->Gronk Oz at 16:51, 11 August 2021

2021-08-11T16:51:01Z

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{{Distinguish|Afoxé}}

The term '''afoxé''' refers to a [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]] group originating from [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador da Bahia]], Brazil in the 1920s, and the music it plays deriving from the [[Afro-Brazilians|Afro-Brazilian]] [[Candomblé]] religion.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Crook|first=Larry|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780203886526|title=Focus: Music of Northeast Brazil|date=2010-11-01|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-88652-6|edition=2|language=en|doi=10.4324/9780203886526}}</ref> It came to indicate a musical rhythm, named ijexá derived from the ijexá nation within [[Candomblé]].<ref name=":19">{{Cite book|last=SHUKLA|first=PRAVINA|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt16gzhzm|title=Costume: Performing Identities through Dress|date=2015|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-01577-8}}</ref> Cultural performances of the afoxés, typically at [[Brazilian Carnival]], incorporate [[choreography]], song, [[Sacred language|ritual language]] and [[Ceremony|ceremonies]] deriving from the [[Candomblé]] religion.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Ickes|first=Scott|url=http://florida.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.5744/florida/9780813044781.001.0001/upso-9780813044781|title=African-Brazilian Culture and Regional Identity in Bahia, Brazil|date=2013-08-13|publisher=University Press of Florida|isbn=978-0-8130-4478-1|doi=10.5744/florida/9780813044781.003.0006}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Azenha|first=Gustavo S.|date=2016-09-04|title=Reimagining Black Difference and Politics in Brazil: From Racial Democracy to Multiculturalism - by Emboaba da Costa, Alexandre|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/blar.12544|journal=Bulletin of Latin American Research|volume=35|issue=4|pages=530–532|doi=10.1111/blar.12544|issn=0261-3050}}</ref> In Brazil, afoxé is generally performed by ''[[blocos]]'', afros-groups of mostly black or ''[[mulatto]]'' musicians who are familiar with African Brazilian music.<ref name=":0" /> Afoxés are a cultural and religious entity that preserves a tradition of [[Afro-Brazilians|Afro-Brazilian]] culture.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Jerry D. Metz|date=2008|title=Cultural Geographies of Afro-Brazilian Symbolic Practice: Tradition and Change in Maracatu de Nação (Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil)|url=http://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/latin_american_music_review/v029/29.1.metz.html|journal=Latin American Music Review|language=en|volume=29|issue=1|pages=64–95|doi=10.1353/lat.0.0001|issn=1536-0199}}</ref>

== Afoxé in Afro-Brazilian Carnival ==
[[File:Folianopolis2010-2.jpg|thumb|334x334px|Carnival celebrations in Salvador de Bahia, Brazil]]
The annual [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]] that takes place in several cities of Brazil is considered the country's largest public festival. Specifically, [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]] in [[Salvador, Bahia|Bahia Salvador]] is the birthplace of several groups from the Afro-Brazilian tradition, afoxé, which relates to [[Afro-Brazilians|Afro-Brazilian]] [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]] traditions linked to the [[Candomblé]] religion.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":7" /> [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival in Brazil]] has a strong and on-going presence of [[Afro-Brazilian Culture|Afro-Brazilian culture]]<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Bahia|first=Joana|date=2016|title=Dancing with the Orixás|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18725465-00901005|journal=African Diaspora|volume=9|issue=1-2|pages=15–38|doi=10.1163/18725465-00901005|issn=1872-5457}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Citation|last=Hernandez|first=Deborah Pacini|title=World Music, World Beat, and the Re-Africanization of Latin American Popular Music|date=2005-04-07|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.43945|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1|access-date=2020-12-02}}</ref> (The term "[[Afro-Brazilians|Afro]]" is utilised with reference to a phenomenon originating in [[Africa]] but developed in [[Brazil]].<ref name=":14">{{Citation|last=Henry|first=Clarence Bernard|title=Axé Embodiment in Brazilian Popular Music|date=2008-08-21|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.14325/mississippi/9781604730821.003.0004|work=Let's Make Some Noise|pages=82–105|publisher=University Press of Mississippi|isbn=978-1-60473-082-1|access-date=2020-12-02}}</ref> Rather than celebrating the sacred [[Candomblé|Candomblé religion]] privately, the afoxé [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]] traditions are a public affirmation of the religion, which is openly displayed on the streets in a [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival context]]. [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]] plays a fundamental role in defining black identities in the context of the larger society.<ref name=":0" /> In Brazil, [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]] is a moment when the [[Race (human categorization)|racial heritage]] of Brazil as well as its hybrid cultural traditions is continually presented.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":7" />

