>PulauKakatua19 at 06:15, 28 September 2021

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{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2018}}
{{For|the Islamic principle|Shura}}{{Infobox caste|caste_name=Chuhra|caste_name_in_local=चुहरा|native_name= chuda|varna=[[Shudra]]|jati=[[Harijan]]|gotra=[[Balmiki]]|religions=[[Hinduism]], [[Islam]], [[Christianity]] and [[Sikhism]]|country=[[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Nepal]]|lineage=[[Valmiki]] and [[Gautamiputra Satakarni|Satakarni]]|education_reservation=Yes|status=[[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Caste category]]|veda=[[Rig Veda]]}}
'''Chuhra''', also known as '''Bhanghi''' and '''Balmiki''',<ref name="Leslie2003"/><ref>{{cite book |title=Hindi schedule Literature and the Politics of Representation |first=Sarah Beth |last=Hunt |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-31755-952-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHc9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 |page=76}}</ref> is a [[Dalit]] caste in India and Pakistan.<ref name="RobinsonKujur2010">{{cite book |last1=Robinson |first1=Rowena |last2=Kujur |first2=Joseph Marianus |date=17 August 2010|title=Margins of Faith: Dalit and Tribal Christianity in India |publisher=SAGE Publishing India |isbn=978-93-86042-93-4 |language=en |quote=The Chuhras and Bhangis are both Dalit castes, whose 'traditional occupation' has been sweeping.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lynch |first1=Owen M. |title=Divine Passions: The Social Construction of Emotion in India |date=1990 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-30467-3 |page=121 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=Rana |year=1995 |title=Bhangi, Scavenger in Indian Society: Marginality, Identity, and Politicization of the Community |publisher=M.D. Publications |page=17 |isbn=978-8-18588-070-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v_aZm_MQjygC&pg=PA17}}</ref> Populated regions include the [[Punjab region]] of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], as well as [[Uttar Pradesh]] in India, among other parts of the Indian subcontinent such as [[South India|southern India]].<ref name="Singh1998"/><ref name="2002Webster">{{cite book |last1=Webster |first1=John C. B. |title=Religion and Dalit Liberation: An Examination of Perspectives |date=2002 |publisher=Manohar Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-81-7304-327-7 |page=76 |language=English |quote=Pauline Kolenda did field research among Chuhras in the village of Khalapur in north-western Uttar Pradesh shortly before Dr. Ambedkar died.}}</ref><ref name="phan">{{cite book |last=Phan |first=P.C. |year=2011 |title=Christianities in Asia |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1405160896 |page=25|quote=For example, 90 to 95% of Pakistani Christians are Punjabi of the ''chuhra'' (''dalit'') group converted from Hinduism rather than from Islam or local religious systems.}}</ref><ref name="Srivastava1997">{{cite book |last1=Srivastava |first1=B. N. |title=Manual Scavenging in India: A Disgrace to the Country |date=1997 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-7022-639-0 |page=28 |language=en}}</ref> Their traditional occupation is sweeping, a "polluting" occupation that caused them to be considered [[Untouchability|untouchables]] in the Hindu caste system.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bodley |first=J. H. |year=2011 |title=Cultural Anthropology: Tribes, States, and the Global System |edition=5th |publisher=Rowman Altamira |page=315}}</ref>

In the early twentieth century, Chuhras of the northern Indian subcontinent were divided into the sub-castes including the [[Sahotra]], [[Gill (name)|Gill]], Mattu, Sindhu, [[Ladhar]], [[Untwal]], [[Dharival]], [[Kandabari]], [[Khosar]], [[Borat (caste)|Borat]], [[Chhapriband]], and [[Lal Begi]].<ref name="Singh1995">{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Kumar Suresh |title=The Scheduled Castes, Volume 10 |date=1995 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780195637427 |page=108 |language=en |quote=Ibbetson (1916) records several Chuhra tribes (divisions), namely Sahotra, Gill, Khokhar, Mattu, Kharu, Kaliyana, Ladhar, Sindhu, Chhapriband, Untwal, Kandabari, Hansi, Khosar, Borat and Dharival.}}</ref><ref name="Singh1998">{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=K. S. |title=India's Communities |date=1998 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-563354-2 |page=234 |language=English |quote=The Balmiki (SC) in Haryana are also known as Valmiki, Chuhra, Lal Begi or Khakrobe.}}</ref>

