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{{Short description|Suppression of the Islamic Uprising in Syria}}
{{Distinguish|text=the [[2012 Hama massacre]] or the [[1981 Hama massacre]]}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Hama Islamic uprising
|partof= the [[Islamist uprising in Syria]]
|image = 1982HamaMassacre.png
|image_size = 300px
|caption=
|date= {{start date|1982|2|2}} - {{end date and age|1982|2|28}} (3 weeks 5 days)
|place=[[Hama]], [[Hama Governorate]], [[Syrian Arab Republic]]
|casus=Muslim Brotherhood capture of Hama city
|result=Decisive Syrian Army victory
*Islamist insurgency in Syria suppressed
|combatant1={{flagicon|Syria}} [[Syrian Arab Republic|Syrian government]] 
*{{flagicon|Syria|}} [[Defense Companies]]
*{{flagicon|Syria|}} [[Syrian Arab Army]]
**[[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|Military Intelligence]]
**[[General Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|General Intelligence]]
**[[Air Force Intelligence Directorate|Air Force Intelligence]]
*{{flagicon image|Flag of the Ba'ath Party.svg|link=Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)}} [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'ath Party]]
|combatant2= [[File:Flag of the Muslim Brotherhood.gif|23px|border|link=Muslim Brotherhood]] [[Muslim Brotherhood in Syria|Muslim Brotherhood]]
|commander1= [[Hafez al-Assad]] [[Rifaat al-Assad]] [[Hikmat al-Shihabi]] [[Shafiq Fayadh]] [[Ali Haydar (Syrian army officer)|Ali Haydar]] [[Ali Douba]] Mohammed al-Khouli
|commander2 = [[`Adnan `Uqla]] Adnan Sa'd al-Din Muhammad al-Bayanuni [[Sa'id Hawwa]]
|strength1= Defense Companies: 3 Brigades (12,000 soldiers) Syrian Arab Army: 4 Brigades (15,000 soldiers) Total: About 30,000 soldiers
|strength2 = Fewer than 2000 armed volunteers{{Citation needed|reason=Needs source|date=May 2021}}
|casualties1= ~1,000 killed
|casualties2= 300-400 killed<ref>https://syria360.files.wordpress.com/2013/11/dia-syria-muslimbrotherhoodpressureintensifies-2.pdf</ref>
|casualties3= ~2,000-40,000 killed (including civilians)
|units1={{*}}[[3rd Armoured Division (Syria)|3rd Armoured Division]] {{*}}[[10th Mechanised Division (Syria)|10th Armoured Division]] {{*}}[[14th Special Forces Division]]
|units2=Unknown
|notes=
}}
{{Campaignbox Islamist uprising in Syria}}

The '''Hama Massacre''' ({{lang-ar|مجزرة حماة}}), or '''Hama Uprising''', occurred in February 1982 when the [[Syrian Arab Army]] and the [[Defense Companies]], under orders of the country's president [[Hafez al-Assad]], [[siege|besieged]] the town of [[Hama]] for 27 days in order to quell an [[Islamist uprising in Syria|uprising]] by the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] against al-Assad's government.<ref name=fisk2010>[[#Reference-Fisk-2010|Fisk 2010]]</ref><ref name=memri2002>[[#Reference-MEMRI-2002|MEMRI 2002]]</ref> The massacre, carried out by the Syrian Army under commanding General [[Rifaat al-Assad]], effectively ended the campaign begun in 1976 by Sunni Muslim groups, including the Muslim Brotherhood, against the government.

