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{{Short description|Indo-Aryan native language sub-group}}
{{Infobox language family
|name=Dardic
|region= parts of Eastern [[Afghanistan]], [[North India|Northern India]] ([[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]), Northern [[Pakistan]] ([[Gilgit-Baltistan]], [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]])
|ethnicity=[[Dardic People]]
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
|fam3=[[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
|child1=Chitral
|child2=[[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]
|child3=Kohistani
|child4=Kunar
|child5=[[Pashayi languages|Pashayi]]
|child6=[[Shina language|Shina]]
|glotto=none
|glotto2=indo1324
|glottoname2=Northwestern Zone
|glottorefname2=Indo-Aryan Northwestern zone
}}

The '''Dardic languages''' (also '''Dardu''' or '''Pisaca''')<ref>http://www.britannica.com/topic/Dardic-languages</ref> are a subgroup of the [[Indo-Aryan languages]] natively spoken in northern Pakistan's [[Gilgit Baltistan]] and [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]], Northern India's [[Kashmir Valley]] and [[Chenab Valley]] and parts of Eastern Afghanistan.<ref name="austin2008">{{Citation | title=One thousand languages: living, endangered, and lost | author=Peter K. Austin | year=2008 | isbn=978-0-520-25560-9 | publisher=University of California Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3tAqIU0dPsC | quote=Kashmiri is one of the twenty-two official languages of India, and belongs to the Dardic group, a non-genetic term that covers about two dozen Indo-Aryan languages spoken in geographically isolated, mountainous northwestern parts of South Asia ...}}</ref><ref name="jain-cardona-2007">{{Cite encyclopaedia| year = 2007 | title = The Indo-Aryan languages | editor1-first = Danesh | editor1-last = Jain | editor2-first = George | editor2-last = Cardona | page = 905 | quote ='Dardic' is a geographic cover term for those Northwest Indo-Aryan languages which ''[..]'' developed new characteristics different from the IA languages of the Indo-Gangetic plain. Although the Dardic and Nuristani (previously 'Kafiri') languages were formerly grouped together, Morgenstierne (1965) has established that the Dardic languages are Indo-Aryan, and that the Nuristani languages constitute a separate subgroup of Indo-Iranian. | isbn = 978-0415772945 | author-first = Elena | author-last = Bashir|author-link=Elena Bashir }}</ref> [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] is the most prominent Dardic language, with an established literary tradition; alongside official recognition as one of India's [[Languages with official status in India|22]] [[official language|scheduled languages]].<ref name="austin2008" /><ref name="bussmann1998">{{Citation | title=Routledge dictionary of language and linguistics |author1=Hadumod Bussmann |author2=Gregory Trauth |author3=Kerstin Kazzazi | year=1998 | isbn=0-415-20319-8 | publisher=Taylor & Francis | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rhvDiOxOUe4C | quote=... Dardic Group of about fifteen Indo-Iranian languages in northwestern India; the most significant language is Kashmiri (approx. 3 million speakers) ...}}</ref><ref name="kloss1989">{{Citation | title=The Written Languages of the World: A Survey of the Degree and Modes of Use, Volume 2: India |author1=H. Kloss |author2=G.D. McConnell |author3=B.P. Mahapatra |author4=P. Padmanabha |author5=V.S. Verma | year=1989 | isbn=2-7637-7186-6 | publisher=Les Presses De L'Université Laval | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yU8nq-C6wnoC | quote= Among all the languages of the Dardic group, Kashmiri is the only one which has a long literary tradition ...}}</ref>

