>BrownHairedGirl at 12:51, 1 May 2021

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{{short description|West Himalayish language of India and Nepal}}
{{Infobox language
|name=Byangsi
|nativename=
|states=[[India]], [[Nepal]]
|region=[[Byans valley]] ([[Uttarakhand]])<br />[[Byans (rural municipality)|Byans]] ([[Sudurpashchim Pradesh]])
|speakers={{sigfig|3310|2}}
|date=2000 – 2011 census
|ref=e18
|familycolor=Sino-Tibetan
|fam2=[[Tibeto-Kanauri languages|Tibeto-Kanauri]] ?
|fam3=[[West Himalayish languages|West Himalayish]]
|fam4=Almora
|iso3=bee
|glotto=byan1241
|glottorefname=Byangsi
}}

'''Byangsi''' (also called '''Byansi''', Byãsi, Byangkho Lwo, Byanshi, Bhotia, and Byangkhopa<ref name="endangered">{{Cite web |url=http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/1616 |title=Byangsi |website=Endangered Languages |language=en |access-date=2017-04-03}}</ref>) is a [[West Himalayish languages|West Himalayish language]] of [[India]] and [[Nepal]]. Estimates of numbers of speakers vary, but some sources say that the language is spoken by about 1,000-1,500 people,<ref name="endangered"/> while others estimate as many as 3,300.<ref name="ethnologue">{{Cite news |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/bee/ |title=Byangsi |work=Ethnologue |access-date=2017-04-17}}</ref> Byangsi is from a region of high language density, that is to say that there are many languages among few people.<ref name="Sharma studies">{{Cite journal |last=Sharma |first=S. R. |date=2004–2005 |title=Tibeto-Burman Studies at the Deccan College |jstor=42930648 |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute |volume=64/65 |pages=325-239}}</ref> It is the most dominant language in this region,<ref name="Sharma 1993">{{Cite journal |last=Sharma |first=S.R. |year=1993 |title=Tibeto-Burman Languages of Uttar Pradesh-- an Introduction |jstor=42936456 |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Institute |volume=53 |pages=343–348}}</ref> although it is not widely known outside of its small hill district and those who speak it have difficulty classifying themselves for central government dealings.<ref name="Levine"/>

The term Byangsi may also refer to the people that speak the language.<ref name="endangered"/> There are also three variants of it: Pangjungkho Boli, Kuti, and Yerjungkho Boli.<ref name="endangered"/> It is considered an [[endangered language]],<ref name="endangered"/> and it is most likely to be replaced by [[Hindi]] if it disappears.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/>

==Geographic distribution==
Byangsi is part of a group of four small [[West Himalayish]] languages spoken in the former "state of Almora", now divided between India's [[Uttarakhand]] and far-western [[Nepal]], viz., [[Rangkas]], [[Darmiya]], [[Chaudangsi]] and Byangsi.{{sfn|Benedict|1972|pp=7–8}}

In Uttarakhand, the Byangsi area extends from Budi ({{coord|30.1021|80.8279}}) in the south to Kuti village ({{coord|30.3078|80.7599}}) in the north. The area is located in [[Dharchula]] and [[Munsiyari]] tehsils of the [[Pithoragarh district]], and the majority of it is in the [[Kuthi valley]] near the Tibet and Nepal borders.<ref name="ethnologue"/> Other villages of the area include Nabi, [[Gunji, Uttarakhand|Gunji]], Napalchyu, Rongkang, and Garbyang.<ref name="ethnologue"/><ref name=Nagano>{{citation |last1=Nagano |first1=Yasuhiko |last2=LaPolla |first2=Randy J. |title=New Research on Zhangzhung and Related Himalayan Languages: Bon Studies 3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sCMOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA499 |year=2001 |publisher=National Museum of Ethnology |p=499}}</ref>

In Nepal, Byangsi is traditionally spoken in Chhangru ({{coord|30.1296| 80.8835}}) and [[Tinkar]] ({{coord|30.1354|80.9848}}) in the Tinkar river valley. The villages are in the [[Byans (rural municipality)|Byans municipality]] in the [[Darchula District]] of [[Sudurpashchim Pradesh]]. Later, two new villages called Rapla and Sitola were founded by Byangsi speakers to the south of the original area.<ref name=Nagano/>

=== History ===
The speakers of Byangsi believe themselves to be descended from the Darchula Byangsi people, high-caste Parbatiya, and Tibetans.<ref name="Levine"/> Until recently, the hill region where the people live was closed to foreign researchers, so very little information has been gathered on the languages of the area.<ref name="Levine"/>