Initial diplomatic reports from [[Western countries]] stated that 1,000 were killed.<ref name=time1>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,921108,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101015051513/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,921108,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 October 2010|title=Syria: Bloody Challenge to Assad|date=8 March 1982|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref><ref name="New York Times, 12 February 1982">{{cite news|author=JOHN KIFNER, Special to the New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/02/12/world/syrian-troops-are-said-to-battle-rebels-encircled-in-central-city.html |title=Syrian Troops Are Said To Battle Rebels Encircled in Central City |location=Hama (Syria); Syria |work=The New York Times |date=12 February 1982 |access-date=20 January 2012}}</ref> Subsequent estimates vary, with the lower estimates claiming that at least 2,000 Syrian citizens were killed,<ref name="nyt2011">''New York Times'' 2011 March 26</ref> while others put the number at 20,000 ([[Robert Fisk]])<ref name=fisk2010/> or 40,000 (Syrian Human Rights Committee).<ref name="memri2002" /><ref name="ReferenceA">Syrian Human Rights Committee, 2005</ref> About 1,000 Syrian soldiers were killed during the operation, and large parts of the old city were destroyed. The attack has been described as one of the "deadliest acts by any Arab government against its own people in the modern Middle East".<ref name=wright2008>[[#Reference-Wright-2008|Wright 2008: 243-244]]</ref> According to the Syrian opposition, the vast majority of the victims were civilians.<ref>Fisk, Robert. 1990. Pity the Nation. London: Touchstone, {{ISBN|0-671-74770-3}}.</ref>

==Background==
{{Main|Islamist uprising in Syria}}
{{See also|History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Syria}}

The [[Ba'ath Party]] of Syria, which advocated the ideologies of [[Arab nationalism]] and [[Arab socialism]] had clashed with the [[Muslim Brotherhood]], a group with a Sunni [[Islamism|Islamist]] ideology, since 1940.<ref name=seale_p93>[[#Reference-Seale-1989|Seale 1989: 93]]</ref> The two groups were opposed in important ways. The Ba'ath party was nominally secular, nationalist. The Muslim Brotherhood, like other Islamist groups, saw nationalism as un-Islamic and religion as inseparable from politics and government. Most Ba'ath party members were from humble, obscure backgrounds and favored radical economic policies, while Sunni Muslims had dominated the [[souq]]s and landed power of Syria, and tended to view government intervention in the economy as threatening.<ref>[[#Reference-Seale-1989|Seale 1989: 37, 93, 148, 171]]</ref> Not all Sunni notables believed in fundamentalism, but even those who did not often saw the Brotherhood as a useful tool against the Ba'ath.<ref name=seale_p335>[[#Reference-Seale-1989|Seale 1989: 335-337]]</ref>

[[File:Before Hama Massacre.jpg|thumb|305px|Section of Hama before the government attack]]
The town of [[Hama]] in particular was a "stronghold of landed conservatism and of the Muslim Brothers," and "had long been a redoubtable opponent of the Ba'athist state."<ref name=seale_p93/> The first full-scale clash between the two occurred shortly after the [[1963 Syrian coup d'état|1963 coup]], in which the Ba'ath party first gained power in Syria. In [[1964 Hama riot|April 1964 riots broke out in Hama]], where Muslim insurgents put up "roadblocks, stockpiled food and weapons, ransacked wine shops." After an [[Ismaili]] Ba'ath militiaman was killed, riots intensified and rebels attacked "every vestige" of the Ba'ath party in Hama. Tanks were brought in to crush the rebellion and 70 members of the Muslim Brotherhood died, with many others wounded or captured, and still more disappearing underground.

After the clashes in Hama, the situation periodically erupted into clashes between the government and various Islamic sections. However, a more serious challenge occurred after the Syrian invasion of Lebanon in 1976. In October 1980, Muhammad al-Bayanuni, a respected member of the religious hierarchy of Aleppo, became the Islamic Front's Secretary-General, but its leading light remained 'Adnan Sa'd al-Din, the General Supervisor of the Muslim Brothers. The chief ideologue of the Islamic Front was a prominent religious scholar from Hama, [[Sa'id Hawwa]], who along with Sa'd al-Din had been a leader of the northern militants during the mid-1970s.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://origins.osu.edu/article/syrias-islamic-movement-and-2011-12-uprising/page/0/1 |title=Syria's Islamic Movement and the 2011-12 Uprising |date=July 2012 |access-date=26 February 2020}}</ref> Anti-regime activists such as Marwan Hadid and [[:de:Muhammad al-Hamid|Muhammad al-Hamid]] were also carefully listened to.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lefevre |first=Raphael |date= 2013 |title= Ashes of Hama: The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sjxpAgAAQBAJ&q=Muhammad+al-Bayanuni+hama&pg=PA58 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=58 |isbn=9780199330621}}</ref>