==History==
The terms "Dardic" and "[[Dardistan]]" were coined by [[G. W. Leitner]] in the late nineteenth century; derived from the Greek and Latin term ''Daradae'', which is itself derived from the Sanskrit term for the people of the region, [[Daradas]].<ref>[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dardestan- Dardestan], Encyclopaedia Iranica, Retrieved 2016-06-10].</ref> In Vedic records, [[Daradas]] is identified to be the [[Gilgit River|Gilgit]] region, in the [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] region (part of ancient [[Baloristan]])<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeumdok/1725/1/Jettmar_Petroglyphs_2008.pdf |last1=Jettmar|first1=Karl|title=Petroglyphs as Evidence for Religious Configurations? |archive-date=2017-07-15|archive-url=https://archive.is/RYkTh?url=http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeumdok/1725/1/Jettmar_Petroglyphs_2008.pdf|access-date=2017-07-15}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last1=Jettmar|first1=Karl|title=Bolor & Dardistan|publisher=National Institute of Folk Heritage|language=en|date=1980}}.</ref> along the river [[Sindhu]] ([[Indus]]). However, these terms are not used endonymically by [[Dardic peoples|Dardic people]].

[[George Abraham Grierson]] (1919), with scant data, postulated a family of "Dardic languages", which he characterised as an independent branch of the [[Indo-Iranian languages]]. Grierson's Dardic language family originally encompassed three subfamilies; "Kafiri" (now called [[Nuristani languages|Nuristani]]), "Central" and "Dard" languages. However, Grierson's formulation of Dardic is now considered to be incorrect in its details, and has therefore been rendered obsolete by modern scholarship. However, it continues to be cited as a reference, in various publications.{{sfn|Masica|1993|p=461}}

[[Georg Morgenstierne]] (1961), after a "lifetime of study," came to the view that only the "Kafiri" (Nuristani) languages formed an independent branch of the Indo-Iranian languages separate from Indo-Aryan and Iranian families, and determined that the Dardic languages were unmistakably Indo-Aryan in character.{{sfn|Masica|1993|p=462}}
{{quote|Dardic languages contain absolutely no features which cannot be derived from old [Indo-Aryan language]. They have simply retained a number of striking archasisms, which had already disappeared in most [[Prakrit]] dialects... There is not a single common feature distinguishing Dardic, as a whole, from the rest of the [Indo-Aryan] languages... Dardic is simply a convenient term to denote a bundle of aberrant [Indo-Aryan] hill-languages which, in their relative isolation, accented in many cases by the invasion of Pathan tribes, have been in varying degrees sheltered against the expand influence of [Indo-Aryan] Midland (''Madhyadesha'') innovations, being left free to develop on their own.{{sfn|Koul|2008|p=142}}}}

==Classification==

According to a model proposed by [[Asko Parpola]], the Dardic languages are directly descended from the [[Rigveda|Rigvedic]] dialect of [[Vedic Sanskrit]].<ref>Parpola, Asko (1999), "The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European", in Blench, Roger & Spriggs, Matthew, Archaeology and Language, vol. III: Artefacts, languages and texts, London and New York: Routledge.</ref>

In general, however, Morgenstierne's scheme corresponds to recent scholarly consensus.{{sfn|Masica|1993}} As such, Dardic's position as a legitimate genetic subfamily has been repeatedly called into question; it is widely acknowledged that the grouping is more geographical in nature, as opposed to linguistic.<ref name="jain-cardona-2007" /> Indeed, Buddruss rejected the Dardic grouping entirely, and placed the languages within [[Central Indo-Aryan]].<ref>{{Cite journal| first1 = Georg | last1 = Buddruss | year = 1985 | title = Linguistic Research in Gilgit and Hunza | journal = Journal of Central Asia | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 27–32}}</ref> Other scholars, such as Strand<ref>Strand, Richard (2001), "The Tongues of Peristân"</ref> and Mock,<ref>Mock, John (2011), "http://www.mockandoneil.com/dard.htm"</ref> have similarly voiced doubts in this regard.

