Ajay Kumar at 13:27, 27 August 2023

2023-08-27T13:27:28Z

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{{Short description|Ancient cities founded by Alexander the Great}}
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{{Infobox ancient site
|name = Boukephala and Nikaia
|native_name =
|map_type = Pakistan
|map_caption = The likely location of Boukephala and Nikaia in modern [[Pakistan]]
|map_alt =
|map_size =
|relief=yes
|coordinates =
|type =
|part_of =
|length =
|width =
|area =
|height =
|builder = [[Craterus]], on the order of [[Alexander the Great]]
|material =
|built = 326 BC
|epochs = [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]], [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]]
}}
'''Boukephala''' ({{Lang-grc|Βουκεφάλα}}) and '''Nikaia''' ({{lang|grc|Νίκαια}}) were two [[polis|cities]] founded by [[Alexander the Great]] on either side of the [[Hydaspes]] (modern-day [[Jhelum River]], [[Pakistan]]) during his [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|invasion of the Indian subcontinent]]. The cities, two of [[List of cities founded by Alexander the Great|many founded by Alexander]], were built shortly after his victory over the Indian king [[Porus]] at the [[Battle of the Hydaspes]] in early 326 BC.

It is not certain which settlement had which name. Built on the site of the battlefield, the city on the eastern bank was most likely called ''[[wikt:Νίκαια|Nikaia]]'' (from ''[[wikt:νίκη#Ancient_Greek|nike]]'', {{literally}} "victory"), while its western companion was probably named after Alexander's horse [[Bucephalus]], who died during or after the battle. Their construction was supervised by [[Craterus]], one of Alexander's [[Diadochi|leading generals]]. Both cities initially suffered from the rains of the [[Monsoon of South Asia|South Asian monsoon]]. Boukephala seems to have had a more distinguished legacy than Nikaia: mentioned by [[Pliny the Elder]] and [[Ptolemy]], it appears in the 1st-century AD {{lang|la|[[Periplus Maris Erythraei]]}} manuscript and on the later {{lang|la|[[Tabula Peutingeriana]]}} map. The cities' precise locations are unknown, but it is considered likely that Boukephala was located in the vicinity of modern [[Jalalpur Sharif|Jalalpur]] and that Nikaia was across the river near present-day [[Mong, Punjab|Mong]].

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==Historical accounts==
[[File:Battle hydaspes crossing.png|thumb|upright=1.4|left|The formations and manouevres of the Macedonian and Indian armies before the Battle of the Hydaspes|alt=Map depicting the armies' pre-battle military formations and manouevres prior to the Battle of the Hydaspes.]]
===Foundation===
[[Alexander the Great]], king of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedon]] ({{reign|336|323|era=BC}}), [[Wars of Alexander the Great#Persia|invaded]] the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]] in 334 BC. He decisively defeated the Persian king [[Darius III]] ({{reign|{{circa|380}}|330|era=BC}}) at the battles of [[Battle of Issus|Issus]] (333 BC) and [[Battle of Gaugamela|Gaugamela]] (331 BC), taking control of much of [[West Asia]]. Alexander then campaigned successfully against [[Bessus]], the ''[[satrap]]'' of [[Bactria]], who had murdered Darius and proclaimed himself Artaxerxes V of Persia. After Bessus' capture and execution, the Macedonian king moved southwards towards the [[Indus river]] to subdue local rulers. Capturing the fortress of [[Aornos]], in present-day [[northern Pakistan]], in April 326 BC, Alexander crossed the Indus to begin campaigning in [[northern India]], executing a series of manouevres to cross the Hydaspes river (the modern-day [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]]) and defeat the Indian king [[Porus]] at the [[Battle of the Hydaspes]].{{sfnm|Bosworth|2014|Lane Fox|1986|2pp=355–361}}