From 1976 to 1982, Sunni [[Islamist]]s fought the [[Ba'ath Party]]-controlled government of Syria in what has been called a "long campaign of terror".<ref name=seale_p335/> In 1979 the Brotherhood undertook [[guerrilla]] activities in multiple cities within the country targeting military officers and government officials. The resulting government repression included abusive tactics, [[torture]], mass arrests, and a number of selective assassinations, particularly of prominent mosque preachers.<ref name=":0" /> In July 1980, the ratification of Law No. 49 made membership in the Muslim Brotherhood a [[capital offense]].<ref name="hrw1996">[[#Reference-hrw-1996|Human Rights Watch 1996]]</ref>

Throughout the first years of the 1980s, the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] and various other [[Islamism|Islamist]] factions staged hit-and-run and bomb attacks against the government and its officials, including a nearly successful attempt to assassinate President [[Hafez al-Assad]] on 26 June 1980, during an official state reception for the president of [[Mali]]. When a machine-gun salvo missed him, al-Assad allegedly ran to kick a [[hand grenade]] aside, and his bodyguard (who survived and was later promoted to a much higher position) smothered the explosion of another one. Surviving with only light injuries, al-Assad's revenge was swift and merciless: only hours later a large number of imprisoned Islamists (reports say from 600 to 1000 prisoners<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Friedman|first=Thomas L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=877DR3un9rIC|title=From Beirut to Jerusalem|date=2010-04-01|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|isbn=978-0-374-70699-9|pages=78|language=en}}</ref>) were executed in their cells in [[Tadmor Prison]] (near [[Palmyra]]), by units loyal to the President's brother [[Rifaat al-Assad]].

In an [[1981 Hama massacre|earlier massacre in 1981]], over 300 residents of Hama were killed by security forces, in a revenge attack for an Islamist terror incident.

==Attack by insurgents in Hama==
The events of the Hama massacre began at 2 am on 3 February 1982. An army unit searching the old city "stumbled on the hideout of the local guerilla commander, Omar Jawwad (aka Abu Bakr) and were ambushed. Other insurgent cells were alerted by radio and "roof-top snipers killed perhaps a score" of Syrian soldiers. Reinforcements were rushed to besiege Abu Bakr who then "gave the order for a general uprising" in Hama. Mosque loudspeakers used for the call to prayer called for jihad against the Ba'ath, and hundreds of Islamic insurgents rose to attack the homes of government officials and [[Baath Party]] leaders, overrun police posts and ransack armouries. By daybreak of the morning of 3 February, some 70 leading Ba'athists had been killed and the Islamist insurgents and other opposition activists proclaimed Hama a "liberated city", urging Syrians to rise up against the "infidel".<ref name=seale333>[[#Reference-Seale-1989|Seale 1989: 332-333]]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Syria: 30 years on, Hama survivors recount the horror|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2012/02/syria-years-hama-survivors-recount-horror/|access-date=2021-07-22|website=www.amnesty.org|date=28 February 2012|language=en}}</ref>

