Chutia kingdom-243553

2026-02-21T09:22:12Z

82.132.244.251:

{{Short description|Medieval state of India}}
{{About|the medieval kingdom of [[Assam]]|the community|Chutia people}}
{{pp-sock|small=yes}}
{{use dmy dates|date=November 2016}}
{{use Indian English|date=November 2016}}
{{Infobox Former Country
|conventional_long_name = Chutia kingdom
|common_name = ''Sadhaya'' or ''Sadiya''
|era = [[History of Assam|Medieval Assam]]
|event_start =
|year_start = Unknown (before Ahom state<ref name="ReferenceC">"(T)he Chutiyas formed a state earlier than the Ahoms in the thirteenth century." {{harvcol|Nath|2013|p=25}}</ref>)
|event1 =
|date_event1 =
|event2 = Ahom-Chutiya conflict
|date_event2 = 1513 – 17th century
|event3 = Siege of Sadiya
|date_event3 =
|year_end = 1523-24
|p1 = Kamarupa
|s1 = Ahom kingdom
|flag_s1 = Ahom_insignia_plain.svg
|today = [[India]]
|image_coat =
|image_map ={{South Asia in 1400|center||{{Annotation|257|81|[[File:Long Rectangle (plain).png|30px]]}}}}
|image_map_caption = Chutia kingdom (Tiwra) in early 16th century<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01446144/document |title=Ramirez, Philippe,''People of the Margins:Chapter 1'', p.4 |access-date=10 June 2021 |archive-date=11 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611214210/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01446144/document |url-status=live }}</ref>
|capital = [[Sadiya|Sadhayapura]]
|common_languages = [[Assamese language]]<br>[[Deori language]]
|religion = [[Hinduism]]<br>[[Tribal religion]]
|government_type = Monarchy
|leader1 = Dhirnarayana {{small|(last)}}
|year_leader1 = Unknown–1523-24
|title_leader = Monarch
}}
{{Chutiya Dynasty}}
{{Assam History}}

The '''Chutia kingdom'''<ref name="chutia-tiora"/> (also '''Sadiya'''<ref>"Their kingdom called Sadiya..." {{harvcol|Gogoi|2002|p=20}}</ref>) (Pron: {{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ʊ|ð|iː|j|aː}} or ''Sutia'') was a [[Medieval India#Late medieval period|late medieval state]] that developed around [[Sadiya]] in present [[Assam]] and adjoining areas in [[Arunachal Pradesh]].<ref name="ReferenceA">"(T)he Chutiyas seem to have assumed political power in Sadiya and contiguous areas falling within modern Arunachal Pradesh." {{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=51}}</ref> It extended over almost the entire region of present districts of [[Lakhimpur district|Lakhimpur]], [[Dhemaji district|Dhemaji]], [[Tinsukia district|Tinsukia]], and parts of [[Dibrugarh district|Dibrugarh]] (till the [[Dihing River|Burhi Dihing]]<ref>"..the Chutiya kingdom was bound by the Himalayas on the north, river Burhi Dihing on the south, Patkai ranges on the east and Bharali river in the west"{{harvcol|Dutta|1985|pp=28}}</ref><ref>"About 250 years ago the Dihing (present Burhi-Dihing) flowed westerly through Sivsagar district to meet the Brahmaputra at the extreme western point of Majuli island (Sarma and Goswami, 2007). Over the centuries, the river Dihing has changed its courses many times...We find the earliest historical records of the valley after the coming of the Ahoms as the Buranjis or the Ahom chronicles mention about the conflict between the Ahoms and the Chutiyas on the bank of the river Dihing. The Satsari Asom Buranji refers to the Ahom-Chutiya conflict over the matter of fishing rights in the river Dihing which ultimately led to the annexation of the entire Chutiya territory upto Sadiya by the Ahoms during the reign of Suhungmung (p.56). However, it was only in the second decade of the sixteenth century, the area was brought under the control of the Ahoms and before that the whole territory of present-day Dibrugarh was under the Chutiyas."{{harvcol|Bhuyan|2023|pp=532}}</ref>) in Assam,<ref name="gogoi-main">"Their kingdom called Sadiya extended in the north over the entire region from the Sisi in the west to the Brahmaputra in the east. The hills and the river Buri Dihing formed its northern and southern boundaries respectively. Thus the Chutiya territory extended over almost the entire region of present districts of Lakhimpur, Dhemaji, Tinsukia, and some parts of Dibrugarh." {{harvcol|Gogoi|2002|pp=20–21}}</ref> as well as the plains and foothills<ref>{{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=57}} "The ruins of two forts in Lohit district of Arunachal Pradesh is said to be the remains of Bhīṣmaka's city, viz. Bhismaknagar (sk.  Bhīṣmakanagara): one ruin about 16 miles northwest of Sadiya at the foot of the hills between the rivers Dikrang and Dibang is known as the fort of Bhīṣmaka, and the other about 24 miles north of Sadiya between the gorges of those two rivers is believed to be the fort of Śiśupāla. Based on an inscribed brick with the name of Śrīśrī-Lakṣmīnārāyaṇa, discovered from the ruins of the forts in Bhismaknagar, it is assumed that Chutiya king Lakṣmīnārāyaṇa of the early fifteenth century had his capital in the area. The paleographical analysis of the inscription supports this dating."</ref> of Arunachal Pradesh.<ref>"In the main, however, their territory was confined to the river valleys of the Suvansiri, Brahmaputra, Lohit, and the Dihing and hardly extended to the hills at its zenith."{{harvcol|Nath|2013|p=27}}</ref> The kingdom fell around the year 1523-24 to the [[Ahom Kingdom]] after a series of conflicts and the capital area ruled by the Chutia rulers became the administrative domain of the office of ''Sadia Khowa Gohain'' of the Ahom kingdom.<ref>"The Chutiya power lasted until 1523 when the Ahom king Suhungmung, ''alias'' Dihingia Rāja (1497–1539), conquered their kingdom and annexed it to his sphere of influence. A new officer of Ahom state, known as Sadiya Khowa Gohain, was appointed to administer the area ruled by the Chutiyas." {{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=52}}</ref>