=== Culture ===
The people who speak Byangsi may be called Byangsi, but the people prefer Bura.<ref name="Levine">{{Cite journal |last=Levine |first=Nancy E. |year=1987 |title=Caste, State, and Ethnic Boundaries in Nepal |jstor=2056667 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=46 |pages=71–88 |doi=10.2307/2056667}}</ref>

In [[Caste system in Nepal|Nepal's national]] [[Caste|caste system]], which the Nepalese government used to replace the three previous regionally-distinct hierarchies, the mountain peoples to which the Bura belong are placed near the middle. For legal matters with the government, the Bura consider themselves Chetri, specifically, Matwali Chetri, which signifies that they align with Chetri in social customs and structure, but do not follow all of the practices of the Chetri caste.<ref name="Levine"/>

The [[Humla District|Humla]] region in which the Bura are found is inhabited by three [[Ethnic group|ethnic]] groups: the Bura, the [[Nepali language|Nepali Parbatiyas]], and the [[Bhotiya|Tibetan speakers]], which are all distinct in altitude at which they live, economic activities, and social customs. However, these ethnic boundaries are not rigid, unlike in surrounding areas; ethnic accommodation occurs in which individuals, groups, or even whole villages will change their ethnic affiliation as needed by economic and lifestyle changes. The Bura reside midway along the mountains and make their living by farming the hillsides and recently cleared forest land. The Chetri caste to which the Bura belong is a high caste within the Humla region, though the peoples there are generally very poor.<ref name="Levine"/> The Matwali Chetri are the result of [[acculturation]] of traditional tribal practices to Nepalese society in order to fit a caste model, the Chetri; they share marital, family, and inheritance customs; a ritual calendar; and life crisis rituals with the Chetri, though they, like the rest of the mountain peoples, use cheaper spiritual mediums for their rituals.<ref name="Levine"/>

Within the Bura ethnic group, the people divide themselves into two classes: ''jharra'' ("true") and Tibetan Bura. These classes are divided in that the ''jharra'' claim themselves to be descended much more from the Darchula Byansi and high-caste Parbatiya than Tibetan origin and say that they ceased intermarriage with Tibetans long ago, while the Tibetan Bura do allow intermarriage with Tibetans and speak the Tibetan language.<ref name="Levine"/> There is a low degree of intermarriage between speakers of the different Tibeto-Burman languages of the region.<ref name="Sharma 2001">{{Cite journal |last=Sharma |first=Suhnu Ram |date=Feb 2001 |editor-last=LaPolla |editor-first=Randy |title=A Study on the Tibeto-Burman Languages of Uttar Pradesh |journal=New Research on Zhangzhung and Related Himalayan Languages |volume=2 }}</ref>

=== Dialects ===
The variations of Pangjungkho Boli, Kuti, and Yerjungkho Boli are mutually intelligible, with minute differences.<ref name="Levine"/> Even the languages of [[Chaudangsi language|Chaudangsi]] and [[Darmiya language|Darmiya]] that share a small geographic region are mutually intelligible with Byangsi, as these languages are very closely related and developed in an area where speakers have communicated with each other's villages for years.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/> In fact, all the Tibeto-Burman languages of this region collectively call themselves "Ranglo" and the speakers are called "Rang," and they may be called by outsiders "Shauka" and "Jaba."<ref name="Sharma 2001"/>

=== Sociolinguistic Patterns ===
There is a high degree of bilingualism in Uttarakhand. [[Hindi]] is the official language of the state, so all written communication in addition to mainstream media and formal discussions are in Hindi, while Tibeto-Burman languages like Byangsi are now only spoken at home, between close friends and family.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/> Byangsi is not written, although there has been a recent movement among its speakers to create a script for a uniform written language, which may greatly help preserve the language for years to come if successful.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/>

Many Tibeto-Burman languages borrow frequently from more widely-known languages, Byangsi borrows to a lesser degree than its relatives.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/>

== Grammar ==

=== Morphology ===
There are 12 distinct [[vowel]] sounds in Byangsii, which are represented: i, i:, ł, ɯ, u, u:, e, o, ε, ɔ, a (ə), and a:. For [[consonant]]s, there are 36 [[phoneme]]s, represented as: k, kh, g, ŋ, t5, t5h, d5, n5, t, th, d, dh, n, hn, p, ph, b, bh, m, hm, ts, tsh, dz, c, ch, j, l, hl, r, hr, s, ʃ, h, y, w, r. The consonants bh, dh, and r are borrowed. [[Syllable]]s in Byangsi may begin with any consonant except for r.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/> Consonant clusters in Byangsi will only occur if the second sound is y or w, which act as [[Semivowel|semi-vowels]].<ref name="Sharma 2001"/>