==Counter-attack by government forces==
[[File:Rifaathafezassad.jpg|thumb|305px|right|[[Hafez al-Assad]] (right), president of Syria. His brother [[Rifaat al-Assad]] (left) supposedly supervised the operation]]
According to author [[Patrick Seale]], "every party worker, every paratrooper sent to Hama knew that this time Islamic militancy had to be torn out of the city, whatever the cost." The military was mobilized, and president Hafez al-Assad sent Rifaat's special forces (the [[Defense companies]]), elite army units and [[Military Intelligence (Syria)|Mukhabarat]] agents to the city. Before the attack, the Syrian government called for the city's surrender and warned that anyone remaining in the city would be considered a rebel. Hama was besieged by 12,000 troops for three weeks – the first week spent "in regaining control of the town," and the last two "in hunting down the insurgents."<ref name= seale333 /> [[Robert Fisk]], a journalist who was in Hama midway through the battle, described civilians fleeing pervasive destruction.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fisk|first=Robert|title=Pity the Nation: Lebanon at War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VrXpeELOUNsC|year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-280130-2|pages=185–186}}</ref>

According to [[Amnesty International]], the Syrian military bombed the old city center from the air to facilitate the entry of infantry and tanks through the narrow streets; buildings were demolished by tanks during the first four days of fighting. Large parts of the old city were destroyed. There were also unsubstantiated reports of use of [[hydrogen cyanide]] by the government forces.<ref>{{citation|title=Reports of cyanide gas being used |publisher=SHRC |url=http://www.shrc.org/data/aspx/d0/1260.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110325232345/http://www.shrc.org/data/aspx/d0/1260.aspx |archive-date=25 March 2011 }}</ref>

Rifaat's forces ringed the city with artillery, shelled it, then combed the rubble for surviving Muslim Brotherhood members and supporters.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Benjamin|first1=Daniel|last2=Simon|first2=Steven|title=The Age of Sacred Terror|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IOoBZvdNrIkC|year=2002|publisher=Random House Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-58836-259-9}}</ref> Suspecting that rebels were still hiding in tunnels under the old city, he had diesel fuel pumped into them and stationed tanks at their entrances to shell fleeing militants.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/1.5014227|title=Tanks Finally Get Their Thanks|last=Melman|first=Yossi|date=19 May 2011|website=Haaretz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913111852/https://www.haaretz.com/1.5014227|archive-date=2018-09-13|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Fatality estimates==
Initial diplomatic reports from western governments in 1982 had stated that 1,000 were killed in the fighting.<ref name = time1 /><ref name="New York Times, 12 February 1982"/> Subsequent estimates of casualties varied from 2,000 to 40,000 people killed, including about 1,000 soldiers. Robert Fisk, who was in Hama shortly after the massacre, originally estimated fatalities at 10,000, but has since doubled the estimate to 20,000.<ref name = fisk2010/><ref>[[#Reference-Fisk-1990|Fisk 1990: 186]]</ref><ref>[[#Reference-Fisk-2007|Fisk 2007]]</ref> Syrian general and brother to the president Rifaat al-Assad reportedly boasted of killing 38,000 people.<ref>[[#Reference-Friedman-1998|''From Beirut to Jerusalem'', pp. 76–105]]</ref> Amnesty International initially estimated the death toll was between 10,000 and 25,000.<ref name=wright2008/>

Reports by Syrian Human Rights Committee claimed "over 25,000"<ref>Syrian Human Rights Committee, 2006.</ref> or between 30,000 and 40,000 people were killed.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
Twenty years later, Syrian journalist Subhi Hadidi, wrote that forces "under the command of General [[Ali Haydar (Syrian army officer)|Ali Haydar]], besieged the city for 27 days, bombarding it with heavy artillery and tank [fire], before invading it and killing 30,000 or 40,000 of the city's citizens – in addition to the 15,000 missing who have not been found to this day, and the 100,000 expelled."<ref name="memri2002" />

==Aftermath==
After the Hama uprising, the Islamist insurrection was broken, and the Brotherhood has since operated in exile while other factions surrendered or slipped into hiding. Government attitudes in Syria hardened considerably during the uprising, and Assad would rely more on repression than on political tactics for the remainder of his rule, although an economic liberalization began in the 1990s.<ref>US Dept. of State, country profile</ref>

