |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baluchistan-iv |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Regional Music|url=https://pakistanstudies-aips.org/node/61 |access-date=5 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Khan |first=Badal |title=Zahirok: The Musical Base of Baloch Minstrelsy |url=https://www.academia.edu/9219983}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hafeez |first=Somaiyah |date=1 January 2023 |title=Baloch music through history and time |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2393692/baloch-music-through-history-and-time |access-date=6 January 2024 |website=The Express Tribune |language=en}}</ref>

== Religion ==
Historically, there is no documented evidence of religious practices of the Baloch in ancient times. Many among the Baloch writers observed that the persecutions of the Baloch by the Sassanid emperors [[Shapur II]] and [[Khosrow II]] had a strong religious or sectarian element. They believed that there are strong indications that the Baloch were the followers of [[Mazdakism|Mazdakian]] and [[Manichaeism|Manichean]] sects of the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] religion at the time of their fatal encounters with Sassanid forces. No elaborate structure of religious institutions has been discerned in the Baloch society during the Middle Ages. The Baloch were [[Conversion to Islam|converted to Islam]] (nearly all Baloch belong to the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] sect of Islam) after the [[Early Muslim conquests|Arab conquest]] of Balochistan during the seventh century.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Is There an Ethno-religious Aspect in Balochi Identity? |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/ic/20/3-4/article-p397_10.xml |access-date=21 April 2022 |journal=Iran and the Caucasus|date=19 December 2016 |volume=20 |issue=3–4 |pages=397–405 |doi=10.1163/1573384X-20160309 |last1=Boyajian |first1=Vahe S. |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Governance and political disputes==
{{Further|Insurgency in Balochistan|Sistan and Baluchestan insurgency}}
[[File:Flag of Baluchistan.svg|thumb|Flag used by most [[Baloch nationalism|Baloch nationalists]] and separatists]]
The Balochistan region is administratively divided among three countries, [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]], and [[Iran]]. The largest portion in area and population is in Pakistan, whose largest province (in land area) is [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]]. An estimated 6.9 million of Pakistan's population is Baloch. In Iran there are about two million ethnic Baloch,<ref name=g>{{cite news |last1=Grassi |first1=Daniele |date=20 October 2014 |title=Iran's Baloch insurgency and the IS |work=Asia Times |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/MID-02-201014.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020195321/http://atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/MID-02-201014.html  |archive-date=20 October 2014 |access-date=26 June 2015 }}</ref> and a majority of the population of the [[Sistan and Baluchestan province]], southern [[Kerman province]],<ref name="Iran News" /> southern [[South Khorasan province]] and eastern [[Hormozgan province]] is of Baloch ethnicity.<ref name="UNPO" /> The Afghan portion of Balochistan includes the [[Chahar Burjak District]] of [[Nimruz Province]], and the [[Registan Desert]] in southern [[Helmand Province|Helmand]] and [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]] provinces. The governors of Nimruz province in Afghanistan belong to the Baloch ethnic group. President [[Pervez Musharraf]] ordered military action that killed a tribal head from the Pakistani province of Balochistan in 2006 which led to an increase in insurgency.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 February 2023 |title=Ex-president Pervez Musharraf: From Pakistan military ruler to fugitive in murder cases |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/pakistan/pervez-musharraf-biography-8425000/ |access-date=20 May 2023 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