The Chutia kingdom, believed to be founded in the early 13th century around Sadiya and contiguous areas,<ref name="ReferenceB">"Moving down from the hills to the plains of upper Assam, at some point of time before the entry of the Shans, a Tai ethnic group of Southeast Asia, the Chutiyas formed a state earlier than the Ahoms in the thirteenth century."{{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=51}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">"(T)he Chutiyas formed a state earlier than the Ahoms in the thirteenth century." {{harvcol|Nath|2013|p=25}}</ref> came into prominence in the second half of the 14th century,<ref>"It is more likely that if there was a Chutiya state at this time, it was of little significance until the second half of the fourteenth century." {{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=52}}</ref> and was one among several rudimentary states ([[Ahom kingdom|Ahom]], [[Dimasa kingdom|Dimasa]], [[Koch dynasty|Koch]], [[Jaintia kingdom|Jaintia]] etc.) that emerged from tribal political formations in the region after the fall of [[Kamarupa|Kamarupa kingdom]], between the 13th and the 16th century.<ref>"The period from the 13th to the 16th century saw the emergence and development of a large number of tribal political formations in northeast India. The Chutiya, the Tai-Ahom, the Koch, the Dimasa (Kachari), the Tripuri, the Meithei (Manipuri), the Khasi (Khyriem), and the Pamar (Jaintia)—all these tribes crystallised into rudimentary state formations by the 15th century." {{harvcol|Guha|1983|p=5}}</ref> Among these, the Chutia state was the most advanced,<ref>"The most developed of the tribes in the 15th century were the Chutiya." {{harvcol|Guha|1983|p=5}}</ref><ref>"Indeed it appears that of all the tribes of the Brahmaputra valley, the Chutiyas were the most advanced and had a well-developed civilization."{{harvcol|Datta|1985|p=29}}</ref> with its rural industries,<ref>"The growth of a number of professions among the people of this kingdom like ''tanti'' (weaver), ''kahar'' (bell-metal worker), ''sonari'' (goldsmith) ... indicates the growth of some rural industries among the Chutiyas." {{harvcol|Gogoi|2002|p=22}}</ref> trade,<ref>"(T)he Chutias, who held power by regulating the easterly trade and migration of people to and from Tibet, Southern China, and Assam." {{harvcol|Saikia|2004|p=8}}</ref> surplus economy and advanced [[Sanskritisation]].<ref>"(T)he Chutiyas were one of the earliest tribes to be Hinduised and to form a state, may point to their surplus economy." {{harvcol|Gogoi|2002|pp=21–22}}</ref><ref>(At the time of annexation by the Ahoms) caste system had become prevalent in (the Chutiya) society." {{harvcol|Gogoi|2002|p=21}}</ref> It is not exactly known as to the system of agriculture adopted by the Chutias,<ref>"It is not definitely known as to the system of agriculture adopted by them." {{harvcol|Gogoi|2002|p=22}}</ref> but it is believed that they were settled cultivators.<ref>"the word 'khā' of Tai-Ahom language, which is usually prefixed to names of non-Ahom people practicing shifting cultivation, does not appear for the Chutiyas, probably because they were neither stateless nor were they solely shifting cultivators in the early phase of Ahom rule. There seems no serious interaction between the Ahoms and old settled people of the neighborhood including the Chutiyas until the fourteenth century." {{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=51}}</ref> After the Ahoms annexed the kingdom in 1523-24, the Chutia state & its population was absorbed into the Ahom kingdom through [[Ahomisation]] — the nobility and the professional classes were given important positions in the Ahom officialdom<ref>{{harvcol|Baruah|1986|p=186}}</ref><ref>"The Ahoms accepted many Chutiyas to their fold and offered them responsible offices in the administration"{{harvcol|Dutta|1985|p=30}}</ref> and the land was resettled for wet rice cultivation.<ref>"[T]he Chutiya kingdom consisted of a vast plan level and fertile territory which provided for the Ahoms possibility of easy extension of wet rice culture in the region." {{harvcol|Gogoi|2002|p=22}}</ref>

==Foundation and Polity==
Though there is no doubt on the Chutia polity, the origins of this kingdom are obscure.<ref>"The origin of the Chutiya state is obscure."{{harvcol|Buragohain|2013|p=120}}</ref> It is generally held that the Chutias, a grouping of different Bodo-Kachari cognate groups, established a state in the plains around Sadiya before the advent of the [[Ahom kingdom|Ahom]]s in 1228.<ref>"The Chutiyas belong to the Bodos, a linguistic group of the Brahmaputra valley, speaking a Tibeto-Burman language and having different cognate groups within them. According to the present day Deori Chutiyas, the priests of the Chutiya people, they are originally inhabitants of the hills to the north of the Brahmaputra, perhaps the northwestern portion of the Dibang valley. Moving down from the hills to the plains of upper Assam, at some point of time before the entry of the Shans, a Tai ethnic group of Southeast Asia, the Chutiyas seem to have assumed political power in Sadiya and contiguous areas falling within modern Arunachal Pradesh." {{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=51}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceC"/> Though [[Buranji]]s, the [[Ahom kingdom|Ahom]] chronicles, indicate the presence of a Chutia state<ref>{{harvcol|Guha|1983|p=fn.16}} "The prefix Kha does not appear in the Tai words for the Dimasa and the Chutiya, probably because they were neither stateless, nor-were they solely shifting cultivators."</ref> the evidence is scarce that it was of any significance before the second half of the 14th century.<ref>"The first confrontation between the Ahoms and the Chutiyas as a political power is mentioned in some chronicles such as the Deodhai Asam Buranji only during the reign of Ahom king Sutupha (1369–76), about a hundred years after the death of Sukapha. It is more likely that if there was a Chutiya state at this time, it was of little significance until the second half of the fourteenth century...There seems no serious interaction between the Ahoms and old settled people of the neighborhood including the Chutiyas until the fourteenth century as both the Ahom territory and its population remained precariously small."{{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=52}}</ref>