After the massacre, the already evident disarray in the insurgents' ranks increased, and the rebel factions experienced acrimonious internal splits. Particularly damaging to their cause was the deterrent effect of the massacre, as well as the realization that no Sunni uprisings had occurred in the rest of the country in support of the Hama rebels. Most members of the rebel groups fled the country or remained in exile, mainly in [[Iran]], while others would make their way to the United States, the United Kingdom and Germany.<ref name="gp">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpolitician.com/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=23 May 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070529125957/http://globalpolitician.com/ |archive-date=29 May 2007 |df=dmy }}</ref> The Muslim Brotherhood—the largest opposition group—split into two factions, after giving up on armed struggle. One, more moderate and recognized by the international Muslim Brotherhood, eventually headquartered itself in the UK where it remains, while another for several years retained a military structure in [[Iran]], with backing from the government, before rejoining the London-based mainstream.

The Hama massacre is often raised in indictment of the al-Assad government's poor human rights record.<ref name="hrw1996" /><ref>Human Rights Watch, 2010</ref> Within Syria, mention of the massacre has been strictly suppressed, although the general contours of the events—and various partisan versions, on all sides—are well known throughout the country. When the massacre is publicly referenced, it is only as the "events" or "incident" at Hama.
In 2012, Dr. Gregory Stanton from Genocide Watch announced that the Hama massacre qualified as a Genocide (specifically a Genocidal massacre), and that it's effectiveness could repercuss into future mass killings during the Syrian Civil War (which was just beginning at the time).<ref>http://migs.concordia.ca/documents/StantonGenocideandMassAtrocitiesAlert.pdf</ref>

==See also==
* [[2004 al-Qamishli riots]]
* [[Counter-insurgency]]
* [[History of Syria#Baath Party rule under Hafez al-Assad, 1970–2000|History of Syria, Baath Party rule under Hafez al-Assad]]
* [[List of massacres in Syria]]
* [[List of modern conflicts in the Middle East]]
* [[Siege of Hama (2011)]]
* [[Siege of Homs]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
*Benkorich, Nora; 16 Feb. 2012, [http://www.laviedesidees.fr/Trente-ans-apres-retour-sur-la.html Trente ans après, retour sur la tragédie de Hama]
*Benjamin, Daniel; Steven Simon. 2002. ''The Age of Sacred Terror''. Random House.
*{{Wikicite|id=Fisk-1990|reference=[[Robert Fisk|Fisk, Robert]]. 1990. ''Pity the Nation''. London: Touchstone, {{ISBN|0-671-74770-3}}.}}
*{{Wikicite|id=Fisk-2007|reference=Fisk, Robert. 2007 February 10. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070212045224/http://news.independent.co.uk/world/fisk/article2255669.ece Conspiracy of silence in the Arab world]. ''The Independent'' (UK).}}
*{{Wikicite|id=Fisk-2010|reference=Fisk, Robert. 2010 September 16. [https://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-freedom-democracy-and-human-rights-in-syria-2080463.html Robert Fisk: Freedom, democracy and human rights in Syria. (Ribal al-Assad gives our writer a rare insight into the dynasty that has shaped modern Syria)]. ''The Independent'' (UK).}}
*{{Wikicite|id=Friedman-1998|reference=[[Thomas Friedman|Friedman, Thomas]]. 1998. ''From Beirut to Jerusalem'', London: [[HarperCollins Publishers]], {{ISBN|0-00-653070-2}}. Chapter 4: "Hama Rules".}}
*[[Global Politician]].com. 2006 May 23. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080410143338/http://www.globalpolitician.com/21790-syria-islamism The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood].
*{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/syria/hama.htm |title=Hama |publisher=GlobalSecurity.org| access-date=14 November 2009}}
*{{Wikicite|id=hrw-1996|reference=[[Human Rights Watch]]. 1996. [http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,HRW,COUNTRYREP,SYR,4562d8cf2,3ae6a7dbc,0.html Syria's Tadmor Prison: Dissent Still Hostage to a Legacy of Terror].}}
*Human Rights Watch. 2010 July 16. [https://www.hrw.org/en/node/91580/section/7 A wasted decade. V. Legacy of enforced disappearances]. Report on human rights in Syria.
*{{cite web |url=http://www.memri.org/report/en/0/0/0/0/0/0/590.htm |title=Bashar Assad Teaches Visiting Members of U.S. Congress How to Fight Terrorism |access-date=12 August 2010 |publisher=Middle East Media Research Institute |author=MEMRI |date=January 2002 |ref=Reference-MEMRI-2002}}
*{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/27/world/middleeast/27diplomacy.html|title=Chaos in Syria and Jordan Alarms U.S.|author=New York Times|work=The New York Times|date=26 March 2011}}
*{{Wikicite|id=Seale-1989|reference=Seale, Patrick. 1989. ''Asad, the Struggle for the Middle East''. University of California Press.}}
*{{Wikicite|id=Fisk-1989|reference=Fisk, Robert. 1989. ''Pity the Nation''. London: Touchstone, {{ISBN|0-671-74770-3}}.}}
*[[Syrian Human Rights Committee]]. 2006 [https://web.archive.org/web/20130522172157/http://www.shrc.org/data/aspx/d5/2535.aspx Massacre of Hama (February 1982) Genocide and a crime against Humanity].
*Syrian Human Rights Committee. 2005 [https://web.archive.org/web/20130528222037/http://www.shrc.org/data/aspx/d3/53.aspx (Arabic) ''The Massacre of Hama: Law Enforcement Requires Accountability''].
*United States of America. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs. [https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm Background note: Syria.]
*{{Wikicite|id=Wright-2008|reference=Wright, Robin. 2008. ''Dreams and Shadows : the Future of the Middle East''. Penguin.}}