Originally following the [[Balmiki sect]] of [[Hinduism]], many Chuhras converted to Sikhism, Islam and Christianity during the [[colonial India|colonial era in India]].<ref name="Kling2020">{{cite book |last1=Kling |first1=David W. |title=A History of Christian Conversion |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-991092-2 |page=562 |language=en |quote=Islam, Sikhism, and Christianity represented viable alternatives for the Chuhras, siphoning off a sizable portion of the Hindu population. In 1901, 934,553 Chuhras were registered as Hindus; by 1931, that number had dwindled to about one-third (368,224 people). The socioeconomic factors that prompted some Chuhras to become Muslims or Sikhs propelled others into the Christian fold.}}</ref> Today, Churas in Indian Punjab are largely followers of [[Sikhism]].<ref name="census">{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/SCST/dh_sc_punjab.pdf |title=Census}}</ref> A minority continue to follow [[Christianity]], as well as [[Hinduism]], which incorporates elements of Sikhism in its practices.<ref name="census" /><ref name="Mannion2008">{{cite book |last1=Mannion |first1=Gerard |title=Church and Religious 'Other' |date=25 September 2008 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-567-04726-7 |page=87=88 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="Leslie2003">{{cite book |last=Leslie |first=J. |year=2003 |title=Authority and Meaning in Indian Religions: Hinduism and the Case of Valmiki |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=0754634302 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/authoritymeaning00lesl|page=49|quote=In a similar way, 'Chuhras' are often called 'Bhangi', especially in urban areas. ... Today, although not all 'Bhangis' worship Bhagwan Valmik, and by no means all Valmikis were originally called 'Bhangi', the two terms are often used interchangeably. ... 'Valmiki' is explained as 'the now usually preferred name for the Bhangi or community which follows the teachings of the saint Valmiki' (1998: xii, xvi).}}</ref> In [[Pakistani Punjab]] 90-95% of its Christian population are [[Dalit Christians]] of the Chuhra caste; other Chuhras practice Islam or continue to follow Hinduism.<ref name="SinghaAriel2015"/><ref name="phan" /><ref name="Webster2002">{{cite book |last1=Webster |first1=John C. B. |title=Religion and Dalit Liberation: An Examination of Perspectives |date=2002 |publisher=Manohar Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-81-7304-327-7 |page=16 |language=en |quote=For one thing , there were a good number of Chuhra Muslims who were called Musallis and may or may not have been accepted by others as fellow Muslims. Similarly , Chuhra Sikhs were called Mazhabi Sikhs and were generally kept at a distance by other Sikhs, despite being quite scrupulous in their observances as well as giving up polluting work (carrying night soil) and habits (eating carrion)...}}</ref><ref name="Aqeel2018">{{cite web |last1=Aqeel |first1=Asif |title='Untouchable' caste identity haunts Pakistani Christians like Asia Bibi |url=https://www.worldwatchmonitor.org/2018/11/untouchable-caste-identity-haunts-pakistani-christians-like-asia-bibi/ |publisher=World Watch Monitor |access-date=3 October 2020 |language=en |date=1 November 2018}}</ref>

== Etymology and history ==
[[File:Valmiki train Lava Kushas in Art of Archery.jpg|thumb|The Chuhras claim descent from [[Valmiki|Balmiki]], composer of the ''[[Ramayana]]''.]]
The word "Chuhra" is derived from the word "[[Shudra]]", one of the [[Varna (Hinduism)|varnas]] in Hinduism.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bahadur |first1=Krishna Prakash |title=Caste, Tribes & Culture of India |date=1977 |publisher=Ess Ess Publications |page=10 |language=en |quote=The sweeper or scavenger caste of Punjab is called the Chuhra, a corruption of Sudra.}}</ref>