== History of the Afro-Brazilian Carnival Expression ==
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, following the abolition of [[Slavery in Brazil|slavery]], processions celebrating African heritage took place in the annual [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]] celebrations in Brazil's major cities.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Araujo|first=A. L.|date=2013-06-01|title=History and Heritage of Slavery and the Atlantic Slave Trade in the South Atlantic|url=http://lbr.uwpress.org/cgi/doi/10.1353/lbr.2013.0025|journal=Luso-Brazilian Review|language=en|volume=50|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1353/lbr.2013.0025|issn=0024-7413}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Lima|first=Ari|last2=Hallewell|first2=Laurence|date=2014|title=From African Survivals to a Working-Class Afro-Brazilian Culture|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24573905|journal=Latin American Perspectives|volume=41|issue=5|pages=157–166|issn=0094-582X}}</ref> The Brazilian cities of [[Recife]] and [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]] saw black Carnival groups powerfully and actively parading 'African' themes, which announced the development of African consciousness within the new Republic.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /> Public events allowed blacks to determine an active and visible role in establishing cultural values that would define modern Brazilian society.<ref name=":0" /> In the early 1900s, dominant sectors of society, formed exclusively by white individuals of [[European descent|European]] descent: members of traditional families, wealthy [[merchant]]s, high-level government employees and [[politician]]s, called for a state intervention in order to prohibit African related practices in Brazil. It was feared that these practices were 'Africanizing' the country's [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]].<ref name=":0" />

Between the years 1905 and 1914, [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]] expressions that included African music, dancing and costumes were banned and forced out of the city's official [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]] by [[Bahia]]n police.<ref name=":0" /> The Afro-bahian practice of [[Candomblé]] was recognised as violent and individuals following the religion were subjected to legal prohibitions and police action.<ref name=":0" /> This caused these large, organised African groups to separate.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /> Afoxés continued their traditions in the poor neighbourhoods of the city.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Carvalho|first=José Jorge|title=Metamorphosis of Afro-Brazilian Performance Traditions: From Cultural Heritage to the Entertainment Industry|publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]|year=2016|isbn=9780252040214|pages=406–429}}</ref> On February 5, 1921, mentions of 'African' [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]] practices were reintroduced, appearing in the [[Bahia]]n newspaper, ''[[Diário de Notícias]]''.<ref name=":0" />

== Candomblé Religion ==
[[Candomblé]] is an African-derived religion practiced in [[Northeast Region, Brazil|North-eastern Brazil]], beginning in the early 19th century.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Selka|first=Stephen|date=2007-08-01|title=Mediated Authenticity: Tradition, Modernity, and Postmodernity in Brazilian Candombléé|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/nr.2007.11.1.5|journal=Nova Religio|volume=11|issue=1|pages=5–30|doi=10.1525/nr.2007.11.1.5|issn=1092-6690}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Meneses|date=2016|title=Listening with the Body: An Aesthetics of Spirit Possession Outside the <em>Terreiro</em>|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/ethnomusicology.60.1.0089|journal=Ethnomusicology|volume=60|issue=1|pages=89|doi=10.5406/ethnomusicology.60.1.0089|issn=0014-1836}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Dempsey|date=2019|title=Captains and Priestesses in Afro-Brazilian Congado and Candomblé|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/ethnomusicology.63.2.0184|journal=Ethnomusicology|volume=63|issue=2|pages=184|doi=10.5406/ethnomusicology.63.2.0184|issn=0014-1836}}</ref> It is considered the best known and most orthodox religion in Brazil.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":10" /> [[Candomblé]] is a hierarchical religion, which derives from a variety of practices that [[enslaved Africans]] brought to Brazil.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11" /> [[Candomblé]] practice honours and summons the ''Orixás'', the African gods, which are believed to guide and protect devotees.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":13">{{Citation|last=Gil|first=Gilberto|title=In Praise of a Modernist Monument|date=2016|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/9780822375067-081|work=The Rio de Janeiro Reader|pages=311–316|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-5974-6|access-date=2020-12-02}}</ref> This is achieved through the power of song, dancing and drumming, as a central feature of [[worship]]. Music that accompanies the religious rituals of [[Candomblé]] feature a [[West African music|West African]] style of drumming.<ref name=":0" /> This drumming style includes a [[syncopated]] musical pattern and rhythm, referred to as ijexá. Ijexá is an integral symbol of black identity in Carnival.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":1" /> The Afro-religious communities who performed [[Candomblé]] music, were known as afoxés.<ref name=":0" />

