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{{Short description|1025–1026 Chola military campaign}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Chola invasion of Srivijaya
| partof = [[South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I]]
| image = File:Chola Empire Map (1).svg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = Rajendra Chola's Territories c. 1030 AD
| date = 1025–1026 AD<ref name=":02" />{{rp|394, 402}}
| place = [[Palembang]] ([[Sumatra]]) and [[Kedah]] ([[Malay Peninsula]]), [[Srivijaya]]
| result = [[Chola]] victory
*[[Chola]] influence in [[Srivijaya]]
* [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman]] is captured
* Dissolution of Srivijayan [[Mandala (political model)|mandala]]
| combatant1 = [[Chola Empire]]
| combatant2 = [[Srivijaya]]
| commander1 = '''[[Rajendra I]]''' Beemaseenan Amarabujangan Divakara Karunaakaran
| commander2 = '''[[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman|Sangrama I]]'''{{POW}} [[Samara Vijayatunggavarman]]
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
| units1 = [[Chola Navy]] [[Chola Army]]
| units2 = Srivijaya Navy Srivijaya Army
}}

{{History of Indonesia}}In 1025 AD, the [[Chola Empire|Chola]] Emperor [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]] launched naval invasions on [[Srivijaya]] in [[maritime Southeast Asia]], leading to the fall of the [[Sailendra Dynasty]] of Srivijaya.<ref name="Munoz">{{cite book |last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|year=2006|location=Singapore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NqwuAQAAIAAJ |isbn= 981-4155-67-5}}</ref>

Rajendra's overseas expedition against Srivijaya was a unique event in India's history and its otherwise peaceful relations with the states of [[Southeast Asia]]. Several places in present-day [[Indonesia]] and [[Malay Peninsula]] were invaded by Rajendra I of the [[Chola dynasty]].<ref>Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.170</ref><ref>Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India by Moti Chandra p.214</ref> The invasion furthered the expansion of [[Tamil people|Tamil]] merchant associations such as the [[Manigramam]], [[Five Hundred Lords of Ayyavolu|Ayyavole]] and [[Ainnurruvar]] into [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations 600-1400 by Tansen Sen p.159</ref><ref>Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.69</ref><ref>Wink, André, ''Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol. I, Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam: 7th-11th centuries'', p.325, {{ISBN|978-0391041738}}</ref><ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p.564</ref>

The Chola invasion also coincided with return voyage of the great [[Bengal]]i [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] scholar [[Atiśa]] (c. 982–1054) from [[Sumatra]] to [[Indian subcontinent|India]] and [[Tibet]] in 1025.<ref>Atisa and Tibet: Life and Works of Dipamkara Srijnana by Alaka Chattopadhyaya p.91</ref>

==Background==
Throughout much of their history, ancient India and Indonesia maintained peaceful and friendly relations, making the Chola invasion a unique event in Asian history.<ref name="Kulke" />

In the 9th and 10th centuries, [[Srivijaya]] had close ties with the [[Pala Empire]] in [[Bengal]]. An 860 [[Nalanda inscription]] records that Maharaja [[Balaputra]] of Srivijaya dedicated a monastery at the [[Nalanda|Nalanda Mahavihara]] in Pala territory. Relations between Srivijaya and the [[Chola dynasty]] of [[southern India]] were cordial during the reign of [[Raja Raja Chola I]]. In 1006, King [[Maravijayattungavarman]], a Srivijayan [[Maharaja]] from the [[Sailendra]] dynasty, constructed the [[Chudamani Vihara]] in the port town of [[Nagapattinam]].<ref name="sastri219220">{{cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. A. Nilakanta |title=The CōĻas |publisher=University of Madras |year=1935 |author-link=K.A. Nilakanta Sastri |pages=219–220 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4293/page/n235/mode/2up}}</ref> However, during the reign of [[Rajendra Chola I]], relations deteriorated as the Cholas attacked Srivijayan cities.<ref>Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67</ref>

Srivijaya controlled two major naval choke points, the [[Malacca Strait]] and the [[Sunda Strait]], and was a significant trading empire with formidable naval forces. The northwest opening of the Malacca Strait was controlled from Kedah on the [[Malay Peninsula]] and from [[Pannai]] on the [[Sumatra]]n side, while [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]] (in [[Jambi]]) and [[Palembang]] controlled the southeast opening and the Sunda Strait. Srivijaya enforced a naval trade monopoly, compelling ships passing through their waters to stop at their ports or risk being plundered.<ref name="Naval Melaka Straits">{{Cite journal |last=Heng |first=Derek |date=October 2013 |title=State formation and the evolution of naval strategies in the Melaka Straits, c. 500-1500 CE |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=380–399|doi=10.1017/S0022463413000362 |s2cid=161550066 }}</ref>