The Bhangis claim descent from [[Valmiki|Balmiki]] (also known as Lal Beg or Balashah), a [[Brahmin]] who composed the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and who is worshipped as a Hindu [[patron saint]] by the Bhangis.<ref name="Narayan2006"/><ref name="Kananaikil1983">{{cite book |last1=Kananaikil |first1=Jose |title=Scheduled Castes and the Struggle Against Inequality: Strategies to Empower the Marginalised |date=1983 |publisher=Indian Social Institute |page=17 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Leslie2017">{{cite book |last1=Leslie |first1=Julia |title=Authority and Meaning in Indian Religions: Hinduism and the Case of Valmiki |date=22 November 2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-77299-0 |page=51 |language=en}}</ref> The word Bhangi is derived from Bhanga which means broken. The Bhangi community claims that they were made to sweep the floor and do other menial jobs when they refused to convert into [[Islam]] during [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] era.<ref name="Narayan2006">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iAQrpDW4-_YC&q=women+heros+badri+narayan |last1=Narayan |first1=Badri |title=Women Heroes and Dalit Assertion in North India: Culture, Identity and Politics |date=7 November 2006 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |page=65 |isbn=9780761935377 |language=en}}</ref>

Originally following the [[Balmiki sect]] of [[Hinduism]], many Chuhras converted to Sikhism, Islam and Christianity during the [[colonial India|colonial era in India]].<ref name="Kling2020"/>

In 1932 in [[colonial India]], the Balmiki Sabha was created to advocate for the rights of the Chuhras.<ref name="Singh"/> The Balmiki Sabha was applauded by the [[Indian National Congress]] in the mid-1940s for heralding its political message among the Chuhras.<ref name="Singh">{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=K. S. |title=The Scheduled Castes |date=1995 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-563742-7 |page=109 |language=en}}</ref>

In Pakistan, the word "Chuhra" became a slur directed against poorer people, especially menial workers whose jobs were reserved for Hindus, Christians, and religious minorities. The term later became a slur against religious minorities in general, especially Christians.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Khalid |first1=Haroon |title=The language curse: How proud community names have been reduced to insults in Pakistan |url=https://scroll.in/article/817821/the-language-curse-how-proud-community-names-have-been-reduced-to-insults |website=scroll.in |access-date=28 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chaudhry |first1=Kamran |title=Pakistani politician draws censure for Christian slur |url=https://www.ucanews.com/news/pakistani-politician-draws-censure-for-christian-slur/82356 |website=UCA News |access-date=28 September 2021}}</ref>

== By religion ==
===In Hinduism===
As with the [[Lal Begi]], the majority of Hindu Chuhras belong to the [[Balmiki sect]] of [[Hinduism]].<ref name="1995Singh">{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=K. S. |title=The Scheduled Castes |date=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-563742-7 |page=380 |language=en|quote=The Chuhras are divided into four religious orders, the Hindu - Balmiki or Lalbegi, the Muslim - Watal , the Sikh - Mazhabi and the Christian Chuhra.}}</ref> In the [[Baluchistan (Chief Commissioner's Province)|Baluchistan Province]] of [[colonial India]], the majority of Chuhras in the [[Census of India prior to independence|1931 Indian Census]] thus recorded themselves as "Hindu Balmiki".<ref name="Saberwal1972">{{cite book |last1=Saberwal |first1=Satish |title=Beyond the Village: Sociological Explorations |date=1972 |publisher=Indian Institute of Advanced Study |language=en |quote=In the same census, 3,152 Punjabis gave 'Balmiki' as their religion (Khan 1933, II : 277): their caste is not revealed, but Hutton (1933, I : 499) reporting on the same census shows Chuhras in Baluchistan returning themselves as “Hindu Balmiki”.}}</ref>