==Further reading==
* Kathrin Nina Wiedl: ''The Hama Massacre – reasons, supporters of the rebellion, consequences''. München 2007, {{ISBN|978-3-638-71034-3}}.
*{{Wikicite|id= The Economist-2000 | reference= [[The Economist]] (16 November 2000) ''Is Syria really changing?'', London: 'Syria’s Islamist movement has recently shown signs of coming back to life, nearly 20 years after 30,000 people were brutally massacred in Hama in 1982' [[The Economist]]}}
*{{Wikicite|id=Routledge-2002|reference=[[Routledge]] (10 January 2000) ''Summary of the 10 January 2002, Roundtable on Militant Islamic Fundamentalism in the Twenty-First Century'', Volume 24, Number 3 / 1 June 2002: Pages:187 – 205''}}
*{{Wikicite|id=Donnelly-1988|reference=[[Jack Donnelly]] (1988) ''Human Rights at the United Nations 1955–85: The Question of Bias'', International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 32, No. 3 (Sep., 1988), pp. 275–303}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130611183650/http://www.shrc.org/data/aspx/20NEWSEN.aspx More Detailed Account of the actual Hama Massacre and Killings]
*[http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2012/03/08/the-syrian-iranian-relationship-do-we-get-it-now-did-we-ever/ NSArchive]
*{{Wikicite|id=Fisk-2007|reference=Fisk, Robert. 1997 January 19. [https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/a-land-in-the-shadow-of-death-1283939.html A LAND IN THE SHADOW OF DEATH]. ''The Independent'' (UK) (paragraph recollecting insurgency and reaction).}}

{{Authority control}}
{{Coord missing|Syria}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hama Massacre}}

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[[Category:Islamist uprising in Syria]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1982]]
[[Category:1982 in Syria]]
[[Category:History of Hama]]
[[Category:Massacres in 1982]]
[[Category:Massacres in Syria]]
[[Category:Political repression in Syria]]
[[Category:February 1982 events in Asia]]
[[Category:Massacres committed by Syria]]
[[Category:Genocidal massacres]]
[[Category:Genocides in Asia]]

1982 Hama massacre - Revision history

MetaBOT at 15:06, 8 July 2023