Accounts of the founding of two cities after the battle appear in the records of all of [[Historiography of Alexander the Great|the five major surviving accounts]]—[[Arrian]], [[Plutarch]], [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]], [[Quintus Curtius Rufus|Curtius Rufus]], and [[Justin (historian)|Justin]]. All five agree that Alexander founded two cities, one on each side of the Indus, naming one ''Nikaia'' and the other ''Boukephala''.{{sfn|Cohen|2013|p=309}} [[Craterus]], one of Alexander's leading generals, was appointed to construct and fortify the new cities, a task he had performed a few months earlier at Arigaion (an ancient city possibly located under modern [[Nawagai, Bajaur|Nawagai]]). Diodorus additionally records that the settlements were built quickly because many workers were available.{{sfn|Cohen|2013|pp=271–272, 309–310}} Before moving onwards to continue his [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|Indian campaign]], Alexander celebrated his victory and foundations with what Arrian terms "a gymnastic and horse contest" near the western city.{{sfnm|Fraser|1996|1p=70|Arrian|2loc=5.10.1}} He returned to the cities a few months later after the Macedonian army had [[mutinied]] at the Hyphasis (modern-day [[Beas River]]) and forced him to turn back. The troops were ordered to help repair damage caused by the [[Monsoon of South Asia|monsoon]], a phenomenon previously unknown to the Macedonians, whose buildings were not designed to withstand heavy rains.{{sfn|Fraser|1996|pp=70, 161}}

There is some dispute as to whether Alexander intended his foundations to be rapidly developing cities or military garrisons which would control the conquered territory; the historian [[N. G. L. Hammond]] theorised that Boukephala and Nikaia, founded on the banks of a major river, must have been established with [[trade route]]s in mind.{{sfn|Hammond|1998|p=265}} According to Arrian, Alexander may have established [[dockyard]]s at Boukephala, although Curtius Rufus states that these were located on the Acesines (modern-day [[Chenab River]]).{{sfn|Eggermont|1993|p=12}} Boukephala and Nikaia were also unique among the [[List of cities founded by Alexander the Great|many cities founded by Alexander]] in not being at or near an existing [[fortress]] or provincial capital.{{sfn|Fraser|1996|pp=172–173}}

{{multiple image
| align = right
| perrow = 1
| total_width = 400
| image1 = Lion hunt mosaic from Pella.jpg
| alt1 = A mosaic depicting a crouching, snarling lion attacked on both sides by two armed but naked men.
| caption1 = 4th-century BC mosaic from [[Pella]] depicting [[Craterus]] (''right'') [[Lion hunting|hunting lions]] alongside [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]
| image2 = Alexander the Great mosaic.jpg
| alt2 = Damaged mosaic depicting a black-haired soldier in full armour but no helmet riding a chestnut horse, with the spears of fellow soldiers behind him
| caption2 = [[Bucephalus]] being ridden by [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] in battle, as depicted in the [[Alexander Mosaic]] from [[Pompeii]]
}}
The sources are however unclear on the details of the foundation and naming of the cities. Arrian separates the clauses detailing the location and naming of the cities, so that although the reader knows that one of the two cities was called '''Nikaia''' and one named '''Boukephala''', it is unclear which name corresponds to which city. Though critical opinion has tended towards Nikaia being the eastern city, the historian A. B. Bosworth noted that this conclusion is somewhat tentative due to the grammatical uncertainties.{{sfnm|Bosworth|1980|1pp=311–312|Arrian|2loc=5.19.4}} None of the other sources give any more clarity to the situation, and it is possible that Arrian himself did not know which city was under which name.{{sfn|Cohen|2013|p=309}}

There is also confusion on the timing of the death of [[Bucephalus]], Alexander's horse, after whom Boukephala was named. Justin writes that he fell at the beginning of the battle on the Hydapses.{{sfn|Justin|loc=11.12.8}} Plutarch however mentions that Bucephalus died either from wounds or simple old age, "not at once, but some time afterwards".{{sfnm|Cohen|2013|1p=309|Plutarch|2loc=61.1}} Arrian also states that Bucephalus, [[Horse#Lifespan and life stages|being around thirty years old]], died unwounded of old age.{{sfnm|Cohen|2013|1p=309|Arrian|2loc=5.19.5}} As both Diodorus and Curtius Rufus separate the foundation of the cities from their naming, it is probable that the horse only died after Alexander's eastward departure, and that the settlements were named upon Alexander's return to the region.{{sfn|Cohen|2013|p=309}}

===Later history===
Boukephala appears to have survived for some centuries; it was probably under the rule of the [[Mauryan Empire]] (existed {{circa}} 320–185 BC), while the later presence of the [[Indo-Greek kingdom]] (existed {{circa}} 170 BC–10 AD) in the area likely helped it to survive.{{sfn|Fraser|1996|pp=161–162}} In the twentieth century, the British classicist [[William Woodthorpe Tarn]] claimed that the settlement was the capital of the 1st-century BC Indo-Greek king [[Hippostratus]], due to the presence of a symbol on his [[coin|coinage]] which he claimed could only have been [[Coining (mint)|minted]] at a Greek city; this theory is considered flawed as no such coins have been found near the Hydaspes.{{sfnm|Fraser|1996|1loc=p. 162, n. 111|Cohen|2013|2p=312}} Meanwhile, the Indian historian [[A. K. Narain]] questioned whether Boukephala still existed by the time of [[Menander I]] ({{circa}}150 BC), but this uncertainty is dispelled by the city's presence in the 1st-century AD ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'', a guide for [[Roman commerce|Roman merchant sailors]].{{sfnm|Fraser|1996|1loc=p. 162, n. 111|Cohen|2013|2p=310}}