===In Christianity===
{{Further|Caste system among Indian Christians}}
In [[colonial India]], there were waves of [[conversion to Christianity|conversions to Christianity]] among the Chuhra and [[Chamar]] between the 1870s and 1930s in the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]] and [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Frykenberg |first1=Robert Eric |title=Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present |date=26 June 2008 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-826377-7 |page=240 |language=en}}</ref> The [[Census of India prior to independence|censuses of British India]] became increasingly confused regarding Chuhra Dalits' religious beliefs because the respondents were allowed to choose their designation. Jeffrey Cox says that in the 1920s and 1930s they described themselves variously as {{quote|Chuhra, "Hindu" Chuhra, Musali (Muslim Chuhra), Mazhabi (Sikh Chuhra), Ad-Dharmi, Christian Chuhra, or simply Christian ... It is certain that a large majority of the 391,270 Indian Christians enumerated in Punjab were Chuhras - that is, the most stigmatized minority in the province.<ref>{{cite book |title=Imperial Fault Lines: Christianity and Colonial Power in India, 1818-1940 |first=Jeffrey |last=Cox |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-80474-318-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z9c3AcIDCKkC&pg=PA122 |page=122}}</ref>}}

In what is now Pakistan, the conversions to Christianity and consequent invention of a new identity were largely responsible for the name ''Chuhra'' becoming archaic. It is often considered pejorative and applied to almost all of the Christians in the country, whom John O'Brien describes as "descended from one tribe-caste of oppressed and excluded people".<ref>{{cite book |title=Church and Religious 'Other' |editor-first=Gerard |editor-last=Mannion |publisher=A & C Black |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-56703-286-7 |chapter=The Quest for Pakistani Christian Identity: A Narrative of Religious Other as Liberative Comparative Ecclesiology |first=John |last=O'Brien |pages=78–79 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K5BpAMxlgM4C&pg=PA78}}</ref> The status of the Christian Chuhra as [[Dalit Christians]] continues to be "distinct feature of social discrimination" against them.<ref name="SinghaAriel2015">{{cite web |last1=Singha |first1=Sara |last2=Ariel |first2=Glucklich |title=Dalit Christians and Caste Consciousness in Pakistan |url=https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/761014 |access-date=22 September 2020 |language=en |date=23 April 2015 |quote=This study explores caste discrimination in Pakistan against untouchable (Dalit) converts to Christianity. During the nineteenth century in India, many Dalits converted to Christianity to escape caste persecution. In the 1870s in Punjab, a mass movement to Protestant Christianity flourished among the Dalit Chuhra caste. The Chuhras were the largest menial caste in Punjab and engaged in degrading occupations including sweeping and sanitation work. By the 1930s, almost the entire Chuhra caste converted to Protestant Christianity. In 1947, during the partition of India, the majority of Chuhra converts in Punjab became part of the Protestant community in Pakistan. After Partition, many uneducated Chuhras were confined to menial jobs in the sanitation industry. Today, the stigma of Dalit ancestry is a distinct feature of social discrimination against Chuhra Christians in Pakistan.}}</ref>

===In Islam===
{{Main|Caste system among South Asian Muslims}}
Chuhras who converted from Hinduism to Islam were known as ''Musalis''.<ref name="Webster2002"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Julius |first1=Qaiser |title=Ahmadi and Christian Socio-Political Responses to Pakistan's Blasphemy Laws: A Comparison, Contrast and Critique with Special Reference to the Christian Church in Pakistan |date=30 September 2017 |publisher=Langham Publishing |isbn=978-1-78368-329-1 |language=en|quote=Likewise, Chuhras were not accepted fully in Islam by their Muslim co-religionists: they were distinguished as ''musalis'' (little Muslims) despite the fact that Islam proclaims equality (Q.49:13).}}</ref> Despite placing great emphasis on social equality and brotherhood among all Muslims, early South Asian Muslims did not address the problem of untouchability for the Chuhras or Bhangis. As a result, only a very few members from this community ever embraced [[Islam]], most converting to Christianity. Chuhras adopted the externals of Islam by keeping Muslim names, observing Ramadan and burial of the dead. However they never underwent [[circumcision]]. Only a few cases of circumcision have ever been recorded for Chuhras or Bhangis and these were Chuhras who lived very near [[Jama Masjid]]. The Chuhras did not accept [[Mohammed]] as their prophet and also continued observing traditional Hindu festivals, such as [[Diwali]], Raki and [[Holi]]. Just like their Hindu brethren they continued with their traditional caste work. In India the caste system was fully observed by Muslims. Untouchability was fully accepted and justified by the Muslims in India and the caste system was fully observed by Muslim society. In the same way that Hindu Chuhras who were barred from entrance to temples in historical times, Muslim Chuhras are still today barred from entrance to mosques and never allowed to go past the outside steps to Muslim religious places. The Untouchability even extended after death; Chuhras were to bury their dead in separate graveyards away from other Muslims.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=Rana |year=1995 |title=Bhangi, Scavenger in Indian Society: Marginality, Identity, and Politicization of the Community |publisher=M.D. Publications |page=128 |isbn=978-8-18588-070-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v_aZm_MQjygC&pg=PA128}}</ref>