However, Kachru contrasts "Midland languages" spoken in the plains, such as [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], with "Mountain languages", such as Dardic.<ref name=Kachru>{{citation |last=Kachru |first=Braj B. |title=Kashmiri Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3mAlg5qw130C&pg=PA4 |year=1981 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-02129-6 |pages=4–5}}</ref> Kogan has also suggested an 'East-Dardic' sub-family; comprising the 'Kashmiri', 'Kohistani' and 'Shina' groups.<ref>Kogan, Anton (2013), "https://jolr.ru/index.php?article=130"</ref><ref>Kogan, Anton (2015), "https://jolr.ru/index.php?article=157"</ref>

The case of [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] is peculiar. Its Dardic features are close to [[Shina language|Shina]], often said to belong to an eastern Dardic language subfamily. Kachru notes that "the Kashmiri language used by Kashmiri Hindu Pandits has been powerfully influenced by Indian culture and literature, and the greater part of its vocabulary is now of Indian origin, and is allied to that of Sanskritic Indo-Aryan languages of northern India".<ref name=Kachru/>

While it is true that many Dardic languages have been influenced by non-Dardic languages, Dardic may have also influenced neighbouring Indo-Aryan lects in turn, such as [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]],<ref name="masica1993">{{harvnb|Masica|1993|p=452}}: ... [Chaterji] agreed with Grierson in seeing Rajasthani influence on Pahari and 'Dardic' influence on (or under) the whole Northwestern group + Pahari. {{harvnb|Masica|1993|p=209}}: Throughout the northwest, beginning with Sindhi and including 'Lahnda', Dardic, Romany and West Pahari, there has been a tendency to [the] transfer of 'r' from medial clusters to a position after the initial consonant.</ref> the [[Pahari languages]], including the [[Central Pahari languages]] of [[Uttarakhand]],<ref name="masica1993" /><ref name="biswas1985">{{Citation | title=Profiles in Indian languages and literatures | author=[[Arun Kumar Biswas]] (editor) | year=1985 | publisher=Indian Languages Society | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lOsvAAAAIAAJ | quote=... greater Dardic influence in the western dialects of Garhwali ...}}</ref> and purportedly even further afield.<ref name="shanbhag1970">{{Citation | title=Essays on Konkani language and literature: Professor Armando Menezes felicitation volume |author1=Dayanand Narasinh Shanbhag |author2=K. J. Mahale | year=1970 | publisher=Konkani Sahitya Prakashan | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BkqgAAAAMAAJ | quote=... Konkani is spoken. It shows a good deal of Dardic (Paisachi) influence ...}}</ref><ref name="allana2002">{{Citation | title=The origin and growth of Sindhi language | author=Gulam Allana | year=2002 | publisher=Institute of Sindhology | isbn=9789694050515 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bt5jAAAAMAAJ | quote=... must have covered nearly the whole of the Punjabi ... still show traces of the earlier Dardic languages that they superseded. Still further south, we find traces of Dardic in Sindhi ...}}</ref> Some linguists have posited that Dardic lects may have originally been spoken throughout a much larger region, stretching from the mouth of the Indus (in [[Sindh]]) northwards in an arc, and then eastwards through modern day Himachal Pradesh to Kumaon. However, this has not been conclusively established. <ref name="taraporewala1932">{{Citation | title=Elements of the science of language| author=Irach Jehangir Sorabji Taraporewala | year=1932 | access-date=2010-05-12 | publisher=University of Calcutta | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QhBCAAAAIAAJ | quote= At one period, the Dardic languages spread over a very much wider extent, but before the oncoming 'outer Aryans' as well as owing to the subsequent expansion of the 'Inner Aryans', the Dards fell back to the inaccessible ...}}</ref><ref name="negi1993">{{Citation | title=Kumaun: the land and the people| author=Sharad Singh Negi | year=1993 | access-date=2010-05-12 | isbn=81-85182-89-2 | publisher=Indus Publishing | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HfR_AAAAMAAJ | quote= It may be possible that the Dardic speaking Aryans were still in the process of settling in other parts of the western Himalaya in the Mauryan times ...}}</ref><ref name="chattopadhyaya1973">{{Citation | title=Racial affinities of early North Indian tribes| author=Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya | year=1973 | access-date=2010-05-12 | publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bLGZ1DMYkHkC | quote=... the Dradic branch remained in northwest India – the Daradas, Kasmiras, and some of the Khasas (some having been left behind in the Himalayas of Nepal and Kumaon) ...}}</ref>