Boukephala appears in many other [[Greco-Roman]] texts, including various [[recension]]s of the ''[[Alexander Romance]]'' and the writings of [[Ptolemy]], and [[Pliny the Elder]], who names the city as the chief of three controlled by the Asini tribe. It also appears on the ''[[Tabula Peutingeriana]]'' and in the writings of [[Yaqut al-Hamawi]], a 13th-century AD [[Islamic scholar]].{{sfn|Cohen|2013|pp=310–311}} Nikaia appears far less frequently in the ancient sources: it is possible that the name ''Alexandria for Porus'', which is mentioned frequently, in fact refers to Nikaia.{{sfnm|Tarn|1979|1p=243|Cohen|2013|2p=318}}

Ancient sources are generally consistent in the naming of the cities. Boukephala is less frequently named "Boukephalia", or "Alexandria Boukephalos" in the [[Byzantine period]].{{sfn|Cohen|2013|p=309}} Alexander, who often founded cities after winning military victories, had a short time previously founded another settlement named "Nikaia" to the east of [[Paropamisadae]]. Tarn suggested that all of Alexander's foundations were called "Alexandria" and that any other names were merely [[nickname]]s;{{sfn|Tarn|1979|p=233}} this conclusion is generally considered unfounded.{{sfn|Hammond|1998|pp=261, 263}}

== Location ==
[[File:River Jhelum at Jhelum City from Old Railway bridge at Jhelum City.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Photograph of the sun very low in the sky, above a wide river with a bridge in the distance. The orange sky and sun are reflected in the river, and the riverbanks are black|The [[Jhelum River]] as viewed from a bridge in [[Jhelum]], formerly thought to be the site of Boukephala.]]
According to the historian Getzel Cohen, the locations of Boukephala and Nikaia were already a matter of dispute in antiquity.{{sfn|Cohen|2013|p=310}} As the path of the Jhelum has shifted consistently since antiquity, creating [[marsh]]lands on the eastern side, and as the Indian [[monsoon]] was already damaging the cities in Alexander's time, it is unlikely that much of either city survives today, even at a great depth. Although some historians have placed Boukephala at the town of [[Jhelum]] or at a [[tell (archaeology)|tell]] near [[Dilawar, Punjab|Dilawar]], the prevailing view, as proposed by the archaeologist [[Aurel Stein]] in 1932, is that it lies underneath the modern town of [[Jalalpur Sharif]].{{sfn|Fraser|1996|p=161}} A monument to the life of Alexander was thus built between 1998 and 2011 near the town; funded by the [[Government of Pakistan]], the [[List of diplomatic missions of Greece#Asia|Greek embassy in Islamabad]], and by private donations, it had become dilapidated by 2023.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lane Fox |first=Robin |author-link=Robin Lane Fox |date=24 March 2023 |title=On the trail of Alexander the Great |newspaper=[[Financial Times]] |url=https://www.ft.com/content/2b35ebd5-3b47-4725-93cf-6a573faba3de |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://archive.is/PdsVU#selection-1437.0-1437.35 |archive-date=2 April 2023 |accessdate=27 April 2023}}</ref>

As Boukephala was located across the river from Nikaia,{{sfn|Cohen|2013|pp=311–312}} if the former was located at Jalalpur, the most likely site of the latter is the town of [[Mong, Punjab|Mong]], located {{convert|10|km|mi}} to the east across the river.{{sfn|Cohen|2013|p=318}} This hypothesis was suggested by [[Alexander Cunningham]] during the first [[Archaeological Survey of India]].{{sfn|Cunningham|2023|p=36}} Others have suggested that the settlement is located near the present-day village of Sukchainpur. On the other hand, Stein "concluded it was impossible to indicate the site of Nikaia".{{sfn|Cohen|2013|p=318}}