The Cholas benefitted from both [[agriculture]] and foreign trade. Their seafaring activities sometimes led to overseas trade and conquest, including in [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Craig A. Lockard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qOfjaW7C3AsC&dq=Chola+piracy&pg=PA367 |title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History |date=27 December 2006 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=0618386114 |page=367 |access-date=23 April 2012}}</ref>

The reasons for the Chola naval expedition are unclear. Historian [[Nilakanta Sastri]] suggested that the conflict may have arisen from Srivijayan attempts to obstruct Chola trade with the East, especially China, or perhaps from Rajendra's desire to extend his ''[[digvijaya (conquest)|digvijaya]]'' (world conquest) across the sea, adding prestige to his reign.<ref name="Kulke" /> Another theory posits that geopolitical and diplomatic factors motivated the invasion. King [[Suryavarman I]] of the [[Khmer Empire]] sought assistance from Rajendra Chola I against the [[Tambralinga]] kingdom.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336">Kenneth R. Hall (October 1975), "Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (3), pp. 318-336, Brill Publishers</ref> In response, the Tambralinga kingdom sought aid from Srivijayan king Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336" /><ref name="C. Majumdar 1961 pp. 338-342">[[R. C. Majumdar]] (1961), "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Cola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338-342, Artibus Asiae Publishers</ref>

==Invasion==

The Chola invasion of [[Srivijaya]] was a swift campaign that left Srivijaya unprepared. In the [[11th century]], the [[Chola Navy|Chola navy]] had become a formidable force, while Srivijaya's sea power had weakened.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heng |first=Derek |date=2013 |title=State formation and the evolution of naval strategies in the Melaka Straits, c. 500-1500 CE |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43863212 |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=385 |doi=10.1017/S0022463413000362 |jstor=43863212 |s2cid=161550066 |issn=0022-4634|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Indian ships typically sailed eastward across the [[Bay of Bengal]], stopping at ports in Lamuri, [[Aceh]], or [[Kedah]] in the Malay Peninsula before entering the [[Malacca Strait]]. However, the Chola fleet sailed directly to the west coast of [[Sumatra]]. The port of [[Barus]] on North Sumatra’s west coast, controlled by Tamil trade guilds, served as a resupply point after crossing the [[Indian Ocean]]. From there, the Chola fleet sailed southward along Sumatra's west coast and entered the [[Sunda Strait]].<ref name="Munoz"/>

The Srivijaya navy, stationed at Kedah near the northwest opening of the Malacca Strait, was unaware of the Chola invasion approaching from the south via the Sunda Strait. The first Srivijayan city to be attacked was [[Palembang]], the empire's capital. The sudden assault allowed the Cholas to sack the city, plundering the ''Kadatuan'' royal palace and monasteries. The [[Tamil inscriptions in the Malay world#Tanjore Inscription|Thanjavur inscription]] records that Rajendra Chola captured King [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman|Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman]] of Srivijaya and seized treasures, including the Vidhyadara Torana, a jeweled 'war gate' of Srivijaya.<ref name="Kulke">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2swhCXJVRzwC&dq=Chola+captured+Srivijaya+jeweled+gate&pg=PA1 |title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia |editor-last1=Kulke |editor-first1=Hermann |editor-last2=Kesavapany |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Sakhuja |editor-first3=Vijay |year=2009 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |page=1 |isbn=9789812309372 |access-date=23 April 2012}}</ref>

Despite their success, the Cholas did not establish lasting control over the captured cities, as the campaign primarily involved fast-moving raids and plunder. The Chola fleet likely utilized the [[Southeast Asia]]n [[monsoon]] winds to swiftly move between ports. This tactic of rapid, unexpected attacks contributed to the Cholas' success, as it prevented the Srivijayan [[Mandala (political model)|''mandala'']] from organizing defenses, mounting a response, or seeking aid.<ref name="Munoz" /><ref name="Munoz 163">{{cite book |last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|year=2006|location=Singapore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NqwuAQAAIAAJ |pages=163|isbn=981-4155-67-5}}</ref> The war ended in a Chola victory, significantly weakening Srivijaya and breaking its maritime monopoly in the region.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336" /><ref name="C. Majumdar 1961 pp. 338-342" /><ref name="Southeast Asia p.43">Southeast Asia: Past and Present by D.R. Sardesai p.43</ref><ref>Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula by Paul Michel Munoz p.161</ref>

