Dravidian peoples

2026-02-23T19:49:26Z

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{{Short description|South Asian ethnolinguistic group}}
{{Other uses|Dravidian (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| caption = Distribution of the Dravidian languages
| group = Dravidian people
| image = Dravidian map.svg
| pop = approx. '''250 million'''
| languages = [[Dravidian languages]]
| religions = Predominantly [[Hinduism]], [[Dravidian folk religion]] and others: [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Islam]], [[Christianity]], [[Judaism]]
| related =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
}}
{{Dravidian}}
[[File:Kalaripayattu mock combat in rural Kerala.jpg|thumb|Dravidian men performing the [[Kerala]] Dravidian native martial art, [[Kalaripayattu]].]]
The '''Dravidian peoples''', '''Dravidian-speakers''' or '''Dravidians''', are a collection of [[ethnolinguistic group]]s native to [[South Asia]] who speak [[Dravidian languages]]. There are around 250 million native speakers of Dravidian languages.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Dravidian languages |publisher=Routledge |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-315-72258-0 |editor-last=Steever |editor-first=S.B. |edition=2nd |page=1|doi=10.4324/9781315722580 |s2cid=261720917 }}</ref> The two largest Dravidian groups are the [[Telugus]] (c. 90M) and [[Tamilians|Tamils]] (c. 90M). The next three largest are the [[Kannadigas]] (c. 44M), [[Malayalis]] (c. 40M), and [[Gondi people|Gondis]] (c. 13M). India's [[22 scheduled languages]] include these four Dravidian languages: [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Kannada]], and [[Malayalam]].<ref name="SwanSmith2001">{{cite book |last1=Swan |first1=Michael |author-link1=Michael Swan (writer) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6UIuWj9fQfQC&pg=PA227 |title=Learner English: A Teacher's Guide to Interference and Other Problems |last2=Smith |first2=Bernard |author-link2=Bernard Smith (art historian) |date=26 April 2001 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-77939-5 |page=227 |access-date=18 October 2016}}</ref> Dravidian speakers form the majority of the population of [[South India]] and are native to [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]],<ref name="LouisSteever2015">{{cite book |last1=Louis |first1=Rosenblatt |author-link1=Rosenblatt Louis |last2=Steever |first2=Sanford B. |title=The Dravidian Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n2DxBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA388 |access-date=18 October 2016 |date=15 April 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-91164-4 |page=388}}</ref> [[Bangladesh]],<ref name= karim>{{cite journal|author= Razaul Karim Faquire|title= Language situation in Bangladesh|journal= The Dhaka University Studies|url= https://www.academia.edu/3788700|volume= 67|issue= 2|page= 7|year= 2010|issn= 1562-7195|oclc= 11674036}}</ref> [[the Maldives]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Project |first=Joshua |title=Oraon, Kurux in Bhutan |url=https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/14210/BT |access-date=2025-07-21 |website=joshuaproject.net |language=en}}</ref> and [[Sri Lanka]]. Dravidian peoples are also present in [[Singapore]], [[Mauritius]], [[Malaysia]], [[France]], [[South Africa]], [[Myanmar]], [[East Africa]], the [[Caribbean]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]] through [[South Indian diaspora|migration]].

[[Proto-Dravidian language|Proto-Dravidian]] may have been spoken in the Indus civilization, suggesting a "tentative date of Proto-Dravidian around the early part of the third millennium BCE",{{sfn|Krishnamurti|2003|p=501}} after which it branched into various Dravidian languages.<ref name="books.google.com">[https://books.google.com/books?id=chvjAAAAMAAJ&q=the+proto-+Dravidian+linguistic+community+disintegrated+at+the+beginning+of+the+4th+millennium+B.+C History and Archaeology, Volume 1, Issues 1–2] p.234, Department of Ancient History, Culture, and Archaeology, University of Allahabad</ref> South Dravidian I (including pre-[[Tamil language|Tamil]]) and South Dravidian II (including pre-[[Telugu language|Telugu]]) split around the eleventh century BCE, with the other major branches splitting off at around the same time.{{sfn|Krishnamurti|2003|p=501–502}}

The origins of the Dravidians are a "very complex subject of research and debate".<ref name="Tudu2008_p.4002">{{harvnb|Tudu|2008|p=400}}</ref> They are regarded as indigenous to the [[Indian subcontinent]],<ref name="Avari_p132">{{cite book |last=Avari |first=Burjor |url=https://archive.org/details/indiaancientpast1200avar |title=Ancient India: A History of the Indian Sub-Continent from C. 7000 BC to AD 1200 |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-134-25162-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/indiaancientpast1200avar/page/n41 13] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="Masica_p392">{{cite book |last=Masica |first=Colin P. |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-521-29944-2 |page=39}}</ref><ref name="Kopstein_p3452">{{cite book |last1=Kopstein |first1=Jeffrey |url=https://archive.org/details/comparativepolit00kops_125 |title=Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, and Institutions in a Changing Global Order |last2=Lichbach |first2=Mark Irving |publisher=Cambridge University |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-521-84316-4 |edition=2nd |page=[https://archive.org/details/comparativepolit00kops_125/page/n365 345] |url-access=limited |orig-date=First published 2000}}</ref> but may have deeper pre-Neolithic roots from [[Western Asia]], specifically from the [[Iranian plateau]].{{sfn|Cavalli-Sforza|Menozzi|Piazza|1994|pp=221-222}}<ref name="kumar20042">{{cite book |last=Kumar |first=Dhavendra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bpl0LXKj13QC&pg=PA6 |title=Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent |publisher=Springer |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-4020-1215-0 |page=6 |quote=... The analysis of two Y chromosome variants, Hgr9 and Hgr3 provides interesting data (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). Microsatellite variation of Hgr9 among Iranians, Pakistanis and Indians indicate an expansion of populations to around 9000 YBP in Iran and then to 6,000 YBP in India. This migration originated in what was historically termed Elam in south-west Iran to the Indus valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian languages from south-west Iran (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). ... |access-date=25 November 2008}}</ref>{{sfn|Kivisild|1999|p=1333}}{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=17}}{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=54 note 15}} Their origins are often viewed as being connected with the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]],<ref name="Tudu2008_p.4002">{{harvnb|Tudu|2008|p=400}}</ref>{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=54 note 15}}{{sfn|Parpola|2015}} hence people and language spread east and southwards after the demise of the Indus Valley Civilisation in the early second millennium BCE,{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018|p=15}}<ref name="scientificamerican.com2">{{cite journal |last=Marris |first=Emma |date=3 March 2014 |title=200-Year Drought Doomed Indus Valley Civilization |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/200-year-drought-doomed-indus-valley-civilization/ |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/nature.2014.14800 |s2cid=131063035 |url-access=subscription |via=Scientific American}}</ref> some propose not long before the arrival of Indo-Aryan speakers,<ref name="The Dravidianization of India2">Razab Khan, [https://www.gnxp.com/WordPress/2018/01/18/t/ ''The Dravidianization of India'']</ref> with whom they intensively interacted.<ref name="britannicaOnline2">{{cite web |last=Krishnamurti |first=Bhadriraju |date=8 July 2015 |title=Dravidian languages |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dravidian-languages |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> Some scholars have argued that the Dravidian languages may have been brought to India by migrations from the Iranian plateau in the fourth or third millennium BCE<ref name="tls1963">{{Citation |author=Tamil Literature Society |title=Tamil Culture |date=1963 |volume=10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cNUgAAAAMAAJ |access-date=2008-11-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409105615/https://books.google.com/books?id=cNUgAAAAMAAJ |archive-date=9 April 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Academy of Tamil Culture |quote=... together with the evidence of archaeology would seem to suggest that the original Dravidian-speakers entered India from Iran in the fourth millennium BC ...}}</ref>{{sfn|Andronov|2003|p=299}} or even earlier.<ref name="mukherjee20012">{{Citation |author1=Namita Mukherjee |title=High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from central Asia and West Asia into India |date=December 2001 |journal=Journal of Genetics |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=125–35 |publisher=Springer India |doi=10.1007/BF02717908 |pmid=11988631 |s2cid=13267463 |quote=... More recently, about 15,000–10,000 years before present (ybp), when agriculture developed in the Fertile Crescent region that extends from Israel through northern Syria to western Iran, there was another eastward wave of human migration (Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994; Renfrew 1987), a part of which also appears to have entered India. This wave has been postulated to have brought the Dravidian languages into India (Renfrew 1987). Subsequently, the Indo-European (Aryan) language family was introduced into India about 4,000 ybp ... |author2=Almut Nebel |author3=Ariella Oppenheim |author4=Partha P. Majumder}}</ref><ref name="kumar20043" /> However, reconstructed proto-Dravidian vocabulary suggests that the family is indigenous to India.{{sfn|Krishnamurti|2003|p=15}}{{sfn|Avari|2007|p=13}}