The earliest Chutia king in the epigraphic records is Nandin or Nandisvara, from the latter half of the 14th century,<ref>"On the basis of these records, Neog reconstructed a line of kings ruling this region as follows: Nandin (or Nandīśvara), Satyanārāyaṇa (or Ratnanārāyaṇa), Lakṣmīnārāyaṇa, Durlabhanārāyaṇa, Dharmanārāyaṇa, Pratyakṣanārāyaṇa and Yaśanārāyaṇa (or Yamanārāyaṇa). Furthermore, it is fairly certain from the dates available in the inscriptions that Nandin and Satyanārāyaṇa ruled Sadhayāpurī in the latter half of the fourteenth century." {{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=52}}</ref> mentioned in a grant by his son Satyanarayana who nevertheless draws his royal lineage from ''[[Asura]]s'' in his mother's side who were "enemies of the gods".<ref>"According to the Dhenukhana copper plate inscription of Satyanārāyaṇa and Pratyakṣanārāyaṇa, dated 1314 Śaka (1392 AD), king Nandin (or Nandi), a great hero of many virtues, was the lord of Sadhayāpurī (sadhayāpurīśa), and Daivakī, Nandin's wife, was continuously accomplishing good deeds. Auspicious Satyanārāyaṇa had his origin in Daivakī's womb, 'forming part of the lineage of the enemy of the gods' (suraripu-vaṃśāṃśa-bhūto), making the uplift of the burden of the earth. Neog interprets 'the lineage of the enemy of the gods' as the asura dynasty"{{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=53}}</ref> The mention of Satyanarayana as having the shape of his maternal uncle (which is also an indirect reference to the same Asura/Daitya lineage)<ref>"The reason for his ''asura'' lineage is not explicitly explained in the inscription, but the two statements that his mother is 'Daivakī' and he has 'the shape of a maternal uncle (who was) given the name of Daitya'(''daityanāmāttamāmāmatiḥ'') can be seen as an indirect reference to his lineage." {{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=53}}</ref> may also constitute evidence of [[matrilineality]] of the Chutia ruling family, or that their system was not exclusively [[Patrilineality|patrilineal]].<ref>"The epigraphic record of Satyanārāyaṇa, whose lineage is named in reference to his maternal uncle, is therefore significant. It may constitute evidence of matrilineality of the Sadiya-based Chutiya ruling family, or that their system was not exclusively patrilineal."{{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=54}}</ref> On the other hand, a later king Durlabhnarayana mentions that his grandfather Ratnanarayana (identified with Satyanarayana) was the king of [[Kamata kingdom|Kamatapura]]<ref>"Ratnanãrãyana is called the king of Kamatãpura and his grandson Durlabhanãrãyana is described as giving lands under the administration of the Governor of Häbunga province." {{harvcol|Neog|1977|p=818}}</ref> which might indicate that the eastern region of Sadhaya was politically connected to the western region of [[Kamata Kingdom|Kamata]].<ref>"The eastern region, whether it is called Sadhaya or Svadhaya as in the plates or Sadhiya or Sadiya as in Assamese chronicles and the western region of Kamatapura seems to be politically connected and the same Satyanarayana/Ratnanarayana might have held sway over both regions"{{harvcol|Neog|1977|p=818}}</ref>

In these early inscriptions, the kings are said to be seated in Sadhyapuri, identified with the present-day [[Sadiya]];<ref>"Furthermore, it is fairly certain from the dates available in the inscriptions that Nandin and Satyanārāyaṇa ruled Sadhayāpurī in the latter half of the fourteenth century, while Lakṣmīnārāyaṇa belonged to the beginning, and Dharmanārāyaṇa to the middle of the fifteenth century. It is also nearly clear that Sadhayāpurī (or Svadhayāpurī) mentioned in the inscriptions is the same as Sadhiyā or Sadiya of later times." {{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=52}}</ref> which is why the kingdom is also called ''Sadiya''. The [[Buranji]]s written in the [[Ahom language]] called the kingdom ''Tiora'' whereas those written in the [[Assamese language]] called it ''Chutia''.<ref name="chutia-tiora">"In the past, there was a kingdom in Upper Assam that the Ahom chronicles called Tiora and the Assamese chronicles called Chutiya." {{harvcol|Jaquesson|2017|p=100}}</ref>

Brahmanical influence in the form of [[Vaishnavism]] reached the Chutia polity in the eastern extremity of present-day Assam during the late fourteenth century.<ref>"These records suggest the penetration of Vaiṣṇava tradition in the eastern extremity of present Assam between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries"{{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=55}}</ref><ref>"They had definitely come under Brahminical influence during the late fourteenth and early fifteenth century, as is borne out by the evidence of their landgrants in favour of Brahmana beneficiaries"{{harvcol|Momin|2006|p=47}}</ref> Vaishnava Brahmins created lineages for the rulers with references to [[Krishna]] legends but placed them lower in the Brahminical social hierarchy because of their autochthonous origins.<ref>"Vaiṣṇava brahmins seemed to play an important role in the making of both the royal lineages defined as 'demonic'; and ... this demonic maternal ancestry was the way to accommodate the local ruling families in the Brahmanical social hierarchy, but only in a lower position." {{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=55}}</ref> Though ''asura'' lineage of the Chutia rulers have similarities with the [[Narakasura]] lineage created for the three [[Kamarupa]] dynasties, the precise historical connection is not clear.<ref>"Though it is not clear whether the asura lineage of Chutiya ruling family had a historical connection with this earlier tradition of Kāmarūpa, there are some common points between the two genealogical claims..." {{harvcol|Shin|2020|pp=54–55}}</ref> Although a majority of the Brahmin donees of the royal grants were Vaishnavas,<ref>"Most names of brahmin donees have Vaiṣṇava affiliation." {{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=55}}</ref> the rulers patronized the non-brahmanised ''Dikkaravasini''<ref>" The Pãyã-Tãmresvari (Dikkaravãsiní) temple inscription announces that King Dharmanãrãyana raised in 1364 Šaka a wall (prãkãra) around the temple of Dikkaravãsiní, popularly known as Tãmresvari." {{harvcol|Neog|1977|p=817}}</ref> (also ''[[Tamreswari Temple|Tamresvari]]'' or ''Kechai-khati''), which was either a powerful tribal deity, or a form of the Buddhist deity [[Tara (Buddhism)|Tara]] adopted for tribal worship.<ref>{{harvcol|Gogoi|2011|pp=235–236}}</ref> This deity, noticed in the 10th century [[Kalika Purana]] well before the establishment of the Chutia kingdom, continued to be presided by a [[Deori people|Deori]] priesthood well into the Ahom rule and outside Brahminical influence.<ref>'According to E.A. Gait, "The religion of the Chutiyas was a curious one. They worshipped various forms of Kali with the aid not of the Brahmanas but of their own tribal priests or Deoris. The favorite form in which they worshipped this deity was that of Kesai-khati 'the eater of raw flesh' to whom human sacrifices were offered. After their subjugation by the Ahoms, the Deoris were permitted to continue their ghastly rites; but they were usually given for this purpose, criminals who have been sentenced to capital punishment..."' {{harvcol|Gogoi|2011|p=236}}</ref>

