Ajay Kumar at 07:02, 22 August 2023

2023-08-22T07:02:19Z

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{{Short description|The symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9}}
{{About|the symbols only|the numerical system|Decimal|symbols used in Arab Script|Eastern Arabic numerals|other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
[[File:Hindu-Arabic numerals.svg|upright=1.5|thumb|alt=Numbers written from 0 to 9|Arabic numerals set in [[Source Sans]] typeface]]
{{numeral systems}}

The ten '''Arabic numerals''' 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are the most commonly used [[numerical digit|symbol]]s for writing numbers. The term often also implies a [[positional notation]] using the numerals, as well as the use of a [[decimal]] base, in particular when contrasted with other systems such as [[Roman numerals]]. However, the symbols are also used to write numbers in other bases such as [[octal]], as well as for writing non-numerical information such as trademarks or license plates identifiers.

They are also called '''Western Arabic numerals''', '''Ghubār numerals''', '''Hindu-Arabic numerals''',<ref name="AHB">{{cite web |date=2020 |title=Arabic numeral |url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?id=A5414100 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121235943/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?id=A5414100 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |access-date=21 November 2021 |work=[[American Heritage Dictionary]] |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company}}</ref> '''Western digits''', '''Latin digits''', or '''European digits'''.<ref>[https://www.unicode.org/terminology/digits.html Terminology for Digits] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026112524/https://www.unicode.org/terminology/digits.html |date=26 October 2021 }}. Unicode Consortium.</ref> The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' differentiates them with the fully capitalized ''Arabic Numerals'' to refer to the [[Eastern Arabic numerals|Eastern digits]].<ref>"Arabic", ''Oxford English Dictionary'', 2nd edition</ref> The term '''numbers''' or '''numerals''' or '''digits''' often implies only these symbols, however this can only be inferred from context.

Europeans learned of Arabic numerals about the 10th century, though their spread was a gradual process. Two centuries later, in the [[Algeria]]n city of [[Béjaïa]], the [[Italian people|Italian]] scholar [[Fibonacci]] first encountered the numerals; his work was crucial in making them known throughout Europe. European trade, books, and [[colonialism]] helped popularize the adoption of Arabic numerals around the world. The numerals have found worldwide use significantly beyond the contemporary [[spread of the Latin alphabet]], and have become common in the writing systems where other numeral systems existed previously, such as [[Chinese numerals|Chinese]] and [[Japanese numerals|Japanese]] numerals.

== History ==
=== Origin ===
[[File:The Brahmi numeral system and its descendants.png|alt=|thumb|Evolution of Indian numerals into Arabic numerals and their adoption in Europe]]

Positional decimal notation including a zero symbol was [[History of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system|developed in India]], using symbols visually distinct from those that would eventually enter into international use. As the concept spread, the sets of symbols used in different regions diverged over time.

The immediate ancestors of the digits now commonly called "Arabic numerals" were introduced to Europe in the 10th century by Arabic speakers of Spain and North Africa, with digits at the time in wide use from Libya to Morocco. In the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula, the Arabs were using the [[Eastern Arabic numerals]] or "Mashriki" numerals: <span dir=ltr style="unicode-bidi: bidi-override; direction: ltr">٠, ١, ٢, ٣, ٤, ٥, ٦, ٧, ٨, ٩</span>.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Burnett |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AG2XBCmxYcUC |title=From China to Paris: 2000 Years Transmission of Mathematical Ideas |date=2002 |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |isbn=978-3-515-08223-5 |editor-last=Dold-Samplonius |editor-first=Yvonne |pages=237–288 |language=en |editor-last2=Van Dalen |editor-first2=Benno |editor-last3=Dauben |editor-first3=Joseph |editor-last4=Folkerts |editor-first4=Menso |access-date=29 July 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730020348/https://books.google.com/books?id=AG2XBCmxYcUC&newbks=0&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Alī ibn Ahmad al-Nasawī|Al-Nasawi]] wrote in the early 11th century that mathematicians had not agreed on the form of the numerals, but most of them had agreed to train themselves with the forms now known as Eastern Arabic numerals.<ref>{{harvnb|Kunitzsch|2003|p=7}}: "Les personnes qui se sont occupées de la science du calcul n'ont pas été d'accord sur une partie des formes de ces neuf signes; mais la plupart d'entre elles sont convenues de les former comme il suit."</ref> The oldest specimens of the written numerals available are from Egypt and date to 873–874 AD. They show three forms of the numeral "2" and two forms of the numeral "3", and these variations indicate the divergence between what later became known as the Eastern Arabic numerals and the Western Arabic numerals.{{sfn|Kunitzsch|2003|p=5}} The Western Arabic numerals came to be used in the [[Maghreb]] and [[Al-Andalus]] from the 10th century onward.<ref>{{harvnb|Kunitzsch|2003|pp=12–13}}: "While specimens of Western Arabic numerals from the early period—the tenth to thirteenth centuries—are still not available, we know at least that Hindu reckoning (called ''ḥisāb al-ghubār'') was known in the West from the 10th century onward..."</ref> Some amount of consistency in the Western Arabic numeral forms endured from the 10th century, found in a Latin manuscript of [[Isidore of Seville]]'s ''[[Etymologiae]]'' from 976 and the Gerbertian abacus, into the 12th and 13th centuries, in early manuscripts of translations from the city of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]].<ref name=":2" />