==Subdivisions==
Dardic languages have been organized into the following subfamilies:<ref name="munshi2008" />

*'''Kashmiri languages''': [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Kishtwari]]
*'''Shina languages''': [[Brokskad language|Brokskad]], [[Kundal Shahi language|Kundal Shahi]], [[Shina language|Shina]], [[Ushoji language|Ushoji]], [[Kalkoti language|Kalkoti]], [[Palula language|Palula]], [[Sawi language (Dardic)|Savi]]
*'''Chitral languages''': [[Kalasha-mun|Kalasha]], [[Khowar language|Khowar]]
*'''Kohistani languages''': [[Bateri language|Bateri]], [[Chilisso language|Chilisso]], [[Gowro language|Gowro]], [[Kalami language|Kalami]], [[Maiya language|Maiya]] (Indus Kohistani), [[Tirahi language|Tirahi]], [[Torwali language|Torwali]], [[Wotapuri-Katarqalai language|Wotapuri-Katarqalai]]
*'''[[Pashayi languages|Pashayi]]'''
*'''Kunar languages''': [[Dameli language|Dameli]], [[Gawar-Bati language|Gawar-Bati]], [[Nangalami language|Nangalami]] (Grangali), [[Shumashti language|Shumashti]]

In other classifications, Pashai may be included within Kunar; and Kashmiri within Shina.

The term '''Kohistani''' is popularly used to refer to several distinct languages in the mountain areas of Northern Pakistan, including [[Maiya language|Maiya]], [[Kalami language|Kalami]] and [[Torwali language|Torwali]]. It can be translated as 'mountain language'.

[[Poguli]] has been judged to be intermediate between Kashmiri and [[Western Pahari]] (Kaul 2006).

==Characteristics==
The languages of the Dardic group share some common defining characteristics, including the loss of aspirated sounds, in addition to word order that is seemingly unique for Indo-Iranian languages.

===Loss of voiced aspiration===
Virtually all Dardic languages have experienced a partial or complete loss of voiced aspirated consonants.<ref name="munshi2008">{{Citation | title=Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world| author=S. Munshi, Keith Brown (editor), Sarah Ogilvie (editor) | year=2008 | access-date=2010-05-11 | isbn=978-0-08-087774-7 | publisher=Elsevier | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC | quote= Based on historical sub-grouping approximations and geographical distribution, Bashir (2003) provides six sub-groups of the Dardic languages ...}}</ref><ref name="cardona2007">{{Citation | title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |author1=George Cardona |author2=Dhanesh Jain | year=2007 | access-date=2010-05-11 | isbn=978-0-415-77294-5 | publisher=Routledge | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C9MPCd6mO6sC | quote= In others, traces remain as tonal differences (Khowar ''buúm'', 'earth', Pashai ''dum'', 'smoke') ...}}</ref> Khowar uses the word ''buum'' for 'earth' (Sanskrit: ''bhumi''),{{ref|1|1}} Pashai uses the word ''duum'' for 'smoke' (Hindi: ''dhuan'', Sanskrit: ''dhum'') and Kashmiri uses the word ''dod'' for 'milk' (Sanskrit: ''dugdha'', Hindi: ''dūdh'').<ref name="munshi2008" /><ref name="cardona2007" /> [[Tonal language|Tonality]] has developed in some (but not all) Dardic languages, such as Khowar and Pashai, as a compensation.<ref name="cardona2007" /> Punjabi and [[Western Pahari languages]] similarly lost aspiration but have virtually all developed tonality to partially compensate (e.g. Punjabi ''kar'' for 'house', compare with Hindi ''ghar'').<ref name="munshi2008" />