== Afoxé Music in Carnival ==
[[File:Atabaque in the street.jpg|thumb|[[Atabaque|A''tabaque'']] drum- Single-headed drum made from [[wood]] and [[animal skins]].|270x270px]]
[[File:AgogoBells.jpg|thumb|[[Agogô|A''gogô'' bell]]- A percussion instrument used by the Carnival afoxé]]
[[File:Abe agbe afoxe.jpg|thumb|''[[Afoxé]]s-'' small beaded gourds used by the Carnival Afoxé]]
Whilst respecting and honouring the African and African-Bahian religious [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]] heritage, the careful selection of certain instruments greatly affects and impacts the percussive culture as well as an individual's relationship with the [[spirituality|spiritual realm]].<ref name=":2" /> The music of [[Candomblé]] uses the [[Atabaque|''atabaque'' drums]], the [[Agogô|''agogô'' bell]] and the ''[[afoxé]]s'' (also refers to the small beaded gourds used by the afoxé groups), which all play central roles in afoxé [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]] traditions.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":15">{{Citation|title=Early Afro-Hispanic texts|date=2005-03-10|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511627811.005|work=A History of Afro-Hispanic Language|pages=71–94|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-82265-7|access-date=2020-12-02}}</ref> An ''[[atabaque]]'' is the name given to a conga-like drum, which is closely associated with African heritage.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /> These single-headed drums are made from [[wood]] and [[animal skins]]. Traditionally, in the [[Afro-Brazilian religion|Afro- Brazilian]] religious setting of [[Candomblé]], these drums come in three sizes; ''Rum'' (large), ''Rumpi'' (medium), and ''Lê'' (small).<ref name=":0" /> In the afoxé, the lead drummer will use the largest size drum (R''um'') and will improvise variations of set patterns, which are coordinated with dance movements.<ref name=":0" /> The ''[[agogô]]'' bell refers to a metal bell, deriving from [[Central Africa|Central]] and [[West Africa]]n musical cultures.<ref name=":2" /> The bell's role is to provide a [[Syncopated rhythm|syncopated]] rhythm in afoxé performances.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /> The afoxé gourd shaker is a [[percussion instrument]] deriving from [[West Africa]]. The instrument contains the gourd (''[[Cabasa|cabaça]]''), which is wrapped in a net with threaded beads and plastic balls. With these instruments, traditional songs deriving from the [[Candomblé]] religion are played and sung during afoxé [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]].<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":15" />

These instruments are performed using the ijexá rhythm, a fundamental element of afoxé, which refers to the [[Syncopated rhythm|syncopated]] and basic rhythmic pattern played by the [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]] afoxé.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":14" /> The singing style of [[Candomblé]] includes scales with five pitches, call-and-response vocal organisation and [[Syncopated rhythm|syncopated]] phrasing.<ref name=":0" /> Typically, these songs with the Ijexá rhythm performed by the afoxé, are served to honour and praise the African gods known as ''Orixás'' of the [[Candomblé|Canbomblé]] religion.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> These songs were presented by the afoxé in both African (commonly [[Yoruba language|Yoruban]]) and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] languages.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":14" /><ref name=":13" />

== Filhos De Gandhi ==
''Filhos De Gandhi'' is the most acknowledged afoxé group, as it is considered the largest, oldest and most respected [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]] group in [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador, Brazil]].<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=McElroy|first=Isis Costa|date=2010|title=A Transdiasporic Paradigm: The "Afoxé" Filhos de Gandhy|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41349316|journal=Afro-Hispanic Review|volume=29|issue=1|pages=77–100|issn=0278-8969}}</ref> The exclusively all-male group, ''Filhos De Gandhi'' meaning ''Sons of Gandhi,'' was founded in the year 1949, the year following the [[Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi|assassination]] of the well-respected Indian leader, [[Mahatma Gandhi]].<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Walker|first=Sheila S.|date=November 1990|title=Everyday and Esoteric Reality in the Afro-Brazilian Candomblé|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/463217|journal=History of Religions|volume=30|issue=2|pages=103–128|doi=10.1086/463217|issn=0018-2710}}</ref> The creation of this afoxé group was inspired by [[Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi's death]], who was an advocate for [[racial injustice]] in India. The anti-violence and civil rights activist was transformed into a sacred [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]] icon. As a result, a group of [[stevedore]]s originating from the [[Port of Salvador]] were inspired to form this [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]] group, with the intent of being symbols of peace whilst combating [[discrimination]] against [[Afro-Brazilians|Afro-Brazilian]] peoples in the [[Salvador, Bahia|city of Salvador]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":19" /><ref name=":16" /> Local [[priest]]s of the [[Candomblé]] religion also participated in this afoxé group.<ref name=":0" /> Women were not allowed to participate. Due to the fact that the group was formed by [[stevedore]]s, there was an absence of women working and unloading the ships.<ref name=":16" /> Women could only offer "logistical support, by taking care of the men's costumes and beautifying their turbans".<ref name=":16" />