Calculations were originally performed using a dust board (''takht'', Latin: ''tabula''), which involved writing symbols with a stylus and erasing them. The use of the dust board appears to have introduced a divergence in terminology as well: whereas the Hindu reckoning was called ''ḥisāb al-hindī'' in the east, it was called ''ḥisāb al-ghubār'' in the west (literally, "calculation with dust").{{sfn|Kunitzsch|2003|p=8}} The numerals themselves were referred to in the west as ''ashkāl al‐ghubār'' ("dust figures") or ''qalam al-ghubår'' ("dust letters").{{sfn|Kunitzsch|2003|p=10}} [[Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi|Al-Uqlidisi]] later invented a system of calculations with ink and paper "without board and erasing" (''bi-ghayr takht wa-lā maḥw bal bi-dawāt wa-qirṭās'').{{sfn|Kunitzsch|2003|pp=7–8}}

A popular myth claims that the symbols were designed to indicate their numeric value through the number of angles they contained, but there is no contemporary evidence of this, and the myth is difficult to reconcile with any digits past 4.<ref name=ifrah>{{cite book |last1=Ifrah |first1=Georges |date=1998 |title=The universal history of numbers: from prehistory to the invention of the computer |translator=David Bellos (from the French) |location=London |publisher=Harvill Press |isbn=9781860463242 |pages=356–357}}</ref>

=== Adoption and spread ===
[[File:Codex Vigilanus Primeros Numeros Arabigos.jpg|thumb|right|The first Arabic numerals in the West appeared in the ''[[Codex Albeldensis]]'' in Spain.]]

The first mentions of the numerals from 1 to 9 in the West are found in the 976 ''[[Codex Vigilanus]]'', an [[Illuminated manuscript|illuminated]] collection of various historical documents covering a period from antiquity to the 10th century in [[Hispania]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Nothaft |first=C. Philipp E. |date=2020-05-03 |title=Medieval Europe's satanic ciphers: on the genesis of a modern myth |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/26375451.2020.1726050 |journal=British Journal for the History of Mathematics |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=107–136 |doi=10.1080/26375451.2020.1726050 |s2cid=213113566 |issn=2637-5451}}</ref> Other texts show that numbers from 1 to 9 were occasionally supplemented by a placeholder known as [[Names for the number 0 in English|''sipos'']], represented as a circle or wheel, reminiscent of the eventual symbol for [[0|zero]]. The Arabic term for zero is ''sifr'' ({{Lang|ar|صفر}}), transliterated into Latin as ''cifra'', and the origin of the English word ''[[cipher]]''.

