WilheminaJanzen at 06:48, 1 April 2026

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{{Short description|Species of tortoise}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Manouria-emys-asian-forest-tortoise.jpg
| image_caption = ''Manouria emys'' from [[Kaeng Krachan National Park]] in Thailand
| status = CR
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 13 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Choudhury, B.C. |author2=Cota, M. |author3=McCormack, T. |author4=[[Kalyar Platt|Platt, K.]] |author5=Das, I. |author6=Ahmed, M.F. |author7=Timmins, R.J. |author8=Rahman, S.C. |author9=Singh, S. |date=2019 |title=''Manouria emys'' |volume=2019 |article-number=e.T12774A152052098 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T12774A152052098.en |access-date=13 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Manouria
| species = emys
| authority = ([[Hermann Schlegel|Schlegel]] & [[Salomon Müller|S. Müller]], 1844)
| synonyms = {{collapsible list|
'''''Testudo emys emys'''''
*''Testudo emys'' Schlegel & S. Müller, 1840
*''Testudo emydoides'' [[André Marie Constant Duméril|A.M.C. Duméril]], [[Gabriel Bibron|Bibron]] & [[Auguste Duméril|A.H.A. Duméril]], 1851
*''Manouria fusca'' [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1854
*''Teleopus luxatus'' [[John Eatton LeConte|LeConte]], 1854
*''Manouria emydoides'' — [[Alexander Strauch (naturalist)|Strauch]], 1862
*''Manouria emys'' — Strauch, 1862
*''Manouria luxata'' — Strauch, 1862
*''Testudo (Scapia) falconeri'' Gray, 1869
*''Scapia falconeri'' — Gray, 1870
*''Manuria emys'' — [[Richard Lydekker|Lydekker]], 1889
*''Geochelone emys'' — [[Arthur Loveridge|Loveridge]] & [[:fr:Ernest Edward Williams|E. Williams]], 1957
*''Manouria emys emys'' — [[Fritz Jürgen Obst|Obst]], 1983
*''Geochelone emys emys'' — Gosławski & Hryniewicz, 1993
*''Testudo emys emys'' — Paull, 1999
'''''Testudo emys phayrei'''''
*''Testudo phayrei'' [[Edward Blyth|Blyth]], 1853
*''Testudo (Scapia) falconeri'' — Gray, 1869
*''Scapia falconeri'' — Gray, 1870
*''Scapia phayrei'' — Gray, 1871
*''Testudo nutapundi'' [[Michael J. Reimann|Reimann]], 1979
*''Geochelone nutapundi'' — Groombridge, 1982
*''Manouria emys nutapundi'' — Obst, 1983
*''Manouria emys phayrei'' — [[Roger Bour|Bour]], 1984
*''Geochelone (Manouria) emys phayeri'' Alderton, 1988 ''([[ex errore]])''
*''Geochelone emys nutapundi'' — Gosławski & Hryniewicz, 1993
*''Manouria nutapundi'' — Obst, 1996
*''Manouria emys phayeri'' — Paull, 1997
*''Manouria emys phayre'' [[:fr:Indraneil Das|Das]], 2001 ''(ex errore)''
*''Manouria emys phareyi'' Ferri, 2002 ''(ex errore)''
}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="Fritz 2007">{{Cite journal|journal=Vertebrate Zoology |title=Checklist of Chelonians of the World |year=2007 |author=Fritz, Uwe |author2=Havaš, Peter |volume=57 |issue=2 |page=288 |doi=10.3897/vz.57.e30895 |s2cid=87809001 |issn=1864-5755 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
| range_map =
| range_map_caption =
}}

The '''Asian forest tortoise''' (''Manouria emys'') is a [[species]] of [[tortoise]] in the [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Testudinidae]]. The species is [[Endemism|endemic]] to [[Southeast Asia]]. It is believed to be among the most primitive of living tortoises, based on molecular and morphological studies.