One can typically sort words in Tibeto-Burman languages into the four categories of [[verb]]-[[adjective]]s, [[noun]]s, [[pronoun]]s, and [[Numeral (linguistics)|numerals]], though nouns are often derived from verbs (but hardly ever vice versa). Numerals and pronouns are of the noun-type in terms of syntax and affixation patterns.<ref name="Benedict">{{harvnb|Benedict|1972}}{{page needed|date=December 2019}}</ref> Byangsi has separate verbs from adjectives and also has adverbs.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/>

==== Nouns ====
Noun stems may be simple or complex. Compound nouns can be formed by putting together multiple morphemes. A [[prefix]] or [[suffix]] may be added to a word to denote gender of the person or animal in question.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/> To denote plurality, the suffix -maŋ may be used, or to specifically show the quantity of two, the suffix -khan or the prefix nis (from nəʃɛ) may be used.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/>

Nouns may take one of four [[Grammatical case|cases]], those being [[Nominative case|nominative]], [[Instrumental case|agentive/instrumental]], [[Dative case|dative]], or [[Genitive case|genitive]]. Those which are not the nominative take suffixes to indicate case.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/>

==== Pronouns ====
[[Personal pronoun]]s differentiate between first, second, and third person in addition to singularity, duality, or plurality, with the dual being shown by adding the suffix -ʃi to the plural pronoun.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/>
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Singular
!Dual
!Plural
|-
!'''First person'''
|je
|inʃi
|in
|-
!'''Second person'''
|gan
|ganiʃi
|gani
|-
!'''Third person'''
|uo
|uniʃi
|unʃi
|}
[[Demonstrative Pronoun|Demonstrative pronouns]] in Byangsi will differentiate based on number, distance, elevation relative to speaker, and whether an object is visible.<ref name="Sharma studies"/>

There is also a set of [[interrogative pronouns]]:<ref name="Sharma 2001"/>
{| class="wikitable"
!Byangsi
!English
|-
|khà
|what
|-
|una
|who
|-
|ulaŋ
|when
|-
|wà
|where
|-
|ham
|how
|-
|hoŋ
|why
|}
The [[emphatic pronoun]] "api" may have been borrowed from Hindi or [[Kumaoni language|Kumaoni]]. It only has one form.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/> There is also only one [[relative pronoun]], "dzai," which is always used with "api."<ref name="Sharma 2001"/>

==== Adjectives ====
Adjectives precede the nouns they modify and do not change form. They can also be used as [[Nominalized adjective|substantives]].<ref name="Sharma 2001"/>

==== Adverbs ====
Adverbs may specify the time, place, or manner of an action and precede the verb which they modify.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/>

==== Verbs ====
There are both simple and compound verbs in Byangsi, with the simple verbs having monosyllabic roots.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/> Verbs may be treated as typically transitive or intransitive, and in order to change the meaning, they may take on a suffix based on what the typical role of the verb is.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/>

Byangsi, like many Tibeto-Burman languages, amply uses aspectivizers, which are auxiliaries added to a verb directly to its [[Verb stem|stem]] to slightly change its meaning to something closely related.<ref name="Sharma Aspectivizers">{{Cite journal |last=Sharma |first=S.R. |date=1996–1997 |title=Aspectivizers and Mediopassive Stem Formation in Byangsi |jstor=42930505 |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute |volume=56/57 |pages=267–270}}</ref> The change between a transitive and intransitive verb may be considered an aspectivizer.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/> The aspectivizer itself cannot stand alone, although a verb without one may; in fact, some verbs will not take an aspectivizer.<ref name="Sharma Aspectivizers"/>

A verb will change form based on [[Grammatical tense|tense]], [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]], [[Grammatical mood|mood]], [[Grammatical person|person]], and number. Moods include [[Imperative mood|imperative]]/prohibitive, [[Indicative mood|indicative]], [[infinitive]], and [[Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]]. Infinitives are shown by adding the suffix -mo (sometimes pronounced -mɔ) to the verb stem.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/>

=== Syntax ===
Byangsi places the object before the verb. The verb comes at the end of a sentence, and typically, the subject comes before the object.<ref name="Benedict"/>

Relationships of words in Tibeto-Burman languages are determined both by positioning in a sentence and [[morpheme]]s, which may be either [[prefix]]es or [[suffix]]es. Morphemes may be used to reinforce the roles of words or to indicate their roles if they are not in the "standard" order and seem to be a relatively recent addition to Tibeto-Burman languages.<ref name="Benedict"/>