From the 980s, Gerbert of [[Aurillac]] (later [[Pope Sylvester II]]) used his position to spread knowledge of the numerals in Europe. Gerbert studied in [[Barcelona]] in his youth. He was known to have requested mathematical treatises concerning the [[astrolabe]] from [[Lupitus of Barcelona]] after he had returned to France.<ref name=":1" />

The reception of Arabic numerals in the West was gradual and lukewarm, as other numeral systems circulated in addition to the older Roman numbers. As a discipline, the first to adopt Arabic numerals as part of their own writings were astronomers and astrologists, evidenced from manuscripts surviving from mid-12th-century Bavaria. Reinher of Paderborn (1140–1190) used the numerals in his calendrical tables to calculate the dates of [[Easter]] more easily in his text ''Compotus emendatus''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Herold |first=Werner |date=2005 |title=Der "computus emendatus" des Reinher von Paderborn |url=https://ixtheo.de/Record/164418110X |access-date=2022-07-29 |website=ixtheo.de |language=German |url-status=live |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730020351/https://ixtheo.de/Record/164418110X}}</ref>

==== Italy ====
[[Image:Liber abbaci magliab f124r.jpg|thumb|A page of the ''Liber Abaci''. The list on the right shows the [[Fibonacci numbers|Fibonacci sequence]]: 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377. The 2, 8, and 9 resemble Arabic numerals more than [[Eastern Arabic numerals]] or [[Indian numerals]]]]

[[Leonardo Fibonacci]] was a [[Republic of Pisa|Pisan]] mathematician who had studied in [[Béjaïa|Bugia]], [[Algeria]], and he endeavored to promote the numeral system in Europe with his 1202 book ''[[Liber Abaci]]'':

<blockquote>When my father, who had been appointed by his country as public notary in the customs at Bugia acting for the Pisan merchants going there, was in charge, he summoned me to him while I was still a child, and having an eye to usefulness and future convenience, desired me to stay there and receive instruction in the school of accounting. There, when I had been introduced to the art of the Indians' nine symbols through remarkable teaching, knowledge of the art very soon pleased me above all else and I came to understand it.</blockquote>

The ''Liber Abaci'' introduced the huge advantages of a positional numeric system, and was widely influential. As Fibonacci used the symbols from Béjaïa for the digits, these symbols were also introduced in the same instruction, ultimately leading to their widespread adoption.<ref name=":0">{{Cite thesis |first=Raffaele |last=Danna |date=2021-07-12 |title=The Spread of Hindu-Arabic Numerals in the European Tradition of Practical Arithmetic: a Socio-Economic Perspective (13th–16th centuries) |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/325042 |publisher=University of Cambridge |degree=Doctoral |doi=10.17863/cam.72497 |access-date=29 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210727110444/https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/325042 |archive-date=27 July 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Fibonacci's introduction coincided with Europe's commercial revolution of the 12th and 13th centuries, centered in Italy. Positional notation could be used for quicker and more complex mathematical operations (such as currency conversion) than Roman and other numeric systems could. They could also handle larger numbers, did not require a separate reckoning tool, and allowed the user to check a calculation without repeating the entire procedure.<ref name=":0" /> Although positional notation opened possibilities that were hampered by previous systems, late medieval Italian merchants did not stop using Roman numerals (or other reckoning tools). Rather, Arabic numerals became an additional tool that could be used alongside others.<ref name=":0" />

==== Europe ====
[[File:Ms.Thott.290.2º 150v.jpg|thumb|A German manuscript page teaching use of Arabic numerals ([[Hans Talhoffer|Talhoffer]] Thott, 1459). At this time, knowledge of the numerals was still widely seen as esoteric, and Talhoffer presents them with the [[Hebrew alphabet]] and [[astrology]].]]
[[File:EuropeanFormOfArabianDigits.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Table of numerals in many variants, 1757, by [[Jean-Étienne Montucla]]]]

By the late 14th century, only a few texts using Arabic numerals appeared outside of Italy. This suggests that the use of Arabic numerals in commercial practice, and the significant advantage they conferred, remained a virtual Italian monopoly until the late 15th century.<ref name=":0" /> This may in part have been due to language barriers: although Fibonacci's ''Liber Abaci'' was written in Latin, the Italian abacus traditions was predominantly written in Italian vernaculars that circulated in the private collections of abacus schools or individuals. It was likely difficult for non-Italian merchant bankers to access comprehensive information.