Genetically, the ancient Indus Valley people were composed of a primarily Iranian hunter-gatherers (or farmers) ancestry, with varying degrees of ancestry from local hunter-gatherer groups. The modern-day Dravidian-speakers are primarily composed of Ancient South Indian hunter-gatherer ancestry and varying levels of Indus Valley Civilisation ancestry, but also carry a small portion of [[Western Steppe Herders|Western Steppe Herder]] ancestry and may also have additional contributions from local hunter-gatherer groups.{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009}}{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2019}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Narasimhan |first1=Vagheesh M. |last2=Patterson |first2=Nick |last3=Moorjani |first3=Priya |last4=Rohland |first4=Nadin |last5=Bernardos |first5=Rebecca |last6=Mallick |first6=Swapan |last7=Lazaridis |first7=Iosif |last8=Nakatsuka |first8=Nathan |last9=Olalde |first9=Iñigo |last10=Lipson |first10=Mark |last11=Kim |first11=Alexander M. |last12=Olivieri |first12=Luca M. |last13=Coppa |first13=Alfredo |last14=Vidale |first14=Massimo |last15=Mallory |first15=James |date=2019-09-06 |title=The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia |journal=Science |language=en |volume=365 |issue=6457 |article-number=eaat7487 |doi=10.1126/science.aat7487 |issn=0036-8075 |pmc=6822619 |pmid=31488661 |bibcode=2019Sci...365t7487N }}</ref>

The third century BCE onwards saw the development of many great empires in South India like [[Pandya]], [[Chola]], [[Chera]], [[Pallava]], [[Satavahana]], [[Chalukya]], [[Kakatiya]] and [[Rashtrakuta]]. Medieval South Indian guilds and trading organisations like the "Ayyavole of Karnataka and Manigramam" played an important role in the Southeast Asia trade,<ref name="World p.293">Angela Schottenhammer, ''The Emporium of the World: Maritime Quanzhou, 1000–1400'', p.293</ref> and the [[Greater India|cultural Indianisation]] of the region.

Dravidian visual art is dominated by [[Dravidian architecture|stylised temple architecture]] in major centres, and the production of images on stone and bronze sculptures. The sculpture dating from the [[Chola art|Chola period]] has become notable as a symbol of [[Hinduism]]. The [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple]] located in Indian state of [[Tamil Nadu]] is often considered as the largest functioning Hindu temple in the world. The temple is built in Dravidian style and occupies an area of 156 acres (631,000 m2).<ref>{{cite web| url =http://www.indiantemples.com/Tamilnadu/df001.html| title = Tiruvarangam Divya Desam}}</ref>

==Etymology==
{{Main|Dravidian languages#Etymology}}
The origin of the Sanskrit word ''{{IAST|drāviḍa}}'' is [[Tamil language|Tamil]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Shulman|first=David|title=Tamil|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]}}</ref> In [[Prakrit]], words such as "Damela", "Dameda", "Dhamila" and "Damila", which later evolved from "Tamila", could have been used to denote an ethnic identity.<ref name="KI157" /> In the Sanskrit tradition, the word ''{{IAST|drāviḍa}}'' was also used to denote the geographical region of South India.<ref name="Zvelebil 1990 xx">{{harvnb|Zvelebil|1990|p=xx}}</ref> Epigraphic evidence of an ethnic group termed as such is found in ancient India and Sri Lanka where a number of inscriptions have come to light datable from the 2nd century BCE mentioning ''Damela'' or ''Dameda'' persons.<ref name="KI157" /> The [[Hathigumpha inscription]] of the [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]] ruler [[Kharavela]] refers to a ''T(ra)mira samghata'' (Confederacy of Tamil rulers) dated to 150 BCE. It also mentions that the league of Tamil kingdoms had been in existence for 113 years by that time.<ref name="KI157">Indrapala, K ''The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka'', pp.155–156</ref> In [[Amaravathi village, Guntur district|Amaravati]] in present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]] there is an inscription referring to a ''Dhamila-vaniya'' (Tamil trader) datable to the 3rd century CE.<ref name="KI157" /> Another inscription of about the same time in [[Nagarjunakonda]] seems to refer to a ''Damila''. A third inscription in [[Kanheri Caves]] refers to a ''Dhamila-gharini'' (Tamil householder). In the [[Buddhist]] [[Jataka]] story known as ''Akiti Jataka'' there is a mention to ''Damila-rattha'' (Tamil dynasty).

While the English word ''Dravidian'' was first employed by [[Robert Caldwell]] in his book of comparative Dravidian grammar based on the usage of the Sanskrit word ''{{IAST|drāviḍa}}'' in the work ''Tantravārttika'' by {{IAST|Kumārila Bhaṭṭa}},<ref name="Zvelebil 1990 xx"/> the word ''{{IAST|drāviḍa}}'' in Sanskrit has been historically used to denote geographical regions of southern India as whole. Some theories concern the direction of derivation between ''{{IAST|tamiḻ}}'' and ''{{IAST|drāviḍa}}''; such linguists as Zvelebil assert that the direction is from ''{{IAST|tamiḻ}}'' to ''{{IAST|drāviḍa}}''.<ref>{{harvnb|Zvelebil|1990|p=xxi}}</ref>

==Ethnic groups==
The largest Dravidian ethnic groups are the [[Telugus]] from [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Telangana]], the [[Tamilians]] from [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Kannadigas]] from [[Karnataka]], and the [[Malayalis]] from [[Kerala]].
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Name
! Subgroup
! data-sort-type="number"| Population
! class="unsortable"| Notes
|-
| [[Badagas]]
| South Dravidian
| 133,500 (2011 census)
| Badagas are found in [[Tamil Nadu]].
|-
| [[Brahui people|Brahuis]]
| North Dravidian
| 700,000 (1996)
| Brahuis are mostly found in the [[Balochistan]] region of [[Pakistan]], with smaller numbers in southwestern [[Afghanistan]].
|-
| [[Chenchu people|Chenchus]]
| South-Central Dravidian
| 65,000
| Chenchus are found in [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Telangana]], and [[Odisha]].
|-
| [[Irula people|Irula]]
| South Dravidian
| 203,382 (2011 census)
| Irula are found in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Kerala]]
|-
| [[Giraavaru people|Giraavarus]]
| South Dravidian (linguistically Indo-Aryan)
| 0 < 100 (extinct)
| Giraavaru people were found in [[Maldives]].
|-
| [[Gondi people|Gondis]]
| Central Dravidian
| data-sort-value="13,000,000"| 13 million (approx.){{Citation needed|date=April 2019}}
| Gondi belong to the central Dravidian subgroup. They are spread over the states of [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Telangana]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Bihar]] and [[Odisha]]. A state named [[Gondwana (India)|Gondwana]] was proposed to represent them in [[India]].
|-
| [[Khonds]]
| South-Central Dravidian
| 1,627,486 (2011 census)
| Khonds are found in [[Odisha]].
|-
| [[Kannadigas]]
| South Dravidian
| data-sort-value="43,700,000"| 43.7 million<ref name=census>{{cite web |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement3.htm |title=Census 2011: Languages by state |publisher=Censusindia.gov.in |access-date=12 February 2013}}</ref>
| Kannadigas are native to [[Karnataka]] in [[India]] but a considerable population is also found in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Kerala.
|-
| [[Kodava people|Kodavas]]
| South Dravidian
| 160,000 (approx.){{Citation needed|date=April 2019}}
| Kodavas are native to the [[Kodagu|Kodagu district]].
|-
|[[Koya (tribe)|Koyas]]
|Central Dravidian
|
| found in [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Odisha]]
|-
| [[Kurukh people|Kurukh]]
| North Dravidian
| data-sort-value="3,600,000"| 3.6 million (approx.)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/ST.html |title=A-11 Individual Scheduled Tribe Primary Census Abstract Data and its Appendix |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref>
| Kurukh are spread over parts of the states of [[Chhatishgarh]], [[Jharkhand]] and [[Odisha]].
|-
| [[Kurumbar (tribe)|Kurumbar]]
| South Dravidian
| N/A
| Kurumbar are found in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]].
|-
| [[Malayalis]]
| South Dravidian
| data-sort-value="32,200,000"| 45 million<ref>{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Todd M. |last2=Grim |first2=Brian J. |year=2013 |chapter=Global Religious Populations, 1910–2010 |chapter-url=http://media.johnwiley.com.au/product_data/excerpt/47/04706745/0470674547-196.pdf |title=The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020100448/http://media.johnwiley.com.au/product_data/excerpt/47/04706745/0470674547-196.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2013 }}</ref><ref name=census/>
| Malayalis are native to Kerala and Lakshadweep, but are also found in Puducherry and parts of Tamil Nadu. They are also found in large numbers in Middle East countries, the Americas and Australia.
|-
| [[Paniya people|Paniya]]
| South Dravidian
| N/A
| Paniya are found in [[Kerala]] and [[Tamil Nadu]].
|-
| [[Tamils]]
| South Dravidian
| data-sort-value="78,000,000"| 78 million<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tamilo.com/tamil-population-education-29.html |title=World Tamil Population |date=August 2008 |website=Tamilo.com |access-date=4 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930204226/http://tamilo.com/tamil-population-education-29.html |archive-date=30 September 2015 }}</ref>
| Tamils are native to [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]] and northern and eastern [[Sri Lanka]], but are also found in parts of [[Kerala]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]], although they have a large [[Tamil diaspora|diaspora]] and are also widespread throughout many countries including [[South Africa]], [[Singapore]], the [[United States of America]], [[Canada]], [[Fiji]], [[Indonesia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Cambodia]], [[Philippines]], [[Mauritius]], [[Europe]]an countries, [[Guyana]], [[Suriname]], [[French Guiana]] and [[Malaysia]], as are the other three major Dravidian languages.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of the Tamil Diaspora |author=Sivasupramaniam, V. |url=https://murugan.org/research/sivasupramaniam.htm |website=Murugan.org}}</ref>
|-
| [[Telugus]]
| Central Dravidian
| data-sort-value="85,100,000"| 85.1 million<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.friendsoftelugu.org/UCB/index.php/telugu-people-stats |title=Telugu People around the world |publisher=Friends of Telugu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225141907/http://www.friendsoftelugu.org/UCB/index.php/telugu-people-stats |archive-date=25 February 2013 |access-date=12 February 2013}}</ref>
| Telugus are native to [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Telangana]] and [[Yanam]] ([[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]), but are also found in parts of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Karnataka]], [[Orissa]] and [[Maharashtra]]. Further, they have a large [[Telugu diaspora|diaspora]] and are also widespread throughout many countries including the [[United States of America]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and [[Europe]]an countries. Telugu is the fastest growing language in the United States.<ref>{{cite news |title=Do you speak Telugu? Welcome to America|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-45902204 |newspaper=BBC News|date=21 October 2018 }}</ref>
|-
| [[Toda people|Todas]]
| South Dravidian
| 2,002 (2011 census)
| Todas are found in [[Tamil Nadu]].
|-
| [[Tuluvas]]
| South Dravidian
| data-sort-value="2,000,000"| 2 million (approx.){{Citation needed|date=April 2019}}
| Tuluvas are found in coastal Karnataka and Northern Kerala (Kasaragodu district) in [[India]]. A state named [[Tulu Nadu]] was proposed to represent them in [[India]].
|}