=== Kinship Terminology ===
Byangsi's [[kinship terminology]] is a symmetrical prescriptive type, meaning that the same terms may be used for relatives on both sides of the family tree.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Allen |first=N. J. |year=1975 |title=Byansi Kinship Terminology: A Study in Symmetry |jstor=2801184 |journal=Man |publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=10 |pages=80–94 |doi=10.2307/2801184}}</ref>
[[File:Byangsi tree figure JG.png|thumb|Symmetrical terminology used in Byangsi]]
The family tree is not exactly symmetrical in terminology, but some terms mean types of relatives that are thought of as similar in the culture. An example of a perfectly symmetrical relationship is that the terms ''titi'' and ''lala'' each refer to the father's parents and mother's parents. However, many complex relationships have specific names in Byangsi that may be shared. The term ''chînî'' is used for one's spouse's mother as well as one's father's sister and mother's brother's wife.<ref name="Panna Lall">{{Cite journal |last=Lall |first=Panna |date=1911 |title=An Enquiry into the Birth and Marriage Customs of the Khasiyas and the Bhotiyas of Almora District, U.P. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.207408 |journal=The Indian Antiquary |volume=11 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.207408/page/n204 190]–198}}</ref> This relationship could be thought of as being similar to an aunt, although ''chînî'' is not used for one's mother's sisters. Likewise, the term ''thângmi'' is used for one's spouse's father, one's mother's brother, and one's father's sister's husband, but not one's father's brothers.<ref name="Panna Lall"/>

== Numeral System ==
Byangsi uses a non-base 10 decimal [[numeral system]]. It uses prefixes as multipliers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hodson |first=T. C. |year=1913 |title=Note on the Numeral Systems of the Tibeto-Burman Dialects |jstor=25188969 |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=315–336}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Arabic Numeral
!Byangsi Word
!Arabic Numeral
!Byangsi Word
|-
|1
|tiɡɛ
|13
|cɛsɯm
|-
|2
|naʃɛ
|20
|nasa: [nassa:]
|-
|3
|sɯm
|21
|nasa: tiɡɛ
|-
|4
|pi
|30
|nasa: cì
|-
|5
|nai
|40
|pisà
|-
|6
|tugu
|50
|pisa: cì
|-
|7
|niʃɛ
|60
|tuksa:
|-
|8
|jɛdɛ
|70
|tuksa: cì
|-
|9
|ɡui
|80
|jatsha
|-
|10
|cì
|90
|jatsha cì
|-
|11
|cɛthe
|100
|rà / sai
|-
|12
|cɛnye
|1000
|haja:r
|}
Table modified from Chan.<ref name="mpg numeral systems">{{Cite web |url=https://mpi-lingweb.shh.mpg.de/numeral/Byangsi.htm |title=Byangsi- Numeral Systems of the World's Languages |editor-last=Chan |editor-first=Eugene |website=mpi-lingweb.shh.mpg.de |access-date=2017-04-27}}</ref><ref name="Sharma 2001"/>

Note that sai and haja:r are borrowed from [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]].<ref name="mpg numeral systems"/>

Multiplicative words are formed by reduplicating the main word, for example, using pipi to mean four times (from pi), or the suffix -tsu, such as pitsu to achieve the same meaning.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/>

[[Fraction (mathematics)|Fractions]] are expressed by local measurements except for one word, "phyε," which means "half" and is never modified.<ref name="Sharma 2001"/>

== Vocabulary ==
Select assorted vocabulary (not comprehensive):<ref name="Sharma 2001"/>
{| class="wikitable"
!Byangsi word
!English translation
|-
|ɔ
|yes
|-
|lairi
|all
|-
|yin
|be
|-
|ŋɔ
|face
|-
|taŋde
|alive
|-
|yaddε
|bad
|-
|semo
|bear
|-
|wa nayaŋ
|bee
|-
|le
|fruit
|-
|hnimmo
|smell
|-
|labu
|butter
|-
|khu
|family
|-
|sàg
|breath
|-
|dza:mo
|eat
|-
|tuŋmo
|drink
|-
|sapaŋ
|earth
|-
|sa:tso
|empty
|-
|hicimo
|die
|-
|khat
|cold
|-
|rɔ
|hungry
|-
|itta
|just now
|-
|bhak
|sound
|-
|chò
|spoon
|-
|gal
|yak
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{citation |last1=Benedict |first1=Paul K. |editor-last=Matisoff |editor-first=James A. |title=Sino-Tibetan: A Conspectus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sww9AAAAIAAJ |year=1972 |publisher=CUP Archive}}

==Further reading==
* {{citation |last=Śarmā |first=Devīdatta |title=Tibeto-Himalayan Languages of Uttarkhand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iojJb5EjjaUC&pg=PA1 |year=1989 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-171-7 |pages=1–}}

{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Bodic languages}}

{{Uttarakhand}}

[[Category:Endangered languages of India]]
[[Category:Languages of Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Languages of Nepal]]
[[Category:West Himalayish languages]]

Byangsi language - Revision history

>BrownHairedGirl at 12:51, 1 May 2021