The European acceptance of the numerals was accelerated by the invention of the [[printing press]], and they became widely known during the 15th century. Their use grew steadily in other centers of finance and trade such as Lyon.<ref>{{Cite SSRN |last1=Danna |first1=Raffaele |last2=Iori |first2=Martina |last3=Mina |first3=Andrea |date=2022-06-22 |title=A Numerical Revolution: The Diffusion of Practical Mathematics and the Growth of Pre-modern European Economies |ssrn=4143442}}</ref> Early evidence of their use in [[Great Britain in the Middle Ages|Britain]] includes: an equal hour horary [[quadrant (instrument)|quadrant]] from 1396,<ref>{{cite news |title=14th century timepiece unearthed in Qld farm shed |work=ABC News |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-11-09/one-man27s-trash-is-another27s-centuries-old-treasure/3654974 |access-date=10 November 2011 |archive-date=29 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229232807/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-11-09/one-man27s-trash-is-another27s-centuries-old-treasure/3654974 |url-status=live }}</ref> in England, a 1445 inscription on the tower of [[Heathfield and Waldron|Heathfield]] Church, [[Sussex]]; a 1448 inscription on a wooden lych-gate of [[Bray, Berkshire|Bray]] Church, [[Berkshire]]; and a 1487 inscription on the belfry door at [[Piddletrenthide]] church, [[Dorset]]; and in [[Scotland]] a 1470 inscription on the tomb of the first Earl of Huntly in [[Elgin, Moray|Elgin]] Cathedral.<ref>See G. F. Hill, ''The Development of Arabic Numerals in Europe'', for more examples.</ref> In central Europe, the [[King of Hungary]] [[Ladislaus the Posthumous]], started the use of Arabic numerals, which appear for the first time in a royal document of 1456.<ref>Erdélyi: Magyar művelődéstörténet 1-2. kötet. Kolozsvár, 1913, 1918.</ref>

By the mid-16th century, they were in common use in most of Europe. Roman numerals remained in use mostly for the notation of [[Anno Domini]] (“A.D.”) years, and for numbers on clock faces.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}} Other digits (such as Eastern Arabic) were virtually unknown.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

==== Russia ====
Prior to the introduction of Arabic numerals, [[Cyrillic numerals]], derived from the [[Early Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic alphabet]], were used by [[South Slavs|South]] and [[East Slavs]]. The system was used in Russia as late as the early 18th century, although it was formally replaced in official use by [[Peter the Great]] in 1699.<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Orthographic Reform and Language Planning in Russian History |url=https://baylor-ir.tdl.org/handle/2104/10914 |date=2020-05-26 |degree=Honors |first=Sylvia |last=Conatser Segura |access-date=29 July 2022 |url-status=live |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730020351/https://baylor-ir.tdl.org/handle/2104/10914}}</ref> Reasons for Peter's switch from the alphanumerical system are believed to go beyond a surface-level desire to imitate the West. Historian Peter Brown makes arguments for sociological, militaristic, and pedagogical reasons for the change. At a broad, societal level, Russian merchants, soldiers, and officials increasingly came into contact with counterparts from the West and became familiar with the communal use of Arabic numerals. Peter also covertly travelled throughout Northern Europe from 1697 to 1698 [[Grand Embassy of Peter the Great|during his Grand Embassy]] and was likely informally exposed to Western mathematics during this time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Peter B. |date=2012 |title=Muscovite Arithmetic in Seventeenth-Century Russian Civilization: Is It Not Time to Discard the "Backwardness" Label? |journal=Russian History |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=393–459 |doi=10.1163/48763316-03904001 |issn=0094-288X |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/ruhi/39/4/article-p393_1.xml |access-date=29 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730020352/https://brill.com/view/journals/ruhi/39/4/article-p393_1.xml |archive-date=30 July 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Cyrillic system was found to be inferior for calculating practical [[kinematic]] values, such as the trajectories and parabolic flight patterns of artillery. With its use, it was difficult to keep pace with Arabic numerals in the growing field of [[ballistics]], whereas Western mathematicians such as [[John Napier]] had been publishing on the topic since 1614.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lockwood |first=E. H. |date=October 1978 |title=Mathematical discoveries 1600-1750, by P. L. Griffiths. Pp 121. £2·75. 1977. ISBN 0 7223 1006 4 (Stockwell) |journal=The Mathematical Gazette |volume=62 |issue=421 |pages=219 |issn=0025-5572 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/mathematical-gazette/article/abs/mathematical-discoveries-16001750-by-p-l-griffiths-pp-121-275-1977-sbn-0-7223-1006-4-stockwell/444F9C9ADA0D2634DDA7C34EF5F08F66 |doi=10.2307/3616704 |jstor=3616704 |access-date=29 July 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730020352/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/mathematical-gazette/article/abs/mathematical-discoveries-16001750-by-p-l-griffiths-pp-121-275-1977-sbn-0-7223-1006-4-stockwell/444F9C9ADA0D2634DDA7C34EF5F08F66 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== China ====
[[File:Yuan dynasty iron magic square.jpg|thumb|Iron plate with an order 6 [[magic square]] in Persian/Arabic numbers from China, dating to the [[Yuan dynasty]] (1271–1368).]]