==Language==
{{Main|Dravidian languages}}
[[File:DravidianTree.png|250px|thumb|right|Dravidian language tree]]

The Dravidian language family is one of the oldest in the world. Six languages are currently recognized by India as Classical languages and four of them are Dravidian languages Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam.

The most commonly spoken Dravidian languages are [[Telugu language|Telugu]] (తెలుగు), [[Tamil language|Tamil]] (தமிழ்), [[Kannada language|Kannada]] (ಕನ್ನಡ), [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] (മലയാളം), [[Brahui language|Brahui]] (براہوئی), [[Tulu Language|Tulu]] (തുളു), [[Gondi language|Gondi]] and [[Kodava language|Coorg]]. There are three subgroups within the Dravidian language family: North Dravidian, Central Dravidian, and South Dravidian, matching for the most part the corresponding regions in the Indian subcontinent.

Dravidian grammatical impact on the structure and syntax of Indo-Aryan languages is considered far greater than the Indo-Aryan grammatical impact on Dravidian. Some linguists explain this anomaly by arguing that Middle Indo-Aryan and New Indo-Aryan were built on a Dravidian [[Substrata (linguistics)|substratum]].<ref>{{harvnb|Krishnamurti|2003|pp=40–1}}</ref> There are also hundreds of Dravidian loanwords in Indo-Aryan languages, and vice versa.

According to David McAlpin and his [[Elamo-Dravidian languages|Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis]], the Dravidian languages were brought to India by immigration into India from [[Elam]], located in present-day southwestern [[Iran]].<ref name="kumar2004">{{cite book |last=Kumar |first=Dhavendra |year=2004 |title=Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bpl0LXKj13QC&pg=PA6 |publisher=Springer |page=6 |isbn=978-1-4020-1215-0 |access-date=25 November 2008 |quote=... The analysis of two Y chromosome variants, Hgr9 and Hgr3 provides interesting data (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). Microsatellite variation of Hgr9 among Iranians, Pakistanis and Indians indicate an expansion of populations to around 9000 YBP in Iran and then to 6,000 YBP in India. This migration originated in what was historically termed Elam in south-west Iran to the Indus valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian languages from south-west Iran (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). ...}}</ref><ref>David McAlpin, "Toward Proto-Elamo-Dravidian", ''Language'' vol. 50 no. 1 (1974); David McAlpin: "Elamite and Dravidian, Further Evidence of Relationships", ''Current Anthropology'' vol. 16 no. 1 (1975); David McAlpin: "Linguistic prehistory: the Dravidian situation", in Madhav M. Deshpande and Peter Edwin Hook: ''Aryan and Non-Aryan in India'', Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (1979); David McAlpin, "Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: The Evidence and its Implications", ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'' vol. 71 pt. 3, (1981)</ref> In the 1990s, Renfrew and Cavalli-Sforza have also argued that Proto-Dravidian was brought to India by farmers from the Iranian part of the Fertile Crescent,{{sfn|Cavalli-Sforza|Menozzi|Piazza|1994|pp=221–222}}<ref name="mukherjee2001">{{citation |title=High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from central and western Asia into India |author1=Namita Mukherjee |author2=Almut Nebel |author3=Ariella Oppenheim |author4=Partha P. Majumder |journal=[[Journal of Genetics]] |date=December 2001 |volume=80 |issue=3 |doi=10.1007/BF02717908 |quote=... More recently, about 15,000–10,000 years before present (ybp), when agriculture developed in the Fertile Crescent region that extends from Israel through northern Syria to western Iran, there was another eastward wave of human migration (Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994; Renfrew 1987), a part of which also appears to have entered India. This wave has been postulated to have brought the Dravidian languages into India (Renfrew 1987). Subsequently, the Indo-European (Aryan) language family was introduced into India about 4,000 ybp ... |pmid=11988631 |pages=125–35|s2cid=13267463 }}</ref>{{sfn|Derenko|2013}}{{refn|group=note|Derenko: "The spread of these new technologies has been associated with the dispersal of Dravidian and Indo-European languages in southern Asia. It is hypothesized that the proto-Elamo-Dravidian language, most likely originated in the Elam province in southwestern Iran, spread eastwards with the movement of farmers to the Indus Valley and the Indian sub-continent."{{sfn|Derenko|2013}} Derenko refers to: * Renfrew (1987), ''Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins'' * Renfrew (1996), ''Language families and the spread of farming.'' In: Harris DR, editor, ''The origins and spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia'', pp. 70–92 * Cavalli-Sforza, Menozzi, Piazza (1994), ''The History and Geography of Human Genes''.}} but more recently Heggerty and Renfrew noted that "McAlpin's analysis of the language data, and thus his claims, remain far from orthodoxy", adding that Fuller finds no relation of Dravidian language with other languages, and thus assumes it to be native to India.<ref name=Heggarty_Renfrew>{{citation |last1=Heggarty |first1=Paul |last2=Renfrew |first2=Collin |year=2014 |chapter=South and Island Southeast Asia; Languages |editor-last1=Renfrew |editor-first1=Colin |editor-last2=Bahn |editor-first2=Paul |title=The Cambridge World Prehistory |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWbwAwAAQBAJ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-64775-6}}</ref> Renfrew and Bahn conclude that several scenarios are compatible with the data, and that "the linguistic jury is still very much out."<ref name=Heggarty_Renfrew/>