===Spurious accounts===
Although there are many manuscript accounts of the origin and lineage, these do not agree with each other and are legendary in nature, and therefore have no historical moorings.<ref>"There are various accounts and succession lists of the rulers of the Chutiyãs (I do not call them Chutiyã kings precisely because in these accounts they are not described as Chutiyãs except the last one of them) with dates also assigned to their reign, but these accounts are too much at variance with one another to deserve serious consideration as being of proper historical value." {{harvcol|Neog|1977|p=814}}</ref><ref>"The legends relating to the origin of the Chutiyas is full of absurdities without any historical moorings." {{harvcol|Buragohain|2013|p=120}}</ref> One such source is ''Chutiyar Rajar Vamsavali,'' first published in ''[[Orunodoi]]'' in 1850 and reprinted in ''Deodhai Asam Buranji''.<ref name="harvcol|Nath|2013|p=27">{{harvcol|Nath|2013|p=27}}</ref> Historians consider this document to have been composed in the early 19th century—to legitimize the ''[[Matak rajya]]'' around 1805—or after the end of Ahom rule in 1826.<ref>"[T]his so-called ancient chronicle might have been a later work of some members of the Chutiya aristocracy, as is possibly an attempt to legitimize the claims of the Chutiyas over a part of Assam during the establishment of the Matak kingdom at the beginning of the 19th century (1805) or after the Ahom power was abolished." {{harvcol|Nath|2013|p=27}}</ref> This document relates the legend of Birpal. Yet another Assamese document, retrieved by [[Ney Elias]] from Burmese sources, relates an alternative legend of Asambhinna.<ref>{{harvcol|Nath|2013|pp=29–30}}</ref> These different legends suggest that the genealogical claims of the Chutias have changed over time and that these are efforts to construct (and reconstruct) the past.<ref>"What can be said for sure is that the genealogical claims of the Chutiyas changed in the course of time, and the related legend reflects a difference in the way the Chutiyas construct (or reconstruct) their past." {{harvcol|Shin|2020|pp=58–59}}</ref>

==Rulers==
Only a few recently compiled [[Buranji]]s provide the history of the Chutia kingdom;<ref>"Only a few chronicles of comparatively recent date, including the ''Deodhai Asam Buranji'', ''Ahom Buranji'', ''Satsari Asam Buranji'', ''Purani Asam Buranji'' and the ''Asam Buranji'' obtained from the family of Sukumar Mahanta, preserve only a small part of their history." {{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=52}}</ref> though some sections of these compilations are old, the sections that contain the list of Chutiya rulers cannot be traced to earlier than 19th century<ref>"The following list of rulers of the Chutiyãs is given in one of the two short chronicles of them incorporated by Dr. S. K. Bhuyan in his Deodhäi Asam Burañji from an old manuscript published by William Robinson in the Baptist journal, Orunodoi, December 1850. It very nearly corroborates a similar list in the vamsävali obtained by Kellner from Amrtanãrãyana of a Chutiyã princely family. Even Kellner considered this chronology apocryphal (Brown, op. cit., p. 83 ). It is not yet known for certain when at all such lists were prepared, but at the moment it is not possible to ascribe them to a date earlier than the 19th century. The dates given in the lists do not thus have historical moorings." {{harvcol|Neog|1977|pp=817–818}}</ref> and scholars have shown great disdain for these accounts and legends.<ref>" It is not known for sure when the story of Birpal was made nor when the list of kings was prepared; but at the moment, it is not possible for a scholar like Neog to ascribe them a date earlier than the nineteenth century. Scholars, therefore, questioned the accuracy of the historical information in these accounts and showed great disdain for the related legends.{{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=52}}</ref>

{{harvp|Neog|1977}} compiled a list of rulers from epigraphic records based crucially on identifying the donor-ruler named Dharmanarayan, mentioned as the son of Satyanarayana in the Bormurtiya grant<ref>{{harvcol|Neog|1977|p=816}}</ref> with the Dharmanarayan, the father of the donor-ruler Durlabhnarayana of the Chepakhowa grant.<ref>"An attempt might perhaps be made to correlate all these finds into the reconstruction of a line of kings ruling in this region. If we consider Dharmanãrãyana of the epigraphs [Bormurtiya], [Chepakhowa] and [Paya-Tamreshvari] as the same..." {{harvcol|Neog|1977|p=817}}</ref> This effectively results in identifying Satyanarayana with Ratnanarayana.<ref>"We seek to identify Satyanãrãyana of Sadhayãpuri of Dhenukhanã, Ghilãmarã, and Barmurtiyã-bil plates with Ratnanãrãyana of Kamatãpura of the Sadiyã-Chepã-khowã plate, as Dharmanãrãyana is described as Satyanäräyana's son in the Barmurtiyã-bil plate and as Ratnanârâyana's son in the Sadiyã-Chepãkhowâ plate, and, as already pointed out, more than one name seems to have been assumed by the kings of this region. {{harvcol|Neog|1977|p=818}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable"
|+ '''List of Rulers'''
<ref>{{harvcol|Neog|1977|p=817}}</ref>
|-
! Name
! Other names
! Reign Period
! Reign in Progress
|----
| Nandi
| Nandisara or Nandisvara
| late 14th century<ref name="neog-dates-12">"It is, however, fairly certain from the dates available in the epigraphs that King Nandisvara and Satyanarayana ruled in Sadhayapuri in the last half of the 14th century A.D." {{harvcol|Neog|1977|p=820}}</ref>
|
|----
| Satyanarayana
| Ratnanarayana
| late 14th century<ref name="neog-dates-12"/>
| 1392<ref>"Dhenukhanã copperplate grant of King Satyanãrãyana, son of Nandi, Nandisara or Nandivara, of Sadhayâpurï or Svadhayãpuri, dated 1392." {{harvcol|Neog|1977|p=813}}</ref>
|----
| Lakshminarayana
| Dharmanarayana
| early 15th century
| 1392;<ref>"Barmurtiyã-bil copperplate inscription of King Dharmanãrãyana, son of Satyanãrãyana, dated 1392" {{harvcol|Neog|1977|p=813}}</ref> 1401;<ref>"Ghilãmarã copperplate grant of King Laksmlnãrãyana, son of Satyanãrãyana, dated 1401." {{harvcol|Neog|1977|p=813}}</ref>
|----
| Durlabhnarayana
|
| early 15th century
| 1428<ref>"The Sadiyã-Chepãkhowã copperplate grant of King (Durlabha-)nãrãyana, son of Dharmanãrãyana and grandson of Ratnanãrãyana originally of Kamatãpura, dated 1350 Šaka/1428 AD." {{harvcol|Neog|1977|p=813}}</ref>
|----
| Muktadharmanarayana<ref>"Dr. D. C. Sircar seeks to read the name of the king as 'Muktãdharmanãrãyana' which may really have been 'yuvã-Dharmanãrãyana' contrasting well with the reference to the bṛddharãja' in the first line of the inscription." {{harvcol|Neog|1977|p=813}}</ref>
|
| mid 15th century
| 1442<ref>"Pãyã-Tãmresvari (Dikkaravãsini) temple wall inscription of King Dharmanãrãyana, son-regent of Brddharãja (Old King), dated 1364 Šaka/1442 AD" {{harvcol|Neog|1977|p=813}}</ref>
|----
| Pratyaksanarayana<ref name="neog-dh-post">"In the Dhenukhanã plate two later kings seem to have added postscripts to the original inscription of 1314 Šaka. They are Pratyaksanãrãyana and Yasanãrãyana or Yamanãrãyana. No dates are associated with them." {{harvcol|Neog|1977|p=819}}</ref>
|
|
|
|----
| Yasanarayana<ref name="neog-dh-post"/>
|
|
|
|}