A reference to the two cities may appear in the [[Mulasarvastivada Vinaya]], a [[tripitaka]] text of an [[early Buddhist school]] which likely dates from the time of the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] emperor [[Kanishka]] ({{reign|{{circa|127}}|150|era=AD}}).{{sfnm|Eggermont|1993|1p=12|Sasson|2012|2p=46}} The vinaya, which details one of the journeys of the [[Buddha]], refers to two cities called Ādirājya ("Place of the First Kingship") and Bhadrāśva ("Place of the Good Horse") located on the Vitastā (i.e., Hydaspes) River along the road from [[Gandhara]] to [[Mathura]]. Although the Buddha connected these cities to the mythical king [[Mahāsammata]], it is possible that they were in reality the cities of Boukephala and Nikaia.{{sfn|Eggermont|1993|p=12}} Similarly, an old Hindu tradition at a shrine to [[Shakti|Mangla Devi]] at the site of Garjak above Jalalpur includes the story of the death of a magical horse.{{sfn|Wood|1997|p=190}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Sources===
====Ancient====
* {{cite book |author=Arrian |author-link=Arrian |orig-date=1884 |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/46976/46976-h/46976-h.htm |title=The Anabasis of Alexander |translator-last=Chinnock |translator-first=Edward James |publisher=[[Hodder & Stoughton]] |location=London}} (1884)
* {{cite book |author=Justin |author-link=Justin (historian) |url=http://attalus.org/info/justinus.html |title=Epitome of Pompeius Trogus |translator-last=Watson |translator-first=John Selby |translator-link=John Selby Watson |location=London |publisher=[[Henry George Bohn]] }} (1853)
* {{cite book |author=Plutarch |author-link=Plutarch |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alexander*/home.html |title=Parallel Lives |translator-last=Perrin |translator-first=Bernadotte |translator-link=Bernadotte Perrin |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |location=[[Cambridge, Massachussets|Cambridge]]}} (1967)

====Modern====
* {{cite book |last=Bosworth |first=Albert Brian |date=1980 |title=A Historical Commentary on Arrian's History of Alexander |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=9780198148289}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Bosworth |first=Albert Brian |date=2014 |title=Alexander the Great |encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198706779.001.0001/acref-9780198706779-e-35 |isbn=9780198706779 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite book |last=Cohen |first=Getzel |date=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3aabFPHxRPUC |title=The Hellenistic Settlements in the East from Armenia and Mesopotamia to Bactria and India |location=Berkeley |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=9780520953567 |jstor=10.1525/j.ctt2tt96k}}
* {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Alexander |author-link=Alexander Cunningham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wHKvEAAAQBAJ |title=Archaeological Survey of India |volume=2 |date=2023 |orig-date=1871 |publisher=Anatiposi Verlag |isbn=9783382116613 |location=Frankfurt}}
* {{cite book |last=Eggermont |first=P. H. L. |title=Alexander's campaign in Southern Punjab |year=1993 |isbn=9068314998 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Brg7MFO-1SQC&pg=PA12 |publisher=[[Peeters Publishers]] |location=[[Leuven]]}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hammond |first=N. G. L. |author-link=N. G. L. Hammond |date=1998 |title=Alexander's Newly-founded Cities |journal=[[Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies]] |volume=39 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |url=https://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/viewFile/2391/5929 |accessdate=1 January 2023 |pages=243–269}}
* {{cite book |last=Fraser |first=Peter M. |author-link=Peter Fraser (classicist) |date=1996 |title=Cities of Alexander the Great |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=6610763887 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2EgbAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last=Lane Fox |first=Robin |author-link=Robin Lane Fox |date=1986 |orig-date=1973 |title=Alexander the Great |publisher=[[Penguin Group|Penguin]] |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat00robi/ |url-access=registration |isbn=0140088784}}
* {{cite book |last=Sasson |first=Vanessa |title=Little Buddhas: Children and Childhoods in Buddhist Texts and Traditions |date=2012 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=9780199979929 }}
* {{cite book |last=Tarn |first=William Woodthorpe |author-link=William Woodthorpe Tarn |date=1979 |orig-date=1948 |title=Alexander The Great |volume=II: Sources and Studies |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=052122585X |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.pahar.2882 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wood |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5wDWn1dL6HMC |title=In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great: A Journey from Greece to Asia |date=1997 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=Berkeley |isbn=9780520231924 |language=en}}

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[[Category:Phalia]]
[[Category:Cities founded by Alexander the Great]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 4th century BC]]
[[Category:320s BC establishments]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Jhelum]]
[[Category:Bactrian and Indian Hellenistic period]]
[[Category:Populated places along the Silk Road]]

Boukephala and Nikaia - Revision history

Ajay Kumar at 13:27, 27 August 2023