As a [[proto-language]], the [[Proto-Dravidian]] language is not itself attested in the historical record. Its modern conception is based solely on reconstruction. It is suggested that the language was spoken in the 4th millennium BCE, and started disintegrating into various branches around 3rd millennium BCE.<ref name="books.google.com"/> According to Krishnamurti, Proto-Dravidian may have been spoken in the Indus civilisation, suggesting a "tentative date of Proto-Dravidian around the early part of the third millennium."{{sfn|Krishnamurti|2003|p=501}} Krishnamurti further states that South Dravidian I (including pre-Tamil) and South Dravidian II (including pre-Telugu) split around the eleventh century BCE, with the other major branches splitting off at around the same time.{{sfn|Krishnamurti|2003|p=501–502}}

==History==

===Origins===
{{See also|Peopling of India|Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia|Dravidian languages#Prehistory|l1=History of Dravidian languages|Proto-Dravidian|l2=Proto-Dravidian|Dravidian homeland|l3=Dravidian homeland|Neolithic Revolution|l4=Neolithic Revolution|Fertile Crescent|l5=Fertile Crescent|Demic diffusion|l6=Demic diffusion|Mehrgarh#Origins|l7=Origins of Mehrgahr}}
[[File:Dancing girl.jpg|thumb|The [[Dancing Girl (prehistoric sculpture)|Dancing Girl]], a prehistoric [[bronze sculpture]] made in approximately 2500 BCE in the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] city of [[Mohenjo-daro]].]]
The origins of the Dravidians are a "very complex subject of research and debate".<ref name="Tudu2008_p.4002">{{harvnb|Tudu|2008|p=400}}</ref> They are regarded as indigenous to the [[Indian subcontinent]],<ref name="Avari_p132" /><ref name="Masica_p392">{{cite book |last=Masica |first=Colin P. |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-521-29944-2 |page=39}}</ref><ref name="Kopstein_p3452">{{cite book |last1=Kopstein |first1=Jeffrey |url=https://archive.org/details/comparativepolit00kops_125 |title=Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, and Institutions in a Changing Global Order |last2=Lichbach |first2=Mark Irving |publisher=Cambridge University |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-521-84316-4 |edition=2nd |page=[https://archive.org/details/comparativepolit00kops_125/page/n365 345] |url-access=limited |orig-date=First published 2000}}</ref> but may have deeper pre-Neolithic roots from [[Western Asia]], specifically from the [[Iranian plateau]].{{sfn|Cavalli-Sforza|Menozzi|Piazza|1994|pp=221-222}}<ref name="kumar20042" />{{sfn|Kivisild|1999|p=1333}}{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=17}}{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=54 note 15}} Their origins are often viewed as being connected with the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]],<ref name="Tudu2008_p.4002">{{harvnb|Tudu|2008|p=400}}</ref>{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=54 note 15}}{{sfn|Parpola|2015}} hence people and language spread east and southwards after the demise of the Indus Valley Civilisation in the early second millennium BCE,{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018|p=15}}<ref name="scientificamerican.com2">{{cite journal |last=Marris |first=Emma |date=3 March 2014 |title=200-Year Drought Doomed Indus Valley Civilization |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/200-year-drought-doomed-indus-valley-civilization/ |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/nature.2014.14800 |s2cid=131063035 |url-access=subscription |via=Scientific American}}</ref> some propose not long before the arrival of Indo-Aryan speakers,<ref name="The Dravidianization of India2">Razab Khan, [https://www.gnxp.com/WordPress/2018/01/18/t/ ''The Dravidianization of India'']</ref> with whom they intensively interacted.<ref name="britannicaOnline2">{{cite web |last=Krishnamurti |first=Bhadriraju |date=8 July 2015 |title=Dravidian languages |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dravidian-languages |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> Though some scholars have argued that the Dravidian languages may have been brought to India by migrations from the Iranian plateau in the fourth or third millennium BCE<ref name="tls1963">{{Citation |author=Tamil Literature Society |title=Tamil Culture |date=1963 |volume=10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cNUgAAAAMAAJ |access-date=2008-11-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409105615/https://books.google.com/books?id=cNUgAAAAMAAJ |archive-date=9 April 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Academy of Tamil Culture |quote=... together with the evidence of archaeology would seem to suggest that the original Dravidian-speakers entered India from Iran in the fourth millennium BC ...}}</ref>{{sfn|Andronov|2003|p=299}} or even earlier,<ref name="mukherjee20012">{{Citation |author1=Namita Mukherjee |title=High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from central Asia and West Asia into India |date=December 2001 |journal=Journal of Genetics |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=125–35 |publisher=Springer India |doi=10.1007/BF02717908 |pmid=11988631 |s2cid=13267463 |quote=... More recently, about 15,000–10,000 years before present (ybp), when agriculture developed in the Fertile Crescent region that extends from Israel through northern Syria to western Iran, there was another eastward wave of human migration (Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994; Renfrew 1987), a part of which also appears to have entered India. This wave has been postulated to have brought the Dravidian languages into India (Renfrew 1987). Subsequently, the Indo-European (Aryan) language family was introduced into India about 4,000 ybp ... |author2=Almut Nebel |author3=Ariella Oppenheim |author4=Partha P. Majumder}}</ref><ref name="kumar20043">{{Citation |author=Dhavendra Kumar |title=Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bpl0LXKj13QC |access-date=2008-11-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409105646/https://books.google.com/books?id=bpl0LXKj13QC |archive-date=9 April 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=Springer |isbn=1-4020-1215-2 |quote=... The analysis of two Y chromosome variants, Hgr9 and Hgr3 provides interesting data (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). Microsatellite variation of Hgr9 among Iranians, Pakistanis and Indians indicate an expansion of populations to around 9000 YBP in Iran and then to 6,000 YBP in India. This migration originated in what was historically termed Elam in south-west Iran to the Indus Valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian languages from south-west Iran (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). ...}}</ref> reconstructed proto-Dravidian vocabulary suggests that the family is indigenous to India.{{sfn|Krishnamurti|2003|p=15}}{{sfn|Avari|2007|p=13}}

Genetically, the ancient Indus Valley people were composed of a primarily Iranian hunter-gatherers (or farmers) ancestry, with varying degrees of ancestry from local hunter-gatherer groups. The modern-day Dravidian-speakers display a similar genetic makeup, but also carry a small portion of [[Western Steppe Herders|Western Steppe Herder]] ancestry and may also have additional contributions from local hunter-gatherer groups.{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009}}{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2019}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Narasimhan |first1=Vagheesh M. |last2=Patterson |first2=Nick |last3=Moorjani |first3=Priya |last4=Rohland |first4=Nadin |last5=Bernardos |first5=Rebecca |last6=Mallick |first6=Swapan |last7=Lazaridis |first7=Iosif |last8=Nakatsuka |first8=Nathan |last9=Olalde |first9=Iñigo |last10=Lipson |first10=Mark |last11=Kim |first11=Alexander M. |last12=Olivieri |first12=Luca M. |last13=Coppa |first13=Alfredo |last14=Vidale |first14=Massimo |last15=Mallory |first15=James |date=2019-09-06 |title=The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia |journal=Science |language=en |volume=365 |issue=6457 |article-number=eaat7487 |doi=10.1126/science.aat7487 |issn=0036-8075 |pmc=6822619 |pmid=31488661 |bibcode=2019Sci...365t7487N }}</ref>

Although in modern times speakers of various [[Dravidian language]]s have mainly occupied the southern portion of India, Dravidian speakers must have been widespread throughout the Indian subcontinent before the [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]] migration into the subcontinent.<ref name="britannicaOnline">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dravidian-languages |title=Dravidian languages |last=Krishnamurti |first=Bhadriraju |date=8 July 2015 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> According to Horen Tudu, "many academic researchers have attempted to connect the Dravidians with the remnants of the great [[Indus Valley civilisation]], located in Northwestern India... but [i]t is mere speculation that the Dravidians are the ensuing post–Indus Valley settlement of refugees into South and Central India."<ref name="Tudu2008_p.400">{{harvnb|Tudu|2008|p=400}}</ref> The most noteworthy scholar making such claims is [[Asko Parpola]],{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=54 note 15}} who did extensive research on the IVC-scripts.{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=54 note 15}}{{sfn|Parpola|2015}} The [[Brahui people|Brahui]] population of [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]] in [[Pakistan]] has been taken by some as the linguistic equivalent of a [[relict]] population, perhaps indicating that Dravidian languages were formerly much more widespread and were supplanted by the incoming Indo-Aryan languages.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mallory|1989|p=44}}: "There are still remnant northern Dravidian languages including Brahui ... The most obvious explanation of this situation is that the Dravidian languages once occupied nearly all of the Indian subcontinent and it is the intrusion of Indo-Aryans that engulfed them in northern India leaving but a few isolated enclaves. This is further supported by the fact that Dravidian loan words begin to appear in Sanskrit literature from its very beginning."</ref>