A late discovery of an inscription, published in a 2002 ''souvenir'' of the ''All Assam Chutiya Sanmilan''<ref>{{harvcol|Nath|2013|p=43ff}}</ref> seems to genealogically connect the last historically known king, Dhirnarayan with Neog's list above.
{|class="wikitable"
|+ '''List of Additional Rulers'''
|-
! Name
! Other names
! Reign Period
! Reign in progress
|----
| Yasamanarayana<ref>
{{harvcol|Baruah|2007|pp=124}} "The plate discovered in 2001 identifies Yamkadnarayana or Yasamanarayana as the grandfather(pitamah) of Dhirnarayana. It is possible that this king was the same as Yasanarayana or Yamanarayana of the Dhenukhana plate."</ref>
|
|
|
|----
| Purandarnarayana
|
| late 15th century
|
|----
| Dhirnarayana
|
| early 16th century
| 1522<ref>
{{harvcol|Baruah|2007|pp=590–591}}</ref>
|}

[[File:1522 Copper plate of land grant made by Dhirnarayan.jpg|thumb|This is the copper plate inscription for the 1522 land grant made by Dhirnarayan in Dhakuakhana. It contains the names of three kings: Yasamanarayana, Purandarnarayana and Dhirnarayana]]

Though it is accepted that the rule of the Chutia rulers ended in 1523-24,<ref>"The most developed of the tribes in the 15th century were the Chutiyas. Their kingdom was annexed and absorbed by the Tai-Ahoms by 1523." {{harvcol|Guha|1983|p=5}}</ref> different sources give different accounts.<ref>"Regarding the fate of the Chutia prince Sadhaknarayan and the identity of the Chutia king killed by the Ahoms in 1523-24, opinions differ." {{harvcol|Baruah|1986|p=229ff}}</ref> The extant ''Ahom Buranji'' and the ''Deodhai Asam Buranji'' mention that in the final battles and the aftermath both the king and his son;<ref name="nonitipal">"The ''Ahom Buranji'' and the ''Deodhai Assam Buranji'' do not mention the name of Nitipal alias Chandranarayan. These sources ascribe the event to the reign of Dhirnarayan and state that in the final clash both the Chutia king and the prince were killed." {{harvcol|Baruah|1986|p=229f}}</ref> whereas ''Ahom Buranji-Harakanta Barua'' mentions that the remnant of the royal family was deported to Pakariguri, Darrang.<ref>"Suhunmung then deported the Chutiya nobles and the prince Sadhaknarayan to his kingdom and established the later at Darrang with grants of land and labourers."{{harvcol|Gogoi|2002|p=21}}</ref><ref>"The descendants of the Chutia royals are still living in a place called Geruwapara in Rowta Mouza of Darrang district."{{harvcol|Baruah|2007|p=139}}</ref>