The Balochistan region has also experienced a number of insurgencies with separatist militants demanding independence of Baloch regions in the three countries to form "Greater Balochistan".<ref>{{cite news |title=Who are Baloch Liberation Army? Insurgents who killed 30 in Pakistan in last one week |url=https://theprint.in/theprint-essential/who-are-baloch-liberation-army-insurgents-who-killed-30-in-pakistan-in-last-one-week/368398/ |last1=Shukla |first1=Srijan |website=The Print (India) |date=20 February 2020 }}</ref> In Pakistan, insurgencies by separatist militants in Balochistan province have been fought in 1948, 1958–1959, 1962–1963 and 1973–1977, with a new ongoing low-intensity insurgency<ref name="global terror">{{cite news |title=US declares Pakistan's separatist Baluchistan Liberation Army as terrorist group |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/pakistan/us-declares-pakistans-separatist-baluchistan-liberation-army-as-terrorist-group-5812092/ |website=The Indian Express |date=3 July 2019 }}</ref> beginning in 2003.<ref name="Hussain-4-25-13">{{cite news|last1=Hussain|first1=Zahid|title=The battle for Balochistan|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/794058/the-battle-for-balochistan|access-date=22 June 2015|work=Dawn|date=25 April 2013}}</ref> Historically, drivers of the conflict are reported to include "tribal divisions", the Baloch-Pashtun ethnic divisions, "marginalization by Punjabi interests", and "economic oppression".<ref name="kupecz-106">{{cite journal|last1=Kupecz|first1=Mickey|title=PAKISTAN'S BALOCH INSURGENCY: History, Conflict Drivers, and Regional Implications|journal=International Affairs Review|date=Spring 2012|volume=20|issue=3|page=106|url=http://www.iar-gwu.org/sites/default/files/articlepdfs/Pakistan%27s%20Baloch%20Insurgency.pdf|access-date=24 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701152435/http://www.iar-gwu.org/sites/default/files/articlepdfs/Pakistan%27s%20Baloch%20Insurgency.pdf|archive-date=1 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, over the years, insurgency waged by separatist militants declined as result of crackdown by Pakistani security forces, infighting among the separatist militants and assassinations of Baloch politicians willing to take part in Pakistan's democratic process by the separatist militants.<ref>{{cite news |title=Balochistan's Separatist Insurgency On The Wane Despite Recent Attack |url=https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/pakistan-balochistan-separatist-insurgency-on-the-wane-despite-recent-attack/29889887.html |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=18 April 2019}}</ref> Separatist militants in Pakistan demand more autonomy and a greater share in the region's natural resources. The Baloch population in Pakistan has endured grave violations of human rights, which include extrajudicial killings, enforced disappearances, and torture. These actions are purportedly perpetrated by state security forces and their associates.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The untold story of human rights violations in Balochistan: Unveiling the historical context |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/world/report-the-untold-story-of-human-rights-violations-in-balochistan-unveiling-the-historical-context-3044953 |access-date=2 June 2023 |website=Daily News and Analysis |language=en}}</ref> In 2019, United States declared [[Balochistan Liberation Army|Baloch Liberation Army]], one of the separatist militants fighting the [[government of Pakistan]], a global terrorist group.<ref name="global terror"/>

In Iran, separatist fighting has reportedly not gained as much ground as the conflict in Pakistan,<ref>Bhargava, G. S. "[http://www.asiantribune.com/node/5285 How Serious Is the Baluch Insurgency?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726132511/http://www.asiantribune.com/node/5285 |date=26 July 2020 }}" ''Asian Tribune'' (12 April 2007). Retrieved 2 December 2011.</ref> but has grown and become more sectarian since 2012,<ref name=g/> with the majority-Sunni Baloch showing a greater degree of [[Salafi movement|Salafist]] and [[Anti-Shi'ism|anti-Shia]] ideology in their fight against the Shia-Islamist [[Government of Iran|Iranian government]].<ref name=g/> [[Sistan and Baluchestan province|Sistan-Baluchestan]], one of Iran's poorest regions, has long been plagued by unrest involving drug-smuggling gangs, rebels from the Baluchi minority and Sunni extremists.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 September 2024 |title=3 police officers killed in attacks in southeastern Iran |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/three-policemen-killed-in-attacks-in-southeastern-iran-/7805278.html |access-date=21 October 2024 |website=Voice of America |language=en}}</ref>