While [[positional notation|positional]] [[Chinese numerals|Chinese numeral systems]] such as the [[Counting rods|counting rod system]] and [[Suzhou numerals]] had been in use prior to the introduction of Arabic numerals,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shell-Gellasch |first=Amy |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/907657424 |title=Algebra in context : introductory algebra from origins to applications |date=2015 |others=J. B. Thoo |isbn=978-1-4214-1728-8 |location=Baltimore |oclc=907657424}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Uy |first=Frederick L. |date=January 2003 |title=The Chinese Numeration System and Place Value |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5951/tcm.9.5.0243 |journal=Teaching Children Mathematics |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=243–247 |doi=10.5951/tcm.9.5.0243 |issn=1073-5836 |access-date=29 July 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730020525/https://pubs.nctm.org/view/journals/tcm/9/5/article-p243.xml |url-status=live }}</ref> the externally-developed system was eventually introduced to medieval China by the [[Hui people]]. In the early 17th century, European-style Arabic numerals were introduced by Spanish and Portuguese [[Jesuits]].<ref>{{cite book|editor=Helaine Selin|editor-link=Helaine Selin|title=Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-western cultures|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=raKRY3KQspsC&pg=PA198|year=1997|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-7923-4066-9|page=198|access-date=18 October 2015|archive-date=27 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151027201326/https://books.google.com/books?id=raKRY3KQspsC&pg=PA198|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Meuleman|first=Johan H.|title=Islam in the era of globalization: Muslim attitudes towards modernity and identity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YNArhqy4emwC&pg=PA272|year=2002|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7007-1691-3|page=272|access-date=18 October 2015|archive-date=27 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151027201326/https://books.google.com/books?id=YNArhqy4emwC&pg=PA272|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Peng Yoke Ho|title=Li, Qi and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_P6C4JO4JCUC&pg=PA106|year=2000|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|location=Mineola, New York|isbn=978-0-486-41445-4|page=106|access-date=18 October 2015|archive-date=27 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151027201326/https://books.google.com/books?id=_P6C4JO4JCUC&pg=PA106|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Encoding==
The ten Arabic numerals are encoded in virtually every character set designed for electric, radio, and digital communication, such as [[Morse code]]. They are encoded in [[ASCII]] (and therefore in [[Unicode]] encodings<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0000.pdf |title=The Unicode Standard, Version 13.0 |website=unicode.org |access-date=1 September 2021 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010602232829/http://www.unicode.org:80/charts/PDF/U0000.pdf |archive-date=2 June 2001 }}</ref>) at positions 0x30 to 0x39. [[Mask (computing)|Masking]] all but the four least-significant binary digits gives the value of the decimal digit, a design decision facilitating the digitization of text onto early computers. [[EBCDIC]] used a different offset, but also possessed the aforementioned masking property.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
!style="width: 5.5em"|ASCII Binary
!style="width: 2.5em"|ASCII Octal
!style="width: 2.5em"|ASCII Decimal
!style="width: 2.5em"|ASCII Hex
!Unicode
!EBCDIC<br/>Hex
|-
!0
|0011 0000
|060
|48
|30
|U+0030 DIGIT ZERO
|F0
|-
!1
|0011 0001
|061
|49
|31
|U+0031 DIGIT ONE
|F1
|-
!2
|0011 0010
|062
|50
|32
|U+0032 DIGIT TWO
|F2
|-
!3
|0011 0011
|063
|51
|33
|U+0033 DIGIT THREE
|F3
|-
!4
|0011 0100
|064
|52
|34
|U+0034 DIGIT FOUR
|F4
|-
!5
|0011 0101
|065
|53
|35
|U+0035 DIGIT FIVE
|F5
|-
!6
|0011 0110
|066
|54
|36
|U+0036 DIGIT SIX
|F6
|-
!7
|0011 0111
|067
|55
|37
|U+0037 DIGIT SEVEN
|F7
|-
!8
|0011 1000
|070
|56
|38
|U+0038 DIGIT EIGHT
|F8
|-
!9
|0011 1001
|071
|57
|39
|U+0039 DIGIT NINE
|F9
|}