==Domain==
[[File:Ruins of Bishmak Nagar in Arunachal Pradesh.jpg|thumb|right|Ruins of the Chutia kingdom near [[Dibang Valley]] of Arunachal Pradesh]]
The extent of the power of the kings of the Chutia kingdom is not known in detail.<ref>"(T)he geographical extent of these rulers' power is not yet known in detail..." {{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=52}}</ref> Nevertheless, it is estimated by most modern scholarship that Chutias held the areas on the north bank of [[Brahmaputra]] from [[Parshuram Kund]] (present-day Arunachal Pradesh) in the east and included the present districts of Lakhimpur, Dhemaji, Tinsukia and parts of [[Dibrugarh district|Dibrugarh]] (till the [[Dihing River|Burhi Dihing]]<ref>"..the Chutiya kingdom was bound by the Himalayas on the north,river Burhi Dihing on the south, Patkai ranges on the east and Bharali river in the west"{{harvcol|Dutta|1985|pp=28}}</ref><ref>"About 250 years ago the Dihing (present Burhi-Dihing) flowed westerly through Sivsagar district to meet the Brahmaputra at the extreme western point of Majuli island (Sarma and Goswami, 2007). Over the centuries, the river Dihing has changed its courses many times...We find the earliest historical records of the valley after the coming of the Ahoms as the Buranjis or the Ahom chronicles mention about the conflict between the Ahoms and the Chutiyas on the bank of the river Dihing. The Satsari Asom Buranji refers to the Ahom-Chutiya conflict over the matter of fishing rights in the river Dihing which ultimately led to the annexation of the entire Chutiya territory upto Sadiya by the Ahoms during the reign of Suhungmung (p.56). However, it was only in the second decade of the sixteenth century, the area was brought under the control of the Ahoms and before that the whole territory of present-day Dibrugarh was under the Chutiyas."{{harvcol|Bhuyan|2023|pp=532}}</ref>) in Assam<ref name="gogoi-main"/><ref>Acharya.N.N., The History of Medieval Assam, 1966, p.232</ref>. Between 1228 and 1253 when [[Sukaphaa]], the founder of the [[Ahom kingdom]], was searching for a place to settle in Upper Assam, he and his followers did not encounter any resistance from the Chutia state,<ref>"The Assamese chronicles while recording the route of Sukapha across the Patkai hills till he reached Charaideo in the southeastern corner of the present Sibsagar district through the courses of the rivers Dihing, Brahmaputra and Dikhow do not mention a Chutiya state that offered any kind of resistance to the advancing forces of Sukapha." {{harvcol|Nath|2013|p=26}}</ref> implying that the Chutia state must have been of little significance till at least the mid 14th century,<ref>"This shows that if there was any Chutiya state it was of little significance till at least mid 14th century." {{harvcol|Nath|2013|p=26}}</ref> when the Ahom chronicles mention them for the first time. However, it is also known that the Ahoms themselves were a people with a precariously small territory and population, which may indicate this absence of serious interaction with the old settled people of the neighborhood until the 14th century.<ref>"the word 'khā' of Tai-Ahom language, which is usually prefixed to names of non-Ahom people practicing shifting cultivation, does not appear for the Chutiyas, probably because they were neither stateless nor were they solely shifting cultivators in the early phase of Ahom rule. There seems no serious interaction between the Ahoms and old settled people of the neighborhood including the Chutiyas until the fourteenth century as both the Ahom territory and its population remained precariously small."{{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=52}}</ref> Some authors opine that the Chutia state might have extended up to Viswanath in the present [[Darrang district]] of Assam,<ref name="harvcol|Nath|2013|p=27"/><ref>"Though the geographical extent of these rulers' power is not yet known in detail, according to Neog, the present-day North Lakhimpur district of Assam, which covers the find sites of most inscriptions, perhaps formed a part of their political dominion. If architectural continuity is admitted between the fortifications in the Sadiya region and the Burai river ruin site, it would be possible to believe that the kingdom of these rulers extended as far as the outer limit of Darrang district, to the westernmost extent of which Ahom conquerors settled the vanquished Chutiyas in the early part of the sixteenth century." {{harvcol|Shin|2020|pp=52–53}}</ref><ref>"N.N Acharyya are of the opinion that the Chutiya kingdom extended up to Viswanath in the present Darrang district of Assam."{{harvcol|Datta|1985|p=28}}</ref> though the main control was confined to the river valleys of [[Subansiri river|Subansiri]], [[Brahmaputra]], [[Lohit district|Lohit]] and [[Dihing river|Dihing]] and hardly extended to the hills even at its zenith.<ref>"In the main, however, their territory was confined to the river valleys of the Suvansiri, Brahmaputra, Lohit, and the Dihing and hardly extended to the hills at its zenith." {{harvcol|Nath|2013|p=27}}</ref>

==Early contacts and downfall==
===With Ahoms (14th century)===
The earliest mention of a Chutia king is found in the [[Buranji]]s that describe a friendly contact during the reign of [[Sutuphaa]] (1369–1379),<ref>"The first confrontation between the Ahoms and the Chutiyas as a political power is mentioned in some chronicles such as the ''Deodhai Asam Buranji'' only during the reign of Ahom king Sutupha (1369–76), about a hundred years after the death of Sukapha." {{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=51}}</ref> in which the Ahom king was killed. The ''Satsari Buranji'' states that the Ahoms maintained cordial relations with the Chutia kingdom from the time of Sukapha’s sons until Sutuphaa’s death.<ref>Bhuyan, S.K, ''Satsari Assam Buranji'',p.9, "Previously, since the time of one of Sukapha’s sons, there was alliance and coordial relations with the Chutia king"</ref> To avenge the death the next Ahom ruler [[Tyao Khamti|Tyaokhamti]] (1380–1387) led an expedition against the Chutiya kingdom but returned with no success.{{sfn|Dutta|1985|p=29}}

===Chutia-Ahom conflicts (1512–1523)===
[[Suhungmung]], the Ahom king, followed an expansionist policy and annexed Panbari of Habung<ref>"... Panbari in the Habung country on the north bank of the Brahmaputra."{{harvcol|Barpujari|1990|p=55}}</ref> in 1512, which, according to Amalendu Guha, was a Chutia dependency.<ref>"He annexed Habung in 1512, a Chutiya dependency until then. Thereafter the whole of the Hinduized Chutiya Kingdom and parts of the present Nowgong district then ruled severally by baro-bhuyans and the Dimasa king,.."{{harvcol|Guha|1983|p=27}}</ref> In 1513 a border conflict triggered the Chutia king Dhirnarayan to advance to Dikhowmukh and build a stockade of banana trees (''Posola-garh'').{{sfn|Baruah|1986|p=227}}<ref name="phukan55">{{harvcol|Phukan|1992|p=55}}</ref> This fort was attacked by a force led by the Ahom king himself leading to a rout of the Chutia soldiers. This was followed by the Ahoms erecting a fort at Mungkhrang (located at the mouth of the [[Dihing river]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Journal of the University of Gauhati|volume=7–8|publisher=Gauhati University|location=Gauhati|year=1956
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MzEUAQAAMAAJ
|page=48|quote="The Chutiyas did not attempt any reprisal till 1520 AD, when they attacked the Ahom fort at Mungkhrang at the mouth of the Dihing river and came out victorious."
}}</ref>), which fell within the Chutia territory.<ref name="phukan55"/>