===In Sikhism===
Chuhras who converted from Hinduism to Sikhism became known as [[Mazhabi Sikh|Mazhabi Sikhs]].<ref name="Webster2002"/><ref>{{cite book |title=Sikhism, Its Philosophy and History |date=1997 |publisher=Institute of Sikh Studies |isbn=978-81-85815-03-9 |page=335 |language=en}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
According to the [[2001 Census of India]], the Balmikis formed 11.2 per cent of the [[Scheduled Caste]] population in [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/SCST/dh_sc_punjab.pdf|publisher=Census I |title=Punjab: Data Highlights: The Scheduled Castes |year=2001|access-date=2015-01-05}}</ref> and were the second-most populous Scheduled Caste in [[Delhi|Delhi National Capital Region]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/SCST/dh_sc_delhi.pdf|title=Delhi: Data Highlights: The Scheduled Castes |year=2001 |publisher=Census India|access-date=2015-01-05 |page=1}}</ref> <ref>Leslie, J.(2003) Authority and Meaning in Indian Religions: Hinduism and the Case of Valmiki. Ashgate publishing. {{ISBN|0754634302}}</ref>

The [[2011 Census of India]] for [[Uttar Pradesh]] showed the Balmiki population, which was classified as a Scheduled Caste, as 1,319,241.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/SC_ST/PCA-A10/SC-0900-PCA-A-10-ddw.xlsx |title= A-10 Individual Scheduled Caste Primary Census Abstract Data and its Appendix - Uttar Pradesh |publisher=Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=2017-02-04}}</ref>

The Balmikis represent 0.7 per cent in Andhra Pradesh and are mainly concentrated in [[Anantapur district|Anantapur]], [[Kurnool district|Kurnool]] and [[Kadapa district|Kadapa]] districts of [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref>{{Citation|url=https://www.odi.org/resources/docs/2692.pdf|title=Caste,Class and Social Articulation in Andhra Pradesh:Mapping Differential Regional Trajectories|publisher=Osmania University}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=All India anthropometric survey: analysis of data. South Zone|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U0uAAAAAMAAJ|author1=J. Sreenath|author2=S. H. Ahmad|publisher=Anthropological Survey of India|year=1989|page=37}}</ref> They also built a temple of [[Valmiki]] in [[Anantapur]], [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Festival of Pirs: Popular Islam and Shared Devotion in South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MfXUAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA169|first=Afsar|last=Mohammad|date = December 2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn = 9780199997596}}</ref> In Andhra Pradesh they are known as ''Boya Valmikis'' or ''Valmikis''.<ref name="Kumar1975">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yb2syrYmBaYC&pg=PA42|title=Committees and Commissions in India, 1947-73: 1979 (2 v.)|page=42|author=Virendra Kumar|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=1975|isbn=9788170225089}}</ref>

In the UK, the Council of Valmiki Sabhas UK was established to represent the Balmiki.<ref name=Jacobs>{{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Jacobs |year=2010 |title=Hinduism Today: An Introduction |publisher=A & C Black}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/jt200809/jtselect/jtrights/169/169we17.htm|title=Memorandum submitted by Central Valmiki Sabha International (UK)|publisher=[[Parliament of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom Parliament]]|date=12 November 2009|access-date=19 May 2015}}</ref>