===Dardic metathesis and other changes===
Both ancient and modern Dardic languages demonstrate a marked tendency towards [[Metathesis (linguistics)|metathesis]] where a "pre- or postconsonantal 'r' is shifted forward to a preceding syllable".<ref name="masica1993" /><ref name="lenz2003">{{Citation | title=A new version of the Gandhari Dharmapada and a collection of previous-birth stories|author1=Timothy Lenz |author2=Andrew Glass |author3=Dharmamitra Bhikshu | year=2003 | access-date=2010-05-11 | isbn=0-295-98308-6 | publisher=University of Washington Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALZnXwZYlckC | quote=... 'Dardic metathesis,' wherein pre- or postconsonantal 'r' is shifted forward to a preceding syllable ... earliest examples come from the Aśokan inscriptions ... priyadarśi ... as priyadraśi ... dharma as dhrama ... common in modern Dardic languages ...}}</ref> This was seen in [[Ashokan rock edicts]] (erected 269 BCE to 231 BCE) in the [[Gandhara]] region, where Dardic dialects were and still are widespread. Examples include a tendency to spell the Classical Sanskrit words ''priyad'''ar'''shi'' (one of the titles of Emperor [[Ashoka]]) as instead ''priyad'''ra'''shi'' and ''dh'''ar'''ma'' as ''dh'''ra'''ma''.<ref name="lenz2003" /> Modern-day Kalasha uses the word ''driga'' 'long' (Sanskrit: ''dirgha'').<ref name="lenz2003" /> Palula uses ''drubalu'' 'weak' (Sanskrit: ''durbala'') and ''brhuj'' 'birch tree' (Sanskrit: ''bhurja'').<ref name="lenz2003" /> Kashmiri uses ''drolid''{{ref|2|2}} 'impoverished' (Sanskrit: ''daridra'') and ''krama'' 'work' or 'action' (Sanskrit: ''karma'').<ref name="lenz2003" /> Western Pahari languages (such as [[Dogri]]), [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] and [[Lahnda languages|Lahnda (Western Punjabi)]] also share this Dardic tendency to metathesis, though they are considered non-Dardic, for example cf. the Punjabi word ''drakhat'' 'tree' (from Persian ''darakht'').{{sfn|Masica|1993}}<ref name="malik1995">{{Citation | title=The phonology and morphology of Panjabi| author=Amar Nath Malik | year=1995 | access-date=2010-05-26 | isbn=81-215-0644-1 | publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IbBjAAAAMAAJ| quote=... ''drakhat'' 'tree' ...}}</ref>

Dardic languages also show other consonantal changes. Kashmiri, for instance, has a marked tendency to shift ''k'' to ''ch'' and ''j'' to ''z'' (e.g. ''zon'' 'person' is cognate to Sanskrit ''jan'' 'person or living being' and [[Persian language|Persian]] ''jān'' 'life').{{sfn|Masica|1993}} Punjabi and Western Pahari share this tendency also, though they are non-Dardic (e.g. compare Hindi ''dekho'' 'look' to Punjabi ''vekho'' and Kashmiri ''vuchiv'').{{sfn|Masica|1993}}{{clarify|reason=This seems to be a change *d > v, not *k(h) > ch.|date=September 2014}}