In 1520 the Chutias attacked the Ahom fort Mungkhrang twice and in the second killed the commander and occupied it. Towards the end of 1522<ref>{{cite book|title=Journal of the University of Gauhati|volume=7–8|publisher=Gauhati University|location=Gauhati|year=1956
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MzEUAQAAMAAJ
|page=48|quote="It was the expedition of 1522 A.D sent by Ahoms under Phrasenmung Borgohain towards the end of the year(month of Kartik i.e. Nov-Dec).."}}</ref>, the Ahoms, led by Phrasengmung Borgohain and King-lung Buragohain attacked it by land and water, recovered it and erected an offensive fort on the banks of the Dibru River. In 1523 the Chutia king attacked the fort at Dibru but was routed. The Ahom king hotly pursued the retreating Chutia king who sued for peace. The peace overtures failed and the king finally fell to Ahom forces, bringing an end to the Chutia kingdom.{{sfn|Baruah|1986|pp=228–229}}<ref>{{harvcol|Phukan|1992|p=56}}</ref> Though some late spurious manuscripts mention the fallen king as Nitipal (or Chandranarayan) the extant records from the Buranjis such as the ''Ahom Buranji'' and the ''Deodhai Ahom Buranji'' do not mention him; rather they mention that the king and his son were killed.<ref>"...the ''Ahom Buranji'' and the (''Deodhai Asam Buranji'') do not mention the name of Nitipal alias Chandranarayan. These sources ascribe the event to the reign of Dhirnarayan and state that in the final clash both the Chutiya king (Dhirnarayan) and the prince (Sadhaknarayan) were killed." {{harvcol|Baruah|1986|p=229f}}</ref>

==Legacy==
The Ahom kingdom took complete possession of the royal insignia and other assets of the erstwhile kingdom.<ref>"Besides, the items of Chutiya aristocracy like the Danda-Chhatra (royal umbrella), Arwan, Kekura-dola (Palaquin), embroidered-japi etc. were adopted by the Ahoms. The Chutiya kingdom had also several salt-springs at places like [[Borhat]], which came under the Ahoms after its annexation"{{harvcol|Dutta|1985|p=30}}</ref>{{sfn|Baruah|1986|p=230}} The rest of the royal family was dispersed, the nobles were disbanded and the territory was placed under the newly created office of the ''Sadiakhowa Gohain''.{{sfn|Baruah|1986|p=229}} Besides the material assets and territories, the Ahoms also took possession of the people according to their professions. Many of Brahmans, Kayasthas, Kalitas, and Daivajnas (the caste Hindus), as well as the artisans such as bell-metal workers, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, and others, were moved to the Ahom capital and this movement greatly increased the admixture of the Chutia and Ahom populations.{{sfn|Baruah|1986|p=230}} A sizeable section of the population was also displaced from their former lands and dispersed in other parts of Upper Assam.<ref>"(T)he outer limit of Darrang district, in the westernmost extent of which Ahom conquerors settled the vanquished Chutiyas in the early part of the sixteenth century."{{harvcol|Shin|2020|p=53}}</ref><ref>{{harvcol|Sarma|1993|p=287}} Dewanar Atla: "Suhungmung or Swarganarayan, after defeating Dhirnarayana and his minister Kasitora, received a number of ''Dola'', ''Kali''..''Hiloi'' and gunpowder(''Kalai-khar''). Besides these, he also made a number of blacksmiths (''Komar'') prisoners and settled them either at Bosa (in present-day Jorhat district) or Ujjoni regions...It was only during the time of Suhungmung that the guild of blacksmiths and its trade started in Assam (Ahom kingdom). There were three thousand blacksmiths during this period."</ref>

After annexing the Chutia kingdom, offices of the Ahom kingdom, ''Thao-mung Mung-teu''(Bhatialia Gohain) with headquarters at Habung ([[Lakhimpur district|Lakhimpur]]), ''Thao-mung Ban-lung''(Banlungia Gohain) at Banlung ([[Dhemaji district|Dhemaji]]), ''Thao-mung Mung-klang''(Dihingia gohain) at Dihing ([[Dibrugarh district|Dibrugarh]], [[Majuli]] and northern [[Sibsagar district|Sibsagar]]), ''Chaolung Shulung'' at Tiphao (northern [[Dibrugarh district|Dibrugarh]]) were created to administer the newly acquired regions.<ref>{{harvcol|Gait|1963|p=8}} In 1525, Suhungmung proceeded in person to the Dihing country and appointed officers to administer the frontier provinces of Habung, Dihing, and Banlung.</ref>{{better source needed|date=April 2021}}. In 1527, a new ministerial position named Borpatrogohain was created (borrowed from the Chutia ''Vrihat-patra''),<ref>{{harvcol|Guha|1983|p=20}}</ref> and Klangseng(previously posted as Bhatialia Gohain) was given charge.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.450867/page/n66/mode/1up Thao-mung mungteu(Bhatialia Gohain) was made Chao-sheng-lung in Lakni Rungrao 1527.(p.61.)]</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.450867/page/n69/mode/1up Klangseng is mentioned as Chao-sheng-lung in Lakni Dapplao 1531.(p.64)]</ref>