On 11 March 2025, the [[Jaffar Express]], a passenger train travelling from Quetta to Peshawar in Pakistan, was [[2025 Pakistan train hijack|hijacked]] by militants in the Bolan district of Balochistan province. The attack resulted in the train halting in a remote area, with reports indicating that the driver was injured during the assault. They asserted that they had taken over 400 hostages, including security personnel, and threatened to execute them if Pakistani forces launched a rescue operation.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Passenger train hijacked in Pakistan's Balochistan; separatist militants claim responsibility |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/passenger-train-hijacked-in-pakistans-balochistan-separatist-militants-claim-responsibility/articleshow/118887271.cms |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389 |date=11 March 2025 |access-date=11 March 2025}}</ref>

According to Masom Jan Masomy, "Balochistan's strategic importance is also vital for China, which sees the Balochistan province as an essential corridor for its geostrategic and logistic plans of the [[Belt and Road Initiative|One Belt One Road Initiative]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Masomy |first1=Masom Jan |title=Balochistan Conflict and Insecurity: China's Realist Approach Under CPEC |url=https://www.igi-global.com/gateway/chapter/386996 |journal=Geopolitical Rivalries and Strategic Competition Across Eurasia |publisher=IGI Global Scientific Publishing |date=11 July 2025 |pages=161–188 |doi=10.4018/979-8-3373-5671-6.ch007}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Geography|Afghanistan|Iran|Pakistan
}}
* [[Baloch nationalism]]
* [[Bolan Pass]]
* [[Mehrgarh]]
* [[Seistan Force]]
{{Clear}}

==References==

=== Notes ===
{{notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{citation |last=Hansman |first=John |year=1973 |title=A Periplus of Magan and Meluhha |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=553–587 |jstor=613582 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00119858|s2cid=140709175 }}
*{{citation |last=Hansman |first=John |title=A further note on Magan and Meluhha (Notes and Communications) |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=609–610 |year=1975 |jstor=613711 |doi=10.1017/s0041977x00048126|s2cid=178684667 }}
*{{citation |last1=Parpola |first1=Asko |author1-link=Asko Parpola |first2=Simo |last2=Parpola |title=On the relationship of the Sumerian toponym Meluhha and Sanskrit mleccha |journal=Studia Orientalia |volume=46 |year=1975 |pages=205–238 |url=http://ojs.tsv.fi/index.php/StOrE/article/view/49874/14912}}
*{{citation |last=Parpola |first=Asko |author-link=Asko Parpola |title=The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_eykCQAAQBAJ |year=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-022692-3}}
*{{citation |last=Tandon |first=Pankaj |title=New light on the Pāratarājas |url=http://people.bu.edu/ptandon/Paratarajas.pdf |journal=Numismatic Chronicle |volume=166 |year=2006 |pages=173–209 |jstor=42666407}}
*{{citation |last=Thapar |first=Romila |author-link=Romila Thapar |title=A Possible Identification of Meluḫḫa, Dilmun and Makan |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=18 |pages=1–42 |number=1 |date=January 1975 |jstor=3632219 |doi=10.1163/156852075x00010}}

==Further reading==
* {{EI3|last=Axmann|first=Martin|title=Baluchistan and the Baluch people|year=2019|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/baluchistan-and-the-baluch-people-COM_25188?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=baluch}}
*{{ill|Philippe Fabry|lt=Fabry, Philippe|fr}} (1991). ''Balouchistan, le désert insoumis''. Paris: Nathan Image, 136 p. {{ISBN|2-09-240036-3}}.

==External links==
{{Sister project links|Balochistan}}
*[https://www.wdl.org/en/item/11749/#q=Balochistan Baluchistan] is a map published by [[The Century Company]]
*[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2676 Afghanistan, Beloochistan, etc.] is a map from 1893 published by the American Methodist Church
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150614012814/http://balochistanarchives.gob.pk/ Balochistan Archives- Preserving our Past]

{{Districts of Balochistan (Pakistan)}}
{{Baloch nationalism}}
{{Authority control}}
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[[Category:Balochistan| ]]
[[Category:Historical regions of Iran]]
[[Category:Regions of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Regions of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Geography of South Asia]]
[[Category:Geography of West Asia]]
[[Category:Baloch culture]]
[[Category:Cultural regions]]

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Balochistan