ElenaEbersbacher at 19:25, 11 November 2025

2025-11-11T19:25:26Z

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{{short description|Purported concept of early Buddhists not to depict the Buddha's person}}
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[[File:Miracle at Kapilavastu Suddhodana praying as his son the Buddha rises in the air with only path visible Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|thumb|Aniconism in ''Miracle at [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]]'': King [[Suddhodana]] praying as his son the [[Buddha]] rises in the air, praised by celestial beings (but only the Buddha's path, the ''Chankrama'' horizontal slab in the air, is visible).<ref name="p.58 Third Panel">Marshall [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p.58 Third Panel]</ref>]]
Since the beginning of the serious study of the history of [[Buddhist art]] in the 1890s, the earliest phase, lasting until the 1st century CE, has been described as [[aniconic]]; the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] was only represented through symbols such as an [[Hetoimasia|empty throne]], [[Bodhi]] tree, a riderless horse with a parasol floating above an empty space (at [[Sanchi]]), [[Buddha footprint|Buddha's footprints]], and the [[dharma wheel]].<ref>Huntington, opening pages</ref>

This aniconism in relation to the image of the Buddha could be in conformity with an ancient Buddhist prohibition against showing the Buddha himself in human form, known from the ''[[Sarvastivada]] [[vinaya]]'' (rules of the early Buddhist school of the [[Sarvastivada]]):<blockquote>"Since it is not permitted to make an image of the Buddha's body, I pray that the Buddha will grant that I can make an image of the attendant [[Bodhisattva]]. Is that acceptable?" The Buddha answered: "You may make an image of the Bodhisattava".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rhi |first1=Ju-Hyung |title=From Bodhisattva to Buddha: The Beginning of Iconic Representation in Buddhist Art |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=54 |issue=3/4 |date=1994 |pages=220–221 |doi=10.2307/3250056 |jstor=3250056 }}</ref></blockquote>Although there is still some debate, the first [[anthropomorphic]] representations of the Buddha himself are often considered a result of the [[Greco-Buddhist art|Greco-Buddhist]] interaction, in particular in [[Gandhara]], a theory first fully expounded by [[Alfred A. Foucher]], but criticised from the start by [[Ananda Coomaraswamy]]. Foucher also accounted for the origins of the aniconic symbols themselves in small souvenirs carried away from the main pilgrimage sites and so becoming recognised and popularized as symbolic of the events associated with the site. Other explanations were that it was inappropriate to represent one who had attained [[nirvana]].<ref>Krishan, 9</ref>

However, in 1990, the notion of aniconism in Buddhism was challenged by [[Susan Huntington]], initiating a vigorous debate among specialists that still continues.<ref>See [https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZCl3DRN3vsC&dq=Early+Buddhist+Art+and+the+Theory+of+Aniconism&pg=PA132 note 7 here] for an update on the controversy as of 2007, and [https://books.google.com/books?id=FHxsDV1GDOIC&dq=Riderless+horse+Buddha&pg=PA20 here] for another from 2001.</ref> She sees many early scenes claimed to be aniconic as in fact not depicting scenes from the life of the Buddha, but worship of [[cetiya]] (relics) or re-enactments by devotees at the places where these scenes occurred. Thus the image of the [[empty throne]] shows an actual relic-throne at [[Bodh Gaya]] or elsewhere. She points out that there is only one indirect reference for a specific aniconic doctrine in Buddhism to be found, and that pertaining to only one sect.<ref>(Huntington 1990) [http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ADM/huntin.htm] and [https://books.google.com/books?id=sgkKbE-9EhAC&dq=Early+Buddhist+Art+and+the+Theory+of+Aniconism&pg=PA73 here]</ref>

As for the archeological evidence, it shows some anthropomorphic sculptures of the Buddha actually existing during the supposedly aniconic period, which ended during the 1st century CE.{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}} Huntington also rejects the association of "aniconic" and "iconic" art with an emerging division between [[Theravada]] and [[Mahayana]] Buddhism. Huntington's views have been challenged by Vidya Dehejia and others.<ref>(Huntington 1990) [http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ADM/huntin.htm] and [https://books.google.com/books?id=sgkKbE-9EhAC&dq=Early+Buddhist+Art+and+the+Theory+of+Aniconism&pg=PA73 here]</ref> Although some earlier examples have been found in recent years, it is common ground that the large free-standing iconic images of the Buddha so prominent in later Buddhist art are not found in the earliest period; discussion is focused on smaller figures in [[relief]] panels, conventionally considered to represent scenes from the life of the Buddha, and now re-interpreted by Huntington and her supporters.