==Taxonomy==
There are two recognized subspecies: '''''M. e. emys''''', which is native to southern Thailand, Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo; and '''''M. e. phayrei''''', which is found from northwestern Thailand to northeastern India. The latter was named after Sir [[Arthur Purves Phayre]] (1812–1885), [[British Army]] officer in India who became Commissioner of British Burma.<ref>Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). ''The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4214-0135-5}}. (''Manouria emys phayrei'', p. 205).</ref>

Based on a variety of phylogenetic characteristics, the genus ''[[Manouria]]'' is regarded as comparatively primitive and basal to other [[Testudinidae]].<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=[[Minh Duc Le|Le M]], [[:fr:Christopher John Raxworthy|Raxworthy CJ]], [[William Patrick McCord|McCord WP]], [[Lisa Mertz|Mertz L]]|year=2006|title=A molecular phylogeny of tortoises (Testudines: Testudinidae) based on mitochondrial and nuclear genes|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=40|issue=2|pages=517–531|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.03.003|pmid=16678445 |bibcode=2006MolPE..40..517L }}</ref>

==Common names==
Currently, the species has several [[Common name|common names]]. '''Asian/Burmese brown/black tortoise, Asian/Burmese forest tortoise, Asian/Burmese mountain tortoise,''' and '''Asian/Burmese Giant Tortoise''' are all modern day common names. Less commonly, the species may be known as the '''six-legged tortoise'''. <ref name=":1">Stumpel, J.B.G.; Brinkman, D.; Pfau B. (2025). "[https://strapi.eaza.net/uploads/2025_Manouria_emys_EAZA_Best_Practice_Guidelines_Approved_75d11ba759.pdf. EAZA Best Practice Guidelines for the Asian giant forest tortoise (''Manouria emys'')]". Retrieved March 31, 2026.</ref>

The two subspecies are generally referred to with different common names. "Asian", "Sundaic", "forest", "southern", and "brown" are more likely to be used to describe the ''M. e. emys'' subspecies. Adjectives such as "Burmese", "mountain", "northern", and "black" generally describe ''M. e. phayrei''. <ref name=":1" />

In older literature, this species may be referred to by different names. When the species was first described, it was named ''Testudo emys'', and the subspecies ''T. e. phayrei'' was called ''Testudo phayrei''. Other synonymous older names include ''Geochelone nutapundi, Testudo emys,'' and ''Manuria emys.'' <ref name=":1" />

==Description==
''M. emys'' is the largest tortoise in mainland Asia. The largest adults of the northern subspecies (''M. e. phayrei'') can reach 25 kg (55 lb) in the wild and much more in captivity. It has a broad, flattened upper shell and a large lower shell, with distinctive features on its head, limbs, and skin that set it apart from other tortoises.

{{Multi image
| image1 = Manouria-emys-kaeng-krachan-national-park-above-640x426.jpg
| image2 = Manouria-emys-kaeng-krachan-national-park-under-640x426.jpg
| footer = View of carapace and plastron at [[Kaeng Krachan National Park]], in Thailand.
| align = center
| total_width = 450
}}[[File:2024-03-29-Manouria emys-167A3610.jpg|thumb|In Vietnam]]
[[File:ManouriaFuscaFord.jpg|thumb|Illustration by [[George Henry Ford]]]]
[[File:Manouria emys emys 111453048.jpg|thumb|Underwater, in [[Sumatra]]]]

The [[Turtle shell|carapace]] is considerably depressed (flattened), its depth less than half its length. Anterior and posterior margins are reverted (upturned) and strongly serrated (toothed). A [[nuchal]] (neck) shield is present, along with two supracaudal (above the tail) shields. Dorsal shields show concentric striations (grooves) and are often concave. Vertebral shields are much broader than long and at least as broad as costals (side plates). The lower shell (plastron) is large, with the gular region (throat area) produced (slightly extended) and typically notched (indented). The hind lobe (rear section) is deeply notched (indented). Pectoral shields may be widely separated or joined by a short median suture (seam). The axillary (armpit) shield is very small, while the inguinal ([[groin]]) shield is large. The head is moderate in size, featuring two large prefrontal shields and a large frontal shield. The beak is not hooked. Jaws are feebly denticulated (weakly toothed), with a strong median ridge (raised line) on the upper jaw's alveolar surface (inner surface). Anterior forelimb surfaces have large, bony, pointed, imbricate tubercles (overlapping bumps) in four or five longitudinal series. Hind limbs bear large bony tubercles (bumps) on the plantar surface (sole), with larger, conical, spur-like tubercles (bumps) on the heel and a group of even larger conical tubercles (bumps) on each side of the thighs' posterior. Adults are dark brown or blackish. Juveniles have a yellowish-brown carapace with dark-brown markings.<ref>[[George Albert Boulenger|Boulenger GA]] (1890). ''The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Batrachia''. London: Secretary of State for India in Council. (Taylor and Francis, printers). xviii + 541 pp. (''Testudo emys'', p. 22).</ref>