Asko Parpola, who regards the Harappans to have been Dravidian, notes that [[Mehrgarh]] (7000–2500 BCE), to the west of the [[Indus River]] valley,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4882968.stm |title=Stone age man used dentist drill |date=6 April 2006}}</ref> is a precursor of the Indus Valley Civilisation, whose inhabitants migrated into the Indus Valley and became the Indus Valley Civilisation.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=17}} It is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in [[South Asia]].<ref>UNESCO World Heritage. 2004. [https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1876/ "Archaeological Site of Mehrgarh"]. UNESCO.</ref><ref>Hirst, K. Kris. 2005. [http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/g/mehrgarh.htm "Mehrgarh"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118071157/http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/g/mehrgarh.htm |date=18 January 2017 }}. ''Guide to Archaeology''</ref> According to Lukacs and Hemphill, while there is a strong continuity between the [[Neolithic]] and [[Chalcolithic]] (Copper Age) cultures of Mehrgarh, dental evidence shows that the Chalcolithic population did not descend from the Neolithic population of Mehrgarh,{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|p=114}} which "suggests moderate levels of gene flow".{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|p=114}} They further noted that "the direct lineal descendants of the Neolithic inhabitants of Mehrgarh are to be found to the south and the east of Mehrgarh, in northwestern India and the western edge of the Deccan plateau", with Neolithic Mehrgarh showing greater affinity with chalocolithic [[Inamgaon]], south of Mehrgarh, than with Chalcolithic Mehrgarh.{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|p=114}}

====Indus Valley Civilization====
{{Main|Indus Valley Civilisation|Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit}}
[[File:Shiva Pashupati.jpg|thumb|The ''Pashupati'' seal from the Indus Valley Civilization]]

=====Dravidian identification=====
The [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] (2,600–1,900 BCE) located in the northwest of the [[Indian subcontinent]] is sometimes identified as having been Dravidian.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html |title=Stone celts in Harappa |last=Mahadevan |first=Iravatham |date=6 May 2006 |website=Harappa |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060904034700/http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html |archive-date=4 September 2006}}</ref><ref name="Ansumali Mukhopadhyay 1–14">{{Cite journal |last=Ansumali Mukhopadhyay |first=Bahata |date=2021-08-03 |title=Ancestral Dravidian languages in Indus Civilization: ultraconserved Dravidian tooth-word reveals deep linguistic ancestry and supports genetics |url=https://osf.io/u3xmd/download |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |article-number=193 |doi=10.1057/s41599-021-00868-w |issn=2662-9992 |s2cid=257091003 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Already in 1924, when announcing the discovery of the IVC, [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]] stated that (one of) the language(s) may have been Dravidic.<ref>{{cite news |last=Saju |first=M. T. |date=5 October 2018 |title=Pot route could have linked Indus & Vaigai |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/tracking-indian-communities/pot-route-could-have-linked-indus-vaigai/ |work=The Times of India}}</ref> Cultural and linguistic similarities have been cited by researchers [[Henry Heras]], [[Kamil Zvelebil]], [[Asko Parpola]] and [[Iravatham Mahadevan]] as being strong evidence for a proto-Dravidian origin of the ancient Indus Valley civilisation.<ref>{{cite web |last=Rahman |first=Tariq |title=Peoples and languages in pre-Islamic Indus valley |url=http://asnic.utexas.edu/asnic/subject/peoplesandlanguages.html |quote=most scholars have taken the 'Dravidian hypothesis' seriously |access-date=20 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509053921/http://asnic.utexas.edu/asnic/subject/peoplesandlanguages.html |archive-date=9 May 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Cole |first=Jennifer |date=2006 |chapter=The Sindhi language |chapter-url=http://www.linguistics.uiuc.edu/jscole/Sindhi_Elsevier_encyl.pdf |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=K. |title=Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics |edition=2nd |volume=11 |publisher=Elsevier |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070106015921/http://www.linguistics.uiuc.edu/jscole/Sindhi_Elsevier_encyl.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2007 |quote=Harappan language ... prevailing theory indicates Dravidian origins}}</ref> The discovery in Tamil Nadu of a late Neolithic (early 2nd millennium BCE, i.e. post-dating Harappan decline) stone [[Celt (tool)|celt]] allegedly marked with Indus signs has been considered by some to be significant for the Dravidian identification.<ref>Subramanium 2006; see also [http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html "A Note on the Muruku Sign of the Indus Script in light of the Mayiladuthurai Stone Axe Discovery"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060904034700/http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html |date=4 September 2006}} by I. Mahadevan (2006)</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Subramanian |first=T. S. |date=1 May 2006 |title=Significance of Mayiladuthurai find |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/2006/05/01/stories/2006050101992000.htm |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=9 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430214654/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2006/05/01/stories/2006050101992000.htm |archive-date=30 April 2008 }}</ref>

[[Yuri Knorozov]] surmised that the symbols represent a [[logosyllabic]] script and suggested, based on computer analysis, an agglutinative [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] language as the most likely candidate for the underlying language.<ref>{{harvnb|Knorozov|1965|p=117}}</ref> Knorozov's suggestion was preceded by the work of Henry Heras, who suggested several readings of signs based on a proto-Dravidian assumption.<ref>{{harvnb|Heras|1953|p=138}}</ref>

Linguist Asko Parpola writes that the Indus script and Harappan language are "most likely to have belonged to the Dravidian family".<ref>{{cite book |last=Bryant |first=Edwin |year=2003 |title=The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate |publisher=Oxford |page=183 |isbn=978-0-19-516947-8}}</ref> Parpola led a Finnish team in investigating the inscriptions using computer analysis. Based on a proto-Dravidian assumption, they proposed readings of many signs, some agreeing with the suggested readings of Heras and Knorozov (such as equating the "fish" sign with the Dravidian word for fish, "min") but disagreeing on several other readings. A comprehensive description of Parpola's work until 1994 is given in his book ''Deciphering the Indus Script''.<ref>{{harvnb|Parpola|1994}}</ref>

=====Decline, migration and Dravidianization=====
[[Paleoclimatology|Paleoclimatologists]] believe the fall of the Indus Valley Civilisation and eastward migration during the late Harappan period was due to climate change in the region, with a 200-year long drought being the major factor.<ref name="scientificamerican.com">{{cite journal |last=Marris |first=Emma |date=3 March 2014 |title=200-Year Drought Doomed Indus Valley Civilization |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/200-year-drought-doomed-indus-valley-civilization/ |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/nature.2014.14800 |s2cid=131063035 |via=Scientific American|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Keys |first=David |date=2 March 2014 |title=How climate change ended world's first great civilisations |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/archaeology/revealed-how-climate-change-ended-worlds-first-great-civilisations-9164248.html |newspaper=The Independent |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Sinha |first=Kounteya |date=28 February 2014 |title=Climate change caused Indus Valley civilization collapse |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/Climate-change-caused-Indus-Valley-civilization-collapse/articleshow/31133369.cms |newspaper=The Times of India}}</ref> The Indus Valley Civilisation seemed to slowly lose their urban cohesion, and their cities were gradually abandoned during the late Harappan period, followed by eastward migrations before the Indo-Aryan migration into the Indian subcontinent.<ref name="scientificamerican.com"/>

The process of post-Harappan/Dravidian influences on southern India has tentatively been called "Dravidianization",<ref name="The Dravidianization of India">Razab Khan, [https://www.gnxp.com/WordPress/2018/01/18/t/ ''The Dravidianization of India'']</ref> and is reflected in the post-Harappan mixture of IVC and Ancient Ancestral South Indian people.{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018}} Yet, according to Krishnamurti, Dravidian languages may have reached south India before Indo-Aryan migrations.<ref name="britannicaOnline" />

====Dravidian and Indo-Aryan interactions====

=====Dravidian substrate=====
The Dravidian language influenced the Indo-Aryan languages. Dravidian languages show extensive lexical (vocabulary) borrowing, but only a few traits of structural (either [[phonology|phonological]] or grammatical) borrowing from Indo-Aryan, whereas Indo-Aryan shows more structural than lexical borrowings from the Dravidian languages.<ref name="britannicaOnline"/> Many of these features are already present in the oldest known [[Indo-Aryan language]], the language of the ''[[Rigveda]]'' (c. 1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian. The linguistic evidence for Dravidian impact grows stronger as we move from the Samhitas down through the later Vedic works and into the classical post-Vedic literature.<ref name=Krishnamurti6>{{harvnb|Krishnamurti|2003|p=6}}</ref> This represents an early religious and cultural fusion{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}}{{refn|group=note|name=Lockard|Lockard: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Aryan]] and Dravidian occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis."{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}} Lockard: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}}} or synthesis{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}} between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans.{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}{{sfn|Tiwari|2002|p=v}}{{sfn|Zimmer|1951|pp=218–219}}{{sfn|Larson|1995|p=81}}