==Aftermath==
[[File:Charter_issued_by_king_Rājendra_Chola_I_Or._1687.pdf|left|thumb|250x250px|[[Charter]] issued by Rajendra I that declared the collection of revenue to build a [[Vihāra|Buddhist Vihara]] in Srivijaya.]]
With the Maharaja [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman|Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman]] imprisoned and most of its cities destroyed, the leaderless [[Srivijaya]] mandala entered a period of chaos and confusion, marking the end of the [[Sailendra]] dynasty. According to the 15th-century [[Malay Annals]], [[Rajendra Chola I]], after the successful naval raid in 1025 married Onang Kiu, the daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman.<ref>Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations by Tansen Sen p.226</ref><ref>Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.71</ref>

The invasion forced [[Srivijaya]] to make peace with [[Javanese people|Javanese]] kingdom of [[Kahuripan]]. The peace deal was brokered by the exiled daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman, a Srivijayan princess who managed to escape the destruction of Palembang and came to the court of King [[Airlangga]] in [[East Java]]. She also became the queen consort of Airlangga named Dharmaprasadottungadevi and in 1035, Airlangga constructed a Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated to his queen consort.<ref name="Munoz 163" />

This invasion gravely weakened the [[Srivijaya]]n hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms like [[Kahuripan]] and its successor, [[Kediri (historical kingdom)|Kediri]] in [[Java]] based on agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. [[Sri Deva]] was enthroned as the new king and the trading activities resumed. He sent an embassy to the court of [[China]] in 1028 CE.<ref name="Munoz 163" /> ''[[Sanfotsi|Sanfoqi]]'' sent a mission to China in 1028, but this would refer to Malayu-Jambi, not Srivijaya-Palembang.<ref name=":02" />{{rp|398, 405}} No Srivijayan envoys came to China between 1028–1077, indicating that the ''[[Mandala (political model)|mandala]]'' of Srivijaya had faded. It is very possible that Srivijaya collapsed in 1025.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Miksic |first=John M. |title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300-1800 |publisher=NUS Press |year=2013 |isbn=9789971695583 |author1-link=John N. Miksic}}</ref>{{rp|110}} In the following centuries, Chinese chronicles still refer to "Sanfoqi", but this term probably refers to the [[Malayu (kingdom)|Malayu]]-Jambi kingdom, evidenced by Chinese record of ''Sanfoqi Zhanbei guo'' (Jambi country of Sanfoqi). The last epigraphic evidence that mentions the word "Sriwijaya" or "Srivijaya" comes from the Tanjore inscription of the Chola kingdom in 1030 or 1031.<ref name=":02" />{{rp|397, 398, 405}}

The Chola control over Srivijaya lasted for several decades. Chinese chronicles mentioned ''Sanfoqi Zhu-nian guo'' which means "Chola country of Sanfoqi", likely referring to Kedah. ''Sanfoqi Zhu-nian guo'' sent missions to China in 1077, 1079, 1082, 1088, and 1090. It is possible that the Cholas installed a crown prince in the Tamil-dominated area of the Malacca Straits.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last1=Miksic |first1=John N. |title=Ancient Southeast Asia |last2=Goh |first2=Geok Yian |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London }}</ref>{{rp|398, 399, 405}}

Tamil colonization of the Malacca Straits seems to have lasted for a century. The Cholas left several inscriptions in northern Sumatra and the Malay peninsula. Tamil influence can be found in works of art (sculpture and temple architecture), it indicated government activity rather than commerce. Chola's grip on the northern Sumatra and the Malay peninsula receded in the 12th century — the Tamil poem ''Kalingatupparani'' of around 1120 mentioned [[Kulottunga I|Kulottungga]]'s destruction of Kadaram (Kedah). After that, Kedah disappeared from Indian sources.<ref name=":02" />{{rp|398, 399}}

==See also==
* [[Greater India]]
* [[Indosphere]]
* [[Sanskritisation]]
* [[Maritime history of Odisha]]
* [[Indian cultural influences in early Philippine polities]]
* [[Hinduism in Indonesia]]
* [[Hinduism in Malaysia]]
* [[Hinduism in Philippines]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Wars involving the Chola Empire]]
[[Category:Srivijaya]]
[[Category:1025 in Asia]]
[[Category:11th century in India]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1025]]
[[Category:Overseas empires]]
[[Category:Invasions by India]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving the Chola Empire]]

Chola invasion of Srivijaya - Revision history

Shelia6340 at 10:18, 16 March 2026