<gallery widths="200" heights="200" perrow="4">
File:Pillar with Naga Muchalinda over the throne of the Buddha. Pauni (Bhandara District). Railing pillar from Jagannath Tekri. 2nd-1st century BCE.jpg|Pillar with Naga [[Mucalinda]] protecting the throne of the Buddha. Railing pillar from Jagannath Tekri, [[Pauni]] (Bhandara District). 2nd–1st century BCE. [[National Museum of India]].<ref>"The bas-relief at Pauni or Bharhut in India, which dates back to about the second century B.C., represents a vacant throne protected by a naga with many heads. It also bears an inscription of the Naga Mucalinda (Fig. 3)" {{cite book|title=SPAFA Digest: Journal Of SEAMEO Project in Archaeology and Fine Arts (SPAFA).|date=1987|publisher=SPAFA Co-ordinating Unit|page=4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s1FuAAAAMAAJ|language=en}}</ref>
File:MaraAssault.jpg|An aniconic representation of [[Mara (demon)|Mara]]'s assault on the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], with an [[empty throne]], 2nd century, [[Amaravati Stupa|Amaravati]], [[India]].<ref>Krishan, pp. 1 and 5, fig 4a caption</ref>
File:Kanaganahalli relief.jpg|Devotions to the empty throne of the Buddha, [[Kanaganahalli]], 1st–3rd century CE
</gallery>

==Aniconism and anthropomorphism==
Depending on the schools of art or the period, the Buddha can only appear through his symbols, or in anthropomorphological form, in similar works of art.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Krishan |first1=Yuvraj |last2=Tadikonda |first2=Kalpana K. |title=The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development |date=1996 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |isbn=978-81-215-0565-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kDyJh--iaL0C&pg=PP13 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dehejia |first1=Vidya |title=Aniconism and the Multivalence of Emblems |journal=Ars Orientalis |date=1991 |volume=21 |pages=45–66 |issn=0571-1371|jstor=4629413 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto;" align="center" colspan="6" cellpadding="3" style="font-size: 80%; width: 100%;"
|-
|state=collapsed align=center colspan=6 style="background:#BC8F8F; font-size: 100%; width: 1%;"| '''Sanchi and the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara'''
|-
|
|align="center"|'''Maya's dream'''
|align="center"|'''The Great Departure'''
|align="center"|'''Mara's attack'''
|align="center"|'''Enlightenment'''
|align="center"|'''The Buddha Preaching'''
|-
|align="center"|'''Sanchi''' (1st c. BCE/CE)
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Maya's dream Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern gateway.jpg|150px]] Maya's dream of a white elephant.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Departure of the Buddha from Kapilavastu Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gate.jpg|120px]] The Buddha, under the umbrella on the chariot, is not illustrated.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Temptation and enlightenment of the Buddha.jpg|120px]] The Buddha is symbolized by an empty throne.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Enlightenment of the Buddha with the Nagas rejoincing.jpg|120px]] The Buddha is symbolized by an empty throne.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Teaching the Sakyans Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|120px]] The Buddha is symbolized by an empty throne.
|-
|align="center"|'''[[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]]''' (1st c.CE-4th c.CE)
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Maya's Dream and its Interpretation, Gandhara, 2nd-3rd century AD, schist - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01634.JPG|150px]] Very similar illustration from Gandhara.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Scenes from the Life of the Buddha, Gandhara, 2nd-3rd century, schist - Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive - DSC04149.JPG|170px]] The Buddha in person leaves the city.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:L'attaque de Mâra (musée d'art asiatique de Dahlem, Berlin) (12488794514).jpg|120px]] The Buddha is illustrated centrally.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Buddha's Sermon, Gandhara, 2nd-3rd century AD, schist - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01650.JPG|120px]] The Buddha is illustrated centrally.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Preaching Buddha, Gandhara, c. 3rd-4th century AD, gray schist - Matsuoka Museum of Art - Tokyo, Japan - DSC07116.JPG|150px]] The Buddha is illustrated centrally.
|}

== Later periods ==
In later periods both the major schools of Buddhism have made great use of representational art, though [[Theravada]] temples and other sites typically concentrate on a single large sculpture of the Buddha, whereas [[Mahayana]] temples have larger numbers of images of a greater variety of figures with varying degrees of spiritual significance. However some schools, such as [[Zen Buddhism]] in [[Japan]], have also shown a general tendency towards aniconism, though without specific prohibition of figurative images.

== See also ==
* [[Gautama Buddha]]
* [[Buddhist paths to liberation|Dhamma]]
* [[Sangha]]
* [[Three Refuges]]
* [[Five Precepts]]
* [[Pāli Canon]]
* [[Cetiya]]
* [[Iconoclasm]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
*S. L. Huntington, ''[http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ADM/huntin.htm Early Buddhist art and the theory of aniconism]'', ''Art Journal'', 49:4 (1990): 401–8. ]
*Krishan, Yuvraj, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kDyJh--iaL0C The Buddha image: its origin and development]'', 1996, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, {{ISBN|81-215-0565-8}}, {{ISBN|978-81-215-0565-9}}. - a clear and well-illustrated account of the traditional view
* Rob Linrothe, ''[https://www.jstor.org/pss/29757094 Inquiries into the Origin of the Buddha Image: A Review]''. In: ''East and West'', 43 (1993): 241–256.

[[Category:Aniconism|Buddhism]]
[[Category:Buddhist art]]
[[Category:History of art]]
[[Category:Buddhist iconography]]

Aniconism in Buddhism - Revision history

ElenaEbersbacher at 19:25, 11 November 2025