According to Mallory there are an estimated thirty to forty Dravidian loanwords in [[Rig Veda]].<ref name=MalloryAdams>{{cite book |first1=J. P. |last1=Mallory |first2=D. Q. |last2=Adams |title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaindo00mall |url-access=limited |date=1997 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaindo00mall/page/n338 308]|publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-884964-98-5 }}</ref> Some of those for which Dravidian etymologies are certain include {{lang|sa|ಕುಲಾಯ}} ''kulāya'' "nest", {{lang|sa|ಕುಲ್ಫ}} ''kulpha'' "ankle", {{lang|sa|ದಂಡ}} ''{{IAST|daṇḍa}}'' "stick", {{lang|sa|ಕುಲ}} ''kūla'' "slope", {{lang|sa|ಬಿಲ}} ''bila'' "hollow", {{lang|sa|ಖಲ}} ''khala'' "threshing floor".{{sfn|Zvelebil|1990|p=81}} While J. Bloch and [[Michael Witzel|M. Witzel]] believe that the Indo-Aryans moved into an already Dravidian-speaking area after the oldest parts of the [[Rig Veda]] were already composed.<ref>{{cite book |first=Edwin |last=Bryant |author-link=Edwin Bryant (author) |year=2001 |chapter=Linguistic Substrata in Sanskrit Texts |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nkJAmVuBCcIC&pg=PA76 |pages=76–107 |title=The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-513777-4}}</ref>

According to Thomason and Kaufman, there is strong evidence that Dravidian influenced [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indic]] through "shift", that is, native Dravidian speakers learning and adopting Indic languages.{{sfn|Thomason|Kaufman|1988}} According to Erdosy, the most plausible explanation for the presence of Dravidian structural features in Old Indo-Aryan is that the majority of early Old Indo-Aryan speakers had a Dravidian mother tongue which they gradually abandoned. {{Harvcoltxt|Erdosy|1995|p=18}} Even though the innovative traits in Indic could be explained by multiple internal explanations, early Dravidian influence is the only explanation that can account for all of the innovations at once. Early Dravidian influence accounts for several of the innovative traits in Indic better than any internal explanation that has been proposed.{{sfn|Thomason|Kaufman|1988|pp=141–144}} According to Zvelebil, "several scholars have demonstrated that pre-Indo-Aryan and pre-Dravidian bilingualism in India provided conditions for the far-reaching influence of Dravidian on the Indo-Aryan tongues in the spheres of phonology, syntax and vocabulary."<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-74968 Dravidian languages – Britannica Online Encyclopedia]</ref>

=====Sanskritization=====
With the rise of the [[Kuru kingdom]] a process of [[Sanskritization]] started which influenced all of India, with the populations of the north of the Indian subcontinent predominantly speaking the Indo-Aryan languages.{{sfn|Witzel|1995}}

===Dravidian kingdoms and empires===
The third century BCE onwards saw the development of large Dravidian empires like [[Chola Empire|Chola]], [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandya]], [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakuta]], [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara]], [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukyas]] [[Western Chalukya Empire|Western Chalukya]], and kingdoms like [[Chera dynasty|Chera]], [[Chutu dynasty|Chutu]], [[Ay kingdom|Ay]], [[Alupa dynasty|Alupa]], [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]], [[Hoysala Empire|Hoysala]], [[Western Ganga dynasty|Western Ganga]], [[Eastern Ganga dynasty|Eastern Ganga]], [[Kadamba dynasty|Kadamba]], [[Kalabhra dynasty|Kalabhra]], [[Andhra Ikshvaku]], [[Vishnukundina]], [[Eastern Chalukya]], [[Sena dynasty|Sena]], [[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiya]], [[Reddy dynasty|Reddy]], [[Mysore kingdom|Mysore]], [[Jaffna kingdom|Jaffna]], [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]], [[Travancore]], [[Venad]], [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]], [[Kolathunadu|Cannanore]], [[Zamorin of Calicut|Calicut]] and the [[Nayak dynasty|Nayakas]].

===Medieval trade and influence===
Medieval Tamil guilds and trading organisations like the Ayyavole and [[Manigramam]] played an important role in the southeast Asia trade.<ref name="World p.293"/> Traders and religious leaders travelled to southeast Asia and played an important role in the [[Greater India|cultural Indianisation]] of the region. Locally developed scripts such as [[Grantha script|Grantha]] and [[Pallava script]] induced the development of many native scripts such as [[Khmer script|Khmer]], [[Javanese script|Javanese]] [[Kawi script|Kawi]], [[Baybayin]], and [[Thai script|Thai]].

Around this time, Dravidians encountered Muslim traders, and the first [[Tamil Muslim]]s and [[Sri Lankan Moors]] appeared.

=== European contact (1500 onward) ===
Portuguese explorers like Vasco de Gama were motivated to expand mainly for the spice markets of Calicut (today called Kozhikode) in modern-day Kerala. This led to the establishment of a series of Portuguese colonies along the western coasts of Karnataka and Kerala, including Mangalore. During this time Portuguese Jesuit priests also arrived and converted a small number of people in modern Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu to Catholicism, most notably the Paravars.

==Dravidian culture==

===Religious belief===
{{See also|Dravidian folk religion| Hinduism| Śramaṇa| Jainism| Buddhism| Charvaka| Ājīvika|Indus Valley Civilization}}

Ancient Dravidian religion constituted of an [[Animism|animistic]] and non-[[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic]] form of religion which may have influenced the [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Āgamas]], Vedic and non-[[Vedic]] texts<ref name=Narasimhachary>Mudumby Narasimhachary (Ed) (1976). Āgamaprāmāṇya of Yāmunācārya, Issue 160 of Gaekwad's Oriental Series. Oriental Institute, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda.</ref> which post-date the Vedic texts.<ref name="Tripath2001">{{cite book |last=Tripath |first=S. M. |date=2001 |title=Psycho-Religious Studies Of Man, Mind And Nature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zWFM_SaX24AC&pg=PA54 |publisher=Global Vision Publishing House |pages=54– |isbn=978-81-87746-04-1}}</ref> The ''Agamas'' are [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Sanskrit]] [[religious text|scriptures]] chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of ''[[murti]]'', worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.<ref name="Grimes1996">{{cite book |last=Grimes |first=John A. |date=1996 |title=A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eP5p0ev3nJEC |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3068-2|edition=New and Revised }}</ref> The worship of [[Village deities of Tamil Nadu|village deities]], as well as sacred flora and fauna in Hinduism is recognised as a survival of the pre-Vedic Dravidian religion.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Chanda |first=Ramprasad |title=The Scope and Methods of Anthropology |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b2867437&seq=153 |magazine=The Modern Review |volume=28 |issue=2 |date=August 1920 |publisher=Prabasi Press Private, Ltd. |page=141}}</ref> Hinduism can be regarded as a religious and cultural fusion{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}}{{refn|group=note|name=Lockard}} or synthesis{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}} between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, and other local elements.{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}{{sfn|Tiwari|2002|p=v}}{{sfn|Zimmer|1951|pp=218–219}}{{sfn|Larson|1995|p=81}}

[[File:WLA lacma 12th century Maharishi Agastya.jpg|150px|thumb|Sage [[Agastya]], father of Tamil literature]]