== Comparison with other digits ==
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center;
|+Overview of numeral systems
|- style=""
!scope="col" colspan="10" | Symbol
|scope="col"| Used with scripts
|scope="col"| Numerals
|-
| 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 || many
|scope="row"| Arabic numerals
|-
| 𑁦 || 𑁧 || 𑁨 || 𑁩 || 𑁪 || 𑁫 || 𑁬 || 𑁭 || 𑁮 || 𑁯 || [[Brahmi script|Brahmi]]
|scope="row"| [[Brahmi numerals]]
|-
| ० || १ || २ || ३ || ४ || ५ || ६ || ७ || ८ || ९ || [[Devanagari]]
|scope="row"| [[Devanagari numerals]]
|-
| ০ || ১ || ২ || ৩ || ৪ || ৫ || ৬ || ৭ || ৮ || ৯ || [[Bengali–Assamese script|Bengali–Assamese]]
|scope="row"| [[Bengali numerals]]
|-
| ੦ || ੧ || ੨ || ੩ || ੪ || ੫ || ੬ || ੭ || ੮ || ੯ || [[Gurmukhi]]
|scope="row"| [[Gurmukhi numerals]]
|-
| ૦ || ૧ || ૨ || ૩ || ૪ || ૫ || ૬ || ૭ || ૮ || ૯ || [[Gujarati script|Gujarati]]
|scope="row"| [[Gujarati numerals]]
|-
| ୦ || ୧ || ୨ || ୩ || ୪ || ୫ || ୬ || ୭ || ୮ || ୯ || [[Odia script|Odia]]
|scope="row"| [[Odia numerals]]
|-
| ᱐ || ᱑ || ᱒ || ᱓ || ᱔ || ᱕ || ᱖ || ᱗ || ᱘ || ᱙ || [[Ol Chiki script|Santali]]
|scope="row"| [[Ol Chiki script#Digits|Santali numerals]]
|-
| 𑇐 || 𑇑 || 𑇒 || 𑇓 || 𑇔 || 𑇕 || 𑇖 || 𑇗 || 𑇘 || 𑇙 || [[Sharada script|Sharada]]
|scope="row"| [[Sharada script#Numerals|Sharada numerals]]
|-
| {{lang|ta|௦}} || {{lang|ta|௧}} || {{lang|ta|௨}} || {{lang|ta|௩}} || {{lang|ta|௪}} || {{lang|ta|௫}} || {{lang|ta|௬}} || {{lang|ta|௭}} || {{lang|ta|௮}} || {{lang|ta|௯}} || [[Tamil script|Tamil]]
|scope="row"| [[Tamil numerals]]
|-
| ౦ || ౧ || ౨ || ౩ || ౪ || ౫ || ౬ || ౭ || ౮ || ౯ || [[Telugu script|Telugu]]
|scope="row"| {{slink|Telugu script|Numerals}}
|-
| ೦ || ೧ || ೨ || ೩ || ೪ || ೫ || ೬ || ೭ || ೮ || ೯ || [[Kannada script|Kannada]]
|scope="row"| {{slink|Kannada script|Numerals}}
|-
| ൦ || ൧ || ൨ || ൩ || ൪ || ൫ || ൬ || ൭ || ൮ || ൯ || [[Malayalam script|Malayalam]]
|scope="row"| [[Malayalam numerals]]
|-
| ෦ || ෧ || ෨ || ෩ || ෪ || ෫ || ෬ || ෭ || ෮ || ෯ || [[Sinhala script|Sinhala]]
|scope="row"| [[Sinhala numerals]]
|-