The well-acclaimed afoxé group has been granted the title '''Associação Cultural Recreativa e Carnavalesca Filhos de Gandhy''', meaning that the group has a more significant role then annually parading in [[Brazilian Carnival|Afro-Brazilian Carnival]], but they also have a religious, cultural, and social presence in the city throughout the year.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=de Oliveira Pinto|first=Tiago|date=1984|title=Review of Afoxé Filhos de Gandhi, , Antonio Risério|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43561010|journal=The World of Music|volume=26|issue=3|pages=69–71|issn=0043-8774}}</ref>
[[File:Alexius Filhos de Gandhy Salvador Bahia.jpg|thumb|323x323px|Members of the ''Filhos de Gandhi'' afoxé in traditional Carnival costumes]]

=== Traditional costumes ===
''Filhos de Gandhi'' remains appealing to audiences as the group contains a mix of both African and Indian cultures. The African culture is apparent through dancing, music and [[ritual]]s and the Indian culture is evident through the ornamental charm through its costumes.<ref name=":19" /> The costumes of the ''Filhos de Gandhi'' men, creates one of the most striking visual images of today's Bahian [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]].<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /> During [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]], ''Filhos de Gandhi'' spread awareness of the ''Orixás'' by displaying religious iconography on painted banners, floats and through songs, costumes and music.<ref name=":1">{{Citation|title=Introduction - From Carnival ...|date=2020|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350015029.ch-001|work=Carnival to Catwalk|publisher=Bloomsbury Visual Arts|isbn=978-1-350-01499-2|access-date=2020-12-02}}</ref>

''Filhos de Gandhi'' members are notable and distinguished for their bejewelled, exotic and extravagant costumes.<ref name=":19" /> During [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]], traditionally ''Filhos de Gandhi'' men are clothed in long and white T-shaped [[tunic]]s, featuring the year's carnival theme, which is clearly imprinted on the front of the men's tunics in the colour blue. Each year, the design varies. The [[tunic]] displays an image of the Indian figure, [[Mahatma Gandhi]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":19" /> ''Filhos De Gandhi'' men also wear blue socks with white strappy, plastic [[sandal]]s, which contain the word "Gandhy" printed on them.<ref name=":19" /> At the waist, the men use a blue [[sash]] to tie around their white [[tunic]]s. Blue ribbons are used to tie two bows on the men's shoulders in order to pinch the fabric at the shoulder seams of the tunic.<ref name=":19" />

''Filhos De Gandhi'' members receive a long piece of white cotton towel. Prior to the commencement of [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]], several ''Filhos De Gandhi members'' have this large piece of white cotton towel converted to a custom-made head [[turban]].<ref name=":1" /> This removable [[headpiece]] is referred to as ''turbantes''.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":16" /> [[Gemstone|Jewels]] and a [[brooch]] embellish the [[turban]]. The large 3-inch (in diameter) [[brooch]] is designed with blue and silver sequins, [[bead]]s and [[Gemstone|gems]]. [[Brooch]] designs vary and allows for the men to design it to their own personal preference. A small [[drawstring]] bag typically made from [[cotton]] is held around the wrist of the men throughout the [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]]. It contains [[handkerchief]]s and a [[Lavandula|lavender]] spray called ''Alfazema''.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":16" /> ''Alfazema'' is included into the ''Filhos De Gandhi'' costume due to the widespread belief that [[Lavandula|lavender]] contains strong healing properties. ''Alfazema'' is held in a small bottle, which is sprayed by the ''Filhos De Gandhi'' men throughout the [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]], in order to help purify, cleanse and calm the chaotic [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]] streets. ''Filhos De Gandhi'' perform this with the intent to lead the Brazilian city of [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]] to peace.<ref name=":19" />

== The formation of an Afoxé ==
During [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]], the formation of an afoxé is typically formed in a line. The line begins with the announcer, followed by the white guard, the King and Queen, the ''[[maracatu]]'' doll (a traditional black clothed doll representing tribal deities), the flag bearer, the guard of honour and following them is the band of [[Percussion instrument|percussionists]] including drummers, cowbells and shakers.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":16" />

The ijexá rhythm, containing a call and response melody is sung by a soloist and repeated by a chorus. The ijexá rhythm is danced to, using simple yet traditional steps deriving from sacred [[Candomblé]] dances.<ref name=":16" /> This is characterised by a [[Capoeira|''ginga'']] swing, where the movement of the shoulders and arms are quick with steps that are short and small.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":16" />

== References ==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Afoxe}}
[[Category:Brazilian styles of music]]
[[Category:Brazilian Carnival]]
[[Category:Candomblé]]
[[Category:Afro-Brazilian culture]]
[[Category:Mahatma Gandhi]]

Afoxê - Revision history

->Gronk Oz at 16:51, 11 August 2021