Ancient Tamil grammatical works [[Tolkappiyam]], the ten anthologies [[Pattuppāṭṭu]], and the eight anthologies [[Eṭṭuttokai]] shed light on early ancient Dravidian religion. [[Murugan]] (also known as Seyyon) was glorified as ''the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent'', as ''the favoured god of the Tamils''.<ref name="Kanchan Sinha 1979">{{cite book |last=Sinha |first=Kanchan |year=1979 |title=Kārttikeya in Indian art and literature |location=Delhi |publisher=Sundeep Prakashan |oclc=644105825}}</ref> [[Shiva|Sivan]] was also seen as the supreme God.<ref name="Kanchan Sinha 1979"/> Early iconography of [[Murugan]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Mahadevan |first=Iravatham |title=A Note on the Muruku Sign of the Indus Script in light of the Mayiladuthurai Stone Axe Discovery |year=2006 |publisher=harappa.com |url=http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060904034700/http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html |archive-date=4 September 2006 }}</ref> and [[Shiva|Sivan]]<ref>{{cite book |title=The Making of India: A Historical Survey |url=https://archive.org/details/makingindiahisto00vohr |url-access=limited |author=Ranbir Vohra |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |year=2000 |page=[https://archive.org/details/makingindiahisto00vohr/page/n10 15]|isbn=978-0-7656-0711-9 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bongard-Levin |first=Grigorii Maksimovich |year=1985 |title=Ancient Indian Civilization |publisher=Arnold-Heinemann |page=45 |oclc=12667676}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Essential Hinduism |author=Steven Rosen, Graham M. Schweig |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2006 |page=45}}</ref> and their association with native flora and fauna goes back to the Indus Valley Civilisation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Basham|1967|page=27}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Plants of life, plants of death |author=Frederick J. Simoons |year=1998 |page=363}}</ref> The [[Sangam landscape]] was classified into five categories, ''thinais'', based on the mood, the season and the land. Tolkappiyam mentions that each of these ''thinai'' had an associated deity such as Seyyon in ''Kurinji'' (hills), [[Vishnu|Thirumaal]] in ''Mullai'' (forests), and [[Durga|Kotravai]] in ''Marutham'' (plains), and [[Indra|Wanji-ko]] in the ''Neithal'' (coasts and seas). Other gods mentioned were [[Krishna|Mayyon]] and [[Balaram|Vaali]], now identified with Krishna and Balarama, who are all major deities in Hinduism today. This represents an early religious and cultural fusion{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}}{{refn|group=note|name=Lockard}} or synthesis{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}} between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, which became more evident over time with sacred iconography, traditions, philosophy, flora and fauna that went on to influence and shape Indian civilisation.{{sfn|Tiwari|2002|p=v}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}{{sfn|Zimmer|1951|pp=218–219}}{{sfn|Larson|1995|p=81}}

[[File:Madurai The City of Temples.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Meenakshi Amman temple]], dedicated to Goddess [[Meenakshi]], tutelary deity of Madurai city]]

Throughout [[Tamilakam]], a king was considered to be divine by nature and possessed religious significance.<ref name="Harman 1992 6">{{cite book |last=Harman |first=William P. |title=The sacred marriage of a Hindu goddess |year=1992 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |page=6}}</ref> The king was 'the representative of God on earth' and lived in a "koyil", which means the "residence of a god". The Modern Tamil word for temple is ''[[koil]]'' ({{langx|ta|கோயில்}}). Ritual worship was also given to kings.<ref name="Anand 1980">{{cite book |last=Anand |first=Mulk Raj |title=Splendours of Tamil Nadu |year=1980 |publisher=Marg Publications |isbn=978-0-391-02524-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8cPYAAAAMAAJ}}</ref><ref name="Chopra 1979">{{cite book |last=Chopra |first=Pran Nath |title=History of South India |year=1979 |publisher=S. Chand }}</ref> Modern words for god like "kō" ({{langx|ta|கோ}} "king"), "iṟai" ({{lang|ta|இறை}} "emperor") and "āṇḍavar" ({{lang|ta|ஆண்டவன்}} "conqueror") now primarily refer to gods. These elements were incorporated later into Hinduism like the legendary marriage of [[Shiva]] to Queen Mīnātchi who ruled [[Madurai]] or [[Legendary early Chola kings#Sangam period Chola rulers|Wanji-ko]], a god who later merged into [[Indra]].<ref name="Bate 2009">{{cite book |last=Bate |first=Bernard |title=Tamil oratory and the Dravidian aesthetic: democratic practice in south India |year=2009 |publisher=Columbia University Press}}</ref> Tolkappiyar refers to the [[Three Crowned Kings]] as the "Three Glorified by Heaven", ({{indic|lang=ta|indic=வாண்புகழ் மூவர் |trans=Vāṉpukaḻ Mūvar}}).<ref name="A. Kiruṭṭin̲an̲ 2000 17">{{cite book |last=Kiruṭṭin̲an̲ |first=A. |title=Tamil culture: religion, culture, and literature |year=2000 |publisher=Bharatiya Kala Prakashan |page=17 |oclc=603890991}}</ref> In Dravidian-speaking South India, the concept of divine kingship led to the assumption of major roles by state and temple.<ref name="Embree 1988">{{cite book |last=Embree |first=Ainslie Thomas |author-link=Ainslie Embree |title=Encyclopedia of Asian history: Volume 1 |year=1988 |publisher=Scribner |isbn=978-0-684-18898-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0000embr |url-access=registration}}</ref>

The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. This mother goddess was conceived as a virgin, one who has given birth to all and one, and were typically associated with [[History of Shaktism|Shaktism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Thiruchandran |first=Selvy |title=Ideology, caste, class, and gender |year=1997 |publisher=Vikas Pub. House}}</ref> The temples of the Sangam days, mainly of Madurai, seem to have had priestesses to the deity, which also appears predominantly as a goddess.<ref>{{cite book |last=Manickam |first=Valliappa Subramaniam |title=A glimpse of Tamilology |year=1968 |publisher=Academy of Tamil Scholars of Tamil Nadu |page=75 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bIQOAAAAYAAJ&q=sangam+priestess}}</ref> In the Sangam literature, there is an elaborate description of the rites performed by the Kurava priestess in the shrine Palamutircholai.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lal |first=Mohan |title=The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature |volume=5 |year=2006 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-81-260-1221-3 |page=4396}}</ref>

Among the early Dravidians, the practice of erecting memorial stones, [[hero stone|Natukal and Viragal]], had appeared, and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age, down to about the 16th century.<ref name="shashi1996">{{cite book |last=Shashi |first=S.S. |title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh: Volume 100 |year=1996 |publisher=Anmol Publications}}</ref> It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these [[hero stone]]s to bless them with victory''.<ref name="subramanium1980">{{cite book |last=Subramanium |first=N. |title=Śaṅgam polity: the administration and social life of the Śaṅgam Tamils |year=1980 |publisher=Ennes Publications}}</ref>''

===Architecture and visual art===
{{Main|Dravidian Architecture}}
[[File:Nataraja01.jpg|150px|thumb|right|upright|[[Nataraja]], example of [[Chola Empire]] bronze has become notable as a symbol of [[Hinduism]].]]
[[File:01AnnamalaiyarTemple&Thiruvannamalai&TamilNadu&AerialViewfromVirupakshaCave.jpg|thumb|right|Typical layout of Dravidian temple architecture, 9th century A.D]]

''Mayamata'' and ''Manasara shilpa'' texts estimated to be in circulation by the 5th to 7th century AD, are guidebooks on the Dravidian style of [[Vastu Shastra]] design, construction, sculpture and joinery technique.<ref name=stellakramrisch76>Stella Kramrisch (1976), The Hindu Temple Volume 1 & 2, {{ISBN|81-208-0223-3}}</ref><ref>Tillotson, G. H. R. (1997). Svastika Mansion: A Silpa-Sastra in the 1930s. South Asian Studies, 13(1), pp 87–97</ref> ''Isanasivagurudeva paddhati'' is another text from the 9th century describing the art of building in India in south and central India.<ref name=stellakramrisch76/><ref>{{cite book |last=Sastri |first=Ganapati |year=1920 |title=Īśānaśivagurudeva paddhati |series=Trivandrum Sanskrit Series |oclc=71801033}}</ref> In north India, ''Brihat-samhita'' by [[Varāhamihira]] is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from the 6th century describing the design and construction of ''Nagara''-style Hindu temples.<ref name=mmgeometry>{{cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |author-link=Michael W. Meister |year=1983 |title=Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=266–296 |doi=10.2307/3249613 |jstor=3249613}}</ref><ref name=hgood>{{cite book |last=Elgood |first=Heather |year=2000 |title=Hinduism and the Religious Arts |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |pages=121–125 |isbn=978-0-304-70739-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Kern |editor-first=H. |year=1865 |title=The Brhat Sanhita of Varaha-mihara |url=https://www.wilbourhall.org/pdfs/BrhatSamhitaSanskrit.pdf |location=Calcutta |publisher=The Asiatic Society of Bengal }}</ref> Traditional Dravidian architecture and symbolism are also based on Agamas. The Agamas are non-[[Vedic]] in origin<ref name="Narasimhachary"/> and have been dated either as post-Vedic texts<ref name="Tripath2001"/> or as pre-Vedic compositions.<ref name="Nagalingam">Nagalingam, Pathmarajah (2009). The Religion of the Agamas. Siddhanta Publications. [https://www.siddha.com.my/forum/religionoftheagamas/chapter3.html]</ref> The ''Agamas'' are a collection of Tamil and [[Sanskrit]] [[religious text|scriptures]] chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of ''[[murti]]'', worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.<ref name="Grimes1996"/>

Chola-style temples consist almost invariably of the three following parts, arranged in differing manners, but differing in themselves only according to the age in which they were executed:<ref name=Fergusson>{{cite book |last=Fergusson |first=James |title=History of Indian and Eastern Architecture |orig-date=1910 |edition=3rd |year=1997 |publisher=Low Price Publications |location= New Delhi |page=309}}</ref>
# The porches or ''Mantapas'', which always cover and precede the door leading to the cell.
# Gate-pyramids, ''Gopuras'', which are the principal features in the quadrangular enclosures that surround the more notable temples. Gopuras are very common in Dravidian temples.
# Pillared halls (''Chaultris'' or ''Chawadis'') are used for many purposes and are the invariable accompaniments of these temples.