| ၀ || ၁ || ၂ || ၃ || ၄ || ၅ || ၆ || ၇ || ၈ || ၉ || [[Burmese script|Burmese]]
|scope="row"| [[Burmese numerals]]
|-
| ༠ || ༡ || ༢ || ༣ || ༤ || ༥ || ༦ || ༧ || ༨ || ༩ || [[Tibetan script|Tibetan]]
|scope="row"| [[Tibetan numerals]]
|-
| ᠐ || ᠑ || ᠒ || ᠓ || ᠔ || ᠕ || ᠖ || ᠗ || ᠘ || ᠙ || [[Mongolian script|Mongolian]]
|scope="row"| [[Mongolian numerals]]
|-
| ០ || ១ || ២ || ៣ || ៤ || ៥ || ៦ || ៧ || ៨ || ៩ || [[Khmer script|Khmer]]
|scope="row"| [[Khmer numerals]]
|-
| ๐ || ๑ || ๒ || ๓ || ๔ || ๕ || ๖ || ๗ || ๘ || ๙ || [[Thai script|Thai]]
|scope="row"| [[Thai numerals]]
|-
| ໐ || ໑ || ໒ || ໓ || ໔ || ໕ || ໖ || ໗ || ໘ || ໙ || [[Lao script|Lao]]
|scope="row"| {{slink|Lao script|Numerals}}
|-
| ᮰ || ᮱ || ᮲ || ᮳ || ᮴ || ᮵ || ᮶ || ᮷ || ᮸ || ᮹ || [[Sundanese script|Sundanese]]
|scope="row"| [[Sundanese numerals]]
|-
| ꧐ || ꧑ || ꧒ || ꧓ || ꧔ || ꧕ || ꧖ || ꧗ || ꧘ || ꧙ || [[Javanese script|Javanese]]
|scope="row"| [[Javanese numerals]]
|-
| ᭐ || ᭑ || ᭒ || ᭓ || ᭔ || ᭕ || ᭖ || ᭗ || ᭘ || ᭙ || [[Balinese script|Balinese]]
|scope="row"| [[Balinese numerals]]
|-
| {{lang|ar|٠}} || {{lang|ar|١}} || {{lang|ar|٢}} || {{lang|ar|٣}} || {{lang|ar|٤}} || {{lang|ar|٥}} || {{lang|ar|٦}} || {{lang|ar|٧}} || {{lang|ar|٨}} || {{lang|ar|٩}} || [[Arabic]]
|scope="row" rowspan="3" | [[Eastern Arabic numerals]]
|-
| {{lang|fa|۰}} || {{lang|fa|۱}} || {{lang|fa|۲}} || {{lang|fa|۳}} || {{lang|fa|۴}} || {{lang|fa|۵}} || {{lang|fa|۶}} || {{lang|fa|۷}} || {{lang|fa|۸}} || {{lang|fa|۹}} || [[Persian alphabet|Persian]] / [[Dari]] / [[Pashto alphabet|Pashto]]
|-
| {{urd|{{lang|ur|۰}}}} || {{urd|{{lang|ur|۱}}}} || {{urd|{{lang|ur|۲}}}} || {{urd|{{lang|ur|۳}}}} || {{urd|{{lang|ur|۴}}}} || {{urd|{{lang|ur|۵}}}} || {{urd|{{lang|ur|۶}}}} || {{urd|{{lang|ur|۷}}}} || {{urd|{{lang|ur|۸}}}} || {{urd|{{lang|ur|۹}}}} || [[Urdu alphabet|Urdu]] / [[Shahmukhi]]
|-
| - || ፩ || ፪ || ፫ || ፬ || ፭ || ፮ || ፯ || ፰ || ፱ || [[Ge'ez script|Ethio-Semitic]]
|scope="row"| [[Ge'ez numerals]]
|-
| 〇 || 一 || 二 || 三 || 四 || 五 || 六 || 七 || 八 || 九 || [[East Asia]]
|scope="row"| [[Chinese numerals]]
|}