== Sub-castes ==
The following are sub-castes of the Balmiki/Bhangi/Chuhra caste:<ref name="Leslie2003"/>
*[[Borat (caste)|Borat]]<ref name="Singh1995"/>
*Bhatti<ref name="Singh1995"/>
*Boya Valmiki<ref name="Kumar1975"/>
*[[Chhapriband]]<ref name="Singh1995"/>
*[[Dharival]]<ref name="Singh1995"/>
*[[Gill (name)|Gill]]<ref name="Singh1995"/>
*Hansi<ref name="Singh1995"/>
*[[Kandabari]]<ref name="Singh1995"/name="Singh1995"/>
*[[Khosar]]<ref name="Singh1995"/>
*[[Ladhar]]<ref name="Singh1995"/>
*[[Lal Begi]]<ref name="Harding2008">{{cite book |last1=Harding |first1=Christopher |title=Religious Transformation in South Asia: The Meanings of Conversion in Colonial Punjab |date=18 September 2008 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-954822-4 |page=39 |language=en}}</ref>
*Mattu<ref name="Singh1995"/>
*Sahotra/Sotra<ref name="Singh1995"/>
*Sindhu<ref name="Singh1995"/>
*[[Untwal]]<ref name="Singh1995"/>
*Valmikis<ref name="Kumar1975"/>

== Use as an epithet ==
The location "Chuhra-Chamar" is a locution used derisively by some members of the [[Jat people|Jat caste]] to refer to both Dalit castes, the Chuhra and [[Chamar]].<ref name="2017Leslie">{{cite book |last1=Leslie |first1=Julia |title=Authority and Meaning in Indian Religions: Hinduism and the Case of Valmiki |date=22 November 2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-77299-0 |page=69 |language=English |quote=As a result, whatever their chosen religion, Panjabi ''dalits'' are invariably defined by caste: either they are grouped together as 'untouchable' (or by a similarly demeaning label, such as 'Chuhra-Chamar') or they are marginalized as a sub-category of the religious tradition in question, such as 'Achut' ('untouchable') Hindu or 'Mazhabi' Sikh.}}</ref><ref name="Kaur2004">{{cite web |last1=Kaur |first1=Naunidhi |title=Social boycotts, segregation|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/cover-story/article30222602.ece |publisher=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]] |access-date=1 October 2020 |language=English |date=21 May 2004 |quote=The term chuhra-chamar (scavenger and tanner) is freely employed by landlords belonging to the Jat community to refer to Dalits.}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Mazhabi Sikh]]
*[[Valmiki]]
*[[Chamar]]
*[[Dalit theology]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |title=Religious Transformation in South Asia : The Meanings of Conversion in Colonial Punjab: The Meanings of Conversion in Colonial Punjab |first=Christopher |last=Harding |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19156-333-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BWoIBlYFJdUC}}
*{{cite book |title=Rethinking State Politics in India: Regions Within Regions |editor-first=Ashutosh |editor-last=Kumar |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-13670-400-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ypKoAgAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book |title=Joothan: A Dalit's Life |first1=Joel |last1=Kuortti |first2=Omaprakasa |last2=Valmīki |publisher=Popular Prakashan |year=2003 |isbn=978-8-18560-463-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0i5TtbXz36IC}}
*{{cite book |title=Peasants in India's Non-Violent Revolution: Practice and Theory |first=Mridula |last=Mukherjee |publisher=SAGE |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-76199-686-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7pUJ0qmvYDkC}}
*{{cite book |title=The Bhangi: A Sweeper Caste, Its Socio-economic Portraits : with Special Reference to Jodhpur City |author=Shyamlal |publisher=Popular Prakashan |year=1992 |isbn=978-8-17154-550-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DUsxDMyv3fcC}}
*{{cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies |editor1-first=Pashaura |editor1-last=Singh |editor2-first=Louis E. |editor2-last=Fenech |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19969-930-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8I0NAwAAQBAJ}}

{{Ethnic and social groups of the Punjab}}

[[Category:Social groups of Punjab, India]]
[[Category:Punjabi tribes]]
[[Category:Dalit communities]]
[[Category:Social groups of Haryana]]
[[Category:Christian communities of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Dalit Christian communities]]

Chuhra - Revision history

>PulauKakatua19 at 06:15, 28 September 2021