Besides these, a south Indian temple usually has a tank called the ''Kalyani'' or ''Pushkarni'' – to be used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests – dwellings for all the grades of the priesthood are attached to it, and other buildings for state or convenience.<ref name=Fergusson/>

===Theatre, dance and music===
{{Main|Carnatic music|Ancient Tamil music|Music of Kerala|Music of Tamil Nadu|Music of Andhra Pradesh|Cinema of South India}}
[[File:Kuchipudi1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A [[Kuchipudi]] dancer.]]
Literary evidence of traditional form of theatre, dance and music dates back to the 3rd century BCE.<ref name="Nijenhuis 1974">{{citation |last=Nijenhuis |first=Emmie te |author-link=Emmie te Nijenhuis |title=Indian Music: History and Structure |publisher=Brill |place=Leiden |year=1974 |isbn=978-90-04-03978-0}} at pp. 4–5</ref> Ancient literary works, such as the ''[[Cilappatikaram]]'', describe a [[Ancient Tamil music|system of music]].<ref name="Nijenhuis 1974" /> The theatrical culture flourished during the early Sangam age. Theatre-dance traditions have a long and varied history whose origins can be traced back almost two millennia to dance-theatre forms like ''Kotukotti'', Kaapaalam and ''Pandarangam'', which are mentioned in an ancient anthology of poems entitled the [[Kaliththokai]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Vaittiyaliṅkan̲ |first=Ce |year=1977 |title=Fine Arts and Crafts in Pattu-p-pāṭṭu and Eṭṭu-t-tokai |publisher=Annamalai University |page=162 |oclc=4804957}}</ref> Dance forms such as [[Bharatanatyam]] are based on older temple dance forms known as ''Catir Kacceri'', as practised by [[courtesans]] and a class of women known as ''[[Devadasis]]''.<ref name=Leslie>Leslie, Julia. '' Roles and rituals for Hindu women'', pp.149–152</ref>

[[Carnatic music]] originated in the Dravidian region. With the growing influence of Persian and Sufi music on Indian music, a clear distinction in style appeared from the 12th century onwards. Many literary works were composed in Carnatic style and it soon spread wide in the Dravidian regions. The most notable Carnatic musician is [[Purandara Dasa]] who lived in the court of [[Krishnadevaraya]] of the [[Vijayanagara]] empire. He formulated the basic structure of Carnatic music and is regarded as the ''Pitamaha'' (''lit'', "father" or the "grandfather") of Carnatic Music. [[Kanakadasa]] is another notable Carnatic musician who was Purandaradasa's contemporary.

Each of the major Dravidian languages has its own film industry like [[Kollywood]] (Tamil), [[Tollywood (Telugu)|Tollywood]] (Telugu), [[Kannada cinema|Sandalwood]] (Kannada), [[Malayalam cinema|Mollywood]] (Malayalam). Kollywood and Tollywood produce most films in India.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Tamil-leads-as-India-tops-film-production/articleshow/21967065.cms |title=Tamil leads as India tops film production |date=22 December 2013 |newspaper=The Times of India |access-date=5 August 2017}}</ref>

===Clothing===
{{Main|Lungi|Sari|Dhoti}}
Dravidian speakers in southern India wear varied traditional costumes depending on their region, largely influenced by local customs and traditions. The most traditional dress for Dravidian men is the [[lungi]], or the more formal [[dhoti]], called ''veshti'' in Tamil, ''panche'' in Kannada and Telugu, and ''mundu'' in Malayalam. The lungi consists of a colourful checked cotton cloth. Many times these lungis are tube-shaped and tied around the waist, and can be easily tied above the knees for more strenuous activities. The lungi is usually everyday dress, used for doing labour while dhoti is used for more formal occasions. Many villagers have only a lungi as their article of clothing. The dhoti is generally white in colour, and occasionally has a border of red, green or gold. Dhotis are usually made out of cotton for more everyday use, but the more expensive silk dhotis are used for special functions like festivals and weddings.

Traditional dress of Dravidian women is typical of most Indian women, that of the sari. This sari consists of a cloth wrapped around the waist and draped over the shoulder. Originally saris were worn bare, but during the Victorian era, women began wearing blouse (called a ravike) along with sari. In fact, until the late 19th century most Kerala women did not wear any upper garments, or were forced to by law, and in many villages, especially in tribal communities, the sari is worn without the blouse. Unlike Indo-Aryan speakers, most Dravidian women do not cover their head with the pallu except in areas of North Karnataka. Due to the complexity of draping the sari, younger girls start with a skirt called a ''pavada''. When they get older, around the age when puberty begins, they transition to a ''[[langa voni]]'' or half-sari, which is composed of a skirt tied at the waist along with a cloth draped over a blouse. After adulthood girls begin using the sari. There are many different styles of sari draping varying across regions and communities. Examples are the [[Madisar]], specific to Tamil Brahmin Community, and the [[Mundum Neriyathum]].

===Martial arts and sports===
{{Main|Kalaripayattu|Kuttu Varisai|Varma Kalai|Silambam|Adithada|Malyutham|Traditional games of India}}

In [[Mahabharata]], [[Bhishma]] claimed that southerners are skilled with sword-fighting in general and [[Sahadeva]] was chosen for the conquest of the southern kingdoms due to his swordsmanship.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12a100.htm|title=Mahabharata Text}}</ref> In South India various types of martial arts are practised like [[Kalaripayattu]] and [[Silambam]].

In ancient times there were ''[[ankam]]s'', public duels to the death, to solve disputes between opposing rulers.<ref name="Zarrilli 1998">{{cite book |last=Zarrilli |first=Phillip B. |title=When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalaripayattu, a South Indian Martial Art |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page= 95 |isbn=978-0-19-563940-7}}</ref> Among some communities, young girls received preliminary training up until the onset of puberty.<ref name="Zarrilli 1998"/> In ''vadakkan pattukal'' ballads, at least a few women warriors continued to practice and achieved a high degree of expertise.<ref name="Zarrilli 1998"/>

Sports like [[kambala]], [[jallikattu]], [[kabaddi]], [[vallam kali]], [[lambs and tigers]], and [[maramadi]] remain strong among Dravidian ethnic groups.

==See also==
;General
* [[Dravidian languages]]
* [[Dravidian University]] (dedicated to research and learning of Dravidian languages)

;Culture
* [[Dance forms of Andhra Pradesh]]
* [[Culture of Telangana]]
* [[Arts of Kerala]]
* [[Dance forms of Tamil Nadu]]
* [[Folk arts of Karnataka]]

;Other
* [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]]
* [[Early Indians]]
* [[Indo-Aryan peoples]]
* [[Indian diaspora]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note|2}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Sources ==
{{Refbegin|40em}}
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{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Dravidian peoples}}
;Origins
* Akhilesh Pillalamarri, ''Where Did Indians Come from'', [https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/unraveled-where-indians-come-from-part-1/ part1], [https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/where-indians-come-from-part-2-dravidians-and-aryans/ part 2], [https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/where-did-indians-come-from-part-3-what-is-caste/ part 3]
* Scroll.in, {{cite web|url=https://scroll.in/article/874102/aryan-migration-everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-new-study-on-indian-genetics|title=Aryan migration: Everything you need to know about the new study on Indian genetics|date=2 April 2018 }}, on Narasimhan (2018)
;Language
* Bhadriraju Krishnamurti, [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dravidian-languages ''Dravidian languages''], Encyclopædia Britannica
* [https://www.mpg.de/11987643/dravidian-language-family ''Dravidian language family is approximately 4,500 years old''], Max-Planck-Gesellschaft

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Dravidian peoples