==See also==
* [[Arabic numeral variations]]
* [[Regional handwriting variation#Arabic numerals|Regional variations in modern handwritten Arabic numerals]]
* [[Seven-segment display]]
* [[Text figures]]

==Explanatory notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== General and cited sources==
* {{cite book |first=Paul |last= Kunitzsch |chapter=The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered |editor1=J. P. Hogendijk |editor2=A. I. Sabra |title=The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_AUtLNtg3nsC&pg=PA3 |year=2003 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-19482-2 |pages=3–22 }}

==Further reading==
*{{Cite journal
| last=Burnett
| first=Charles
| title=The Semantics of Indian Numerals in Arabic, Greek and Latin
| journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy
| publisher=Springer-Netherlands
| volume=34
| issue=1–2
| year=2006
| pages=15–30
| doi=10.1007/s10781-005-8153-z
| s2cid=170783929
}}
*{{Cite book
| last=Hayashi
| first=Takao
| year=1995
| title=The Bakhshālī Manuscript: An Ancient Indian Mathematical Treatise
| place=Groningen, Netherlands
| publisher=Egbert Forsten
| isbn=906980087X
}}
*{{Cite book
| last=Ifrah
| first=Georges
| author-link=Georges Ifrah
| year=2000
| title=A Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to Computers
| place=New York
| publisher=Wiley
| isbn=0471393401
}}
*{{Cite book
| editor-last=Katz
| editor-first=Victor J.
| date=20 July 2007
| title=The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook
| place=Princeton, New Jersey
| publisher=Princeton University Press
| isbn=978-0691114859
}}
*{{Cite journal
| title=Mathematics in South Asia
| journal=Nature
| volume=189
| year=1961
| issue=4761
| page=273
| bibcode=1961Natur.189S.273.
| doi=10.1038/189273c0
| s2cid=4288165
}}
*{{Cite book
|last=Ore
|first=Oystein
|title=Number Theory and Its History
|publisher=Dover
|year=1988
|pages=[https://archive.org/details/numbertheoryitsh0000orey/page/19 19–24]
|chapter=Hindu-Arabic numerals
|isbn=0486656209
|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/numbertheoryitsh0000orey/page/19
}}

==External links==
{{Commons and category|Arabic numerals}}
* Lam Lay Yong, [https://web.archive.org/web/20120321111930/http://sciences.aum.edu/~sbrown/Hindu%20Arabic%20and%20Chinese.pdf "Development of Hindu Arabic and Traditional Chinese Arithmetic"], ''Chinese Science'' 13 (1996): 35–54.
* [http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab34 "Counting Systems and Numerals"], ''Historyworld''. Retrieved 11 December 2005.
* [http://www.laputanlogic.com/articles/2003/06/01-95210802.html The Evolution of Numbers]. 16 April 2005.
* O'Connor, J. J., and E. F. Robertson, [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/%7Ehistory/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html Indian numerals] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706140353/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/%7Ehistory/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html |date=6 July 2015 }}. November 2000.
* History of the numerals
** [https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Arabic_numerals/ Arabic numerals]
** [http://www.scit.wlv.ac.uk/~cm1993/maths/mm2217/han.htm Hindu-Arabic numerals]
** [http://www.archimedes-lab.org/numeral.html Numeral & Numbers' history and curiosities]
** [http://www.maa.org/publications/periodicals/convergence/gerbert-daurillac-and-the-march-of-spain-a-convergence-of-cultures-hindu-arabic-numerals Gerbert d'Aurillac's early use of Hindu-Arabic numerals] at [http://www.maa.org/publications/periodicals/convergence Convergence]

{{Islamic mathematics}}

[[Category:Numerals]]

Arabic numerals - Revision history

Ajay Kumar at 07:02, 22 August 2023