==Distribution==
''M. emys'' occurs in countries across Asia, which includes [[Bangladesh]], [[Cambodia]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], and [[Vietnam]].<ref name="iucn status 13 November 2021" />

== Diet ==
This species has been observed in the wild to consume whole [[Fungus|fungi]], shoots of koster's curse (''[[Miconia crenata]]''), leaves and petioles of elephant ears (''[[Alocasia sarawakensis]] and Alocasia scabriuscula),'' shoots of ''[[Begonia]] sp.'', shoots of ''[[Phrynium]] sp.,'' shoots of vegetable fern (''[[Diplazium esculentum]]),'' and flowers of wild ginger (''[[Etlingera coccinea]]).'' Most commonly eaten were plants of the genus ''[[Alocasia]],'' with individuals observed standing nearly vertical to reach leaves. In captivity, individuals have accepted a wide variety of food, predominantly being herbivorous but occasionally consuming frogs, snails, or [[carrion]] when presented.<ref>Høybye-Mortensen K. 2004. ''M. Sc. Thesis'', University of South Denmark. p. 100</ref>

==Reproduction==
[[File:Manouria emys -Toronto Zoo, Ontario, Canada-8a.jpg|thumb|Mating at the [[Toronto Zoo]]]]
''M. emys'' is the only tortoise which lays its eggs above ground in a nest, which the female constructs of [[leaf litter]]. The female uses both front and rear legs to gather material for the nest and lays up to 50 eggs deep inside it. She then sits on and near the nest to protect it, and will "chase" predators and intruders away.<ref name=":0">{{Cite thesis |last=Emer |first=Sherri |date=2007-05-04 |title=Temperature-Dependent Sex Determination in Manouria Emys Emys, The Asian Forest Tortoise |url=https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/biology_theses/11 |publisher=Georgia State University |doi=10.57709/1059206 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Preliminary research has been conducted into Temperature-Dependent Sex Determination (TSD) in the southern subspecies (''M. e. emys''), and an estimated pivotal temperature of 29.29°C was determined. Incubation temperatures higher than this produce high rates of female hatchlings, and lower than this produce high rates of males.

A correlation was also seen between temperature and incubation time, with higher temperatures resulting in a shorter incubation time, and lower temperatures resulting in a longer incubation time. Incubation time ranged from 60 to 90 days.<ref name=":0" />

==Cited references==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal | author = Anderson J | author-link = John Anderson (zoologist) | year = 1871 | title = On ''Testudo Phayrei'', Theob. & Dr. Gray | url = https://zenodo.org/record/2428875| journal = Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. |series=Fourth Series | volume = 8 | issue = 47| pages = 324–330 | doi=10.1080/00222937108696497}}
*[[Edward Blyth|Blyth E]] (1854). "Notices and Descriptions of Various Reptiles, New or Little-known. Part I". ''J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal'' '''22''' [1853]: 639–655.
*[[Hermann Schlegel|Schlegel H]], [[Salomon Müller|Müller S]] (1844). "''Over de Schildpadden van den Indischen Archipel'' ". In: [[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck CJ]] (1839–1847). ''Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Nederlandsche overzeesche bezittingen, door de leden der Natuurkundige Commisie in Oost-Indie en andere schrijvers. Leijden folio. Afd. 1 Zoologie in 12 afleveringen, met 45 gekl. pl. - Vitg. door C.J. Temminck, Leiden, Leuchtmans u. Hoeck in comm.'': 29–36. (''Testudo emys'', new species, p. 34 + Plate IV). (in Dutch).
*{{cite journal | author = Stoliczka F | author-link = Ferdinand Stoliczka | year = 1871 | title = Note on ''Testudo Phayrei'' | journal = Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. |series=Fourth Series | volume = 8 | issue = 45| page = 212 | doi=10.1080/00222937108696469| url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/64530 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Manouria emys}}
{{Wikispecies|Manouria emys}}

*{{NRDB species|genus=Manouria|species=emys}}
* http://www.tortoise.org/archives/manouria.html

{{Testudinidae}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q900757}}

[[Category:Manouria]]
[[Category:Reptiles of India]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Borneo]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Myanmar]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Vietnam]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Cambodia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Thailand]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Reptiles described in 1844]]

Asian forest tortoise - Revision history

WilheminaJanzen at 06:48, 1 April 2026