===Firearms===

The first specific mentions of extensive use of firearms in Ahom Buranjis are from the reign of [[Suhungmung]];<ref>"Although no precise date about its introduction can be established, yet it is generally believed that extensive use of explosives began from the time of Ahom king Suhungmung alias Swarganarayan Dihingia Raja (reign 1497-1539 CE)." {{harvcol|Hazarika|Sharma|2016|p=88}}</ref> leading to some authors to suggest that the Ahoms acquired the art of using cannons from the Chutias, after the defeat of the Chutias by king Suhungmung.<ref>"Barbarua points out that the Ahoms acquired the art of using cannons from the Chutias after the defeat of the Chutias by king Suhungmung who had acquired a canon called the ‘mithaholong top’ from the Chutias and introduced it in Ahom territories.” {{harvcol|Hazarika|Sharma|2016|p=89}}</ref> Others have suggested that whereas other powers in Assam and [[Northeast India]] acquired gunpowder technology from Burma or China, the Chutias may have acquired gunpowder technology from mainland India<ref name="ReferenceD">”Buranjis are also silent about the technology used. It can however be presumed that the Chutias, who were amongst the first to have trade ties with the imperial dominions i.e. the Indian Mainland, had the know-how and the materials required for its manufacture." {{harvcol|Hazarika|Sharma|2016|p=90}}</ref> or Tibet as well,<ref>”Northeastern India, primarily Assam, may also have received gunpowder technology from China via Burma. Some Ahom (Assamese) chronicles (''buranji'') suggest that firearms were employed before this time. In 1505 or 1523, after having subdued the Chutiya, who dwelled in the region between Tibet and Assam, the Ahoms acquired firearms from them. The Chutiya may have received gunpowder technology from Tibet as well."{{harvcol|Laichen|2003|p=504}}</ref> though the Tibetans are known to have used matchlocks only from the beginning of the seventeenth century, a century after the end of the Chutia kingdom.<ref>"At present, as it is shown in Tashi Tsering Josayma’s contribution to this volume, the earliest documented references to firearms in Tibet may be ascribed to the first half of the seventeenth century, with 1618-19 being the earliest date confirmed through historical sources." {{harvcol|Travers|2021|p=735}}</ref> Some author speculate that the Ahom kingdom, who trace their roots to Tai people of [[Southeast Asia]],<ref>"However it is worth noting that the Tai people of Southeast Asia to whom the Ahoms trace their roots were known to use matchlocks since early times." {{harvcol|Hazarika|Sharma|2016|p=91}}</ref> may have received Chinese gunpowder technology from that region;<ref>"Chinese gunpowder technology spread to Southeast Asia by the late 14th and early 15th centuries which had noteworthy impact on the warfare and territorial expansion in northern mainland South-east Asia. In this context, the advent of the Tai-Ahoms through the northern mainland South-east Asia to the upper Brahmaputra valley during the early part of 13th century may be scrutinised who may have brought with them the knowledge of gunpowder technology to this part of India." {{harvcol|Hazarika|Sharma|2016|pp=87–88}}</ref> and that it already had that technology before their confrontation with the Chutia royal house.<ref>"There seems to be no doubt that both the Ahoma and the Chutiyas knew about the use of fire arms. But probably because of tactical and circumstantial disadvantages, it was not used by the Ahoma prior to 1534." {{harvcol|Buragohain|1988|p=62f}}</ref> Besides Ahoms, Kacharis are also known to have possessed firearms at that time. There are occasional mentions of the Ahom state receiving firearms from the Kacharis at later periods.<ref>"The Ahom Buranji mentions that the Kachari king was directed to surrender all the silver daggers and large cannons”{{harvcol|Hazarika|Sharma|2016|p=88}}</ref>

Nevertheless, it can be presumed that the Chutia's had the know-how and the materials required for its manufacture.<ref name="ReferenceD"/> When the Ahoms annexed Sadiya, they recovered hand-cannons called ''Hiloi''<ref>Hiteswar Borborua in his book ''Ahomor Din''mentions the firearms procured from Sadiya as ''Barud''</ref> as well as large cannons called ''Bor-top'', ''Mithahulang'' being one of them.<ref>"(M)entions the capture of large quantity of fire arms from the Chutiyas. Hiteswar Barbarua• Ahomar Din, publication Board;Assam Guwahati 1981.p.450, mentions the capture of the best Chutiya cannon (Mitha Hulung Tup) after defeating them in
1523."{{harvcol|Buragohain|1988|p=62}}</ref><ref>Sharma, Benudhar.''Maniram Dewan, p.289.''</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.451863|title=Ahomar Din Ed. 2nd|first=Hiteswar|last=Borboruah|date=23 June 1997|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> As per Maniram Dewan, the Ahom king Suhungmung received around three thousand blacksmiths after defeating the Chutias. These people were settled in the Bosa (Doyang) and Ujoni regions and asked to build iron implements like knives, daggers, swords as well as guns and cannons.<ref>Sharma, Benudhar.''Maniram Dewan, p.287. "After defeating the Chutia king and his minister Kasitora, Suhungmung or Dihingia Swarganarayan, apart from Dola, Kali,..., Cannons and Gunpowder, brought a great number of Blacksmiths as prisoners. These were settled at Bosha and the Ujoni regions; and smithies were set up where they were asked to build knives, daggers, swords, guns, and cannons. Saikias and Hazarikas were recruited among them to look after their work. It was only during this period that the work and trade of the blacksmith guild started in the kingdom. During the time of Dihingia raja, there were three thousand Blacksmiths."''</ref> Most of the ''Hiloi-Khanikars'' (gunmakers) in the Ahom khels belonged to the Chutia community.<ref>"The Chutiyas were engaged in all kinds of technical jobs of the Ahom kingdom. For example, the Khanikar Khel (guild of engineers) was always manned by the Chutiyas. The Jaapi-Hajiya Khel (guild for making Jaapis) was also monopolised by them. The Chutiyas being expert warrior knew the use of matchlocks. After their subjugation, the Chutiyas were, therefore engaged in manufacturing matchlocks and they became prominent in the ''Hiloidhari-Khel'' (guild for manufacturing matchlocks)"{{harvcol|Dutta|1985|p=30}}</ref> There also existed a class of gunmen in the Ahom army called ''Sutiya-Hiloidari''.<ref>[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=YvV-VI_2YRkC&pg=PR67&dq=sutiyahilaidari&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiiqITCufiRAxXdwTgGHeU5KJcQ6AF6BAgJEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false Census of India 1891, p. 17]</ref>

==See also==
*[[Chutia people]]
*[[History of Assam]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

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* {{Citation |last=Phukan |first=J. N. |contribution=Chapter III The Tai-Ahom Power in Assam |editor-last=Barpujari |editor-first=H. K. |title=The Comprehensive History of Assam |volume=II |pages=49–60 |publisher=Assam Publication Board |place=Guwahati |year=1992}}
* {{cite book|last1=Saikia|first1=Yasmin|title=Fragmented Memories: Struggling to be Tai-Ahom in India|date=2004|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=082238616X|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfSmsuO6QugC|language=en|access-date=4 May 2020|archive-date=1 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230337/https://books.google.com/books?id=WfSmsuO6QugC|url-status=live}}
* {{Citation |last=Sarma |first=Benudhar |title=Maniram Dewan |publisher=Manuh Prakashan |place=Guwahati |year=1993}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Shin|first1=Jae-Eun|year=2020|title=Descending from demons, ascending to kshatriyas: Genealogical claims and political process in pre-modern Northeast India, The Chutiyas and the Dimasas|journal=The Indian Economic and Social History Review|volume=57|issue=1|pages=49–75|doi=10.1177/0019464619894134|s2cid=213213265}}
{{refend}}

{{Assam}}

[[Category:Kingdoms of Assam]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1187]]
[[Category:15th-century disestablishments in India]]

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