===Verb position in Dardic===
Unlike most other Indo-Aryan (or Iranian) languages, several Dardic languages present [[v2 word order|"verb second"]] as the normal grammatical form. This is similar to many Germanic languages, such as [[German language|German]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]], as well as Uto-Aztecan [[O'odham language|O'odham]] and Northeast Caucasian [[Ingush language|Ingush]]. Most Dardic languages, such as [[Indus Kohistani]], however, follow the usual Indo-Iranian subject-object-verb (SOV) pattern, similar to [[Japanese language|Japanese]].<ref name="anderson2005">{{Citation | title=Aspects of the theory of clitics: Volume 11 of Oxford studies in theoretical linguistics | author=Stephen R. Anderson | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-19-927990-6 | publisher=Oxford University Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i68PtEWIEd4C | quote= The literature on the verb-second construction has concentrated largely on Germanic ... we can compare with the Germanic phenomena, however: Kashmiri ... in two 'Himachali' languages, [[Kotgarhi]] and [[Koci (language)|Koci]], he finds word-order patterns quite similar ... they are sometimes said to be part of a 'Dardic' subfamily ...}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Language
!First example sentence
!Second example sentence
|-
|[[English language|English]] (Germanic)
|This '''is''' a horse.
|We '''will go''' to [[Tokyo]].
|-
|[[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] (Dardic)
|Yi '''chu''' akh gur./ Yi '''thu''' akh gur. (Kishtwari Kashmiri)
|As' '''gatshav''' Tokiyo.
|-
|[[Sanskrit]] (Indo-Aryan)
|Ayám eka áśvaḥ '''ásti'''.
|Vayám Tokyaṃ '''gámiṣyāmaḥ'''.
|-
|[[Japanese language|Japanese]] (Japonic)
|Kore wa uma de '''aru'''.
|Watashitachi wa Tōkyō ni '''ikimasu'''.
|-
|[[Kamkata-vari language|Kamkata-vari]] (Nuristani)
|Ina ušpa '''âsa'''.
|Imo Tokyo '''âćamo'''.
|-
|[[Dari|Dari Persian]] (Iranian)
|In yak asb '''ast'''.
|Mâ ba Tokyo '''khâhem raft'''.
|-
|[[Shina language|Shina]] (Dardic)
|Anu ek aspo '''han'''.
|Be Tokyo et '''bujun'''.
|-
|[[Pashto]] (Iranian)
|Masculine: Dā yo as '''day''' / Feminine: Dā yawa aspa '''da'''.
|Mūng/Mūnẓ̌ '''ba''' Ṭokyo ta/tar '''lāṛshū'''.
|-
|[[Indus Kohistani]] (Dardic)
|Sho akh gho '''thu'''.
|Ma Tokyo ye '''bum-thu'''.
|-
|[[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] (Indo-Aryan)
|Heeu hiku ghoro '''aahe'''.
|Asaan Tokyo '''veendaaseen'''.
|-
|[[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] (Indo-Aryan)
|Ye ek ghora '''hai'''.{{ref|5|5}}
|Ham Tokyo '''jāenge'''.
|-
|[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (Indo-Aryan)
|Ae ikk kora '''ai'''.
|Assi Tokyo '''jāvange'''.
|-
|[[Nepali language|Nepali]] (Indo-Aryan)
|Yo euta ghoda '''ho'''.
|Hami Tokyo '''jānechhau'''.
|-
|[[Garhwali language|Garhwali]] (Indo-Aryan)
|Seey/Si/Yi/Ai Yakh Guntt '''Chh'''.
|Aami Tokyo '''Jaula'''.
|-
|[[Kumaoni language|Kumaoni]] (Indo-Aryan)
|Yo ek ghoda '''Chhu'''.
|Aami Tokyo '''Jaal'''.
|-
|}

==See also==
*[[Dardistan]]
*[[Dard people]]
*[[Nuristani languages]]

==Notes==
:1.{{note|1}}The Khowar word for 'earth' is more accurately represented, with tonality, as ''buúm'' rather than ''buum'', where ''ú'' indicates a rising tone.
:2.{{note|2}}The word ''drolid'' actually includes a Kashmiri half-vowel, which is difficult to render in the Urdu, Devnagri and Roman scripts alike. Sometimes, an umlaut is used when it occurs in conjunction with a vowel, so the word might be more accurately rendered as ''drölid''.
:3.{{note|3}}[[Sandhi]] rules in Sanskrit allow the combination of multiple neighboring words together into a single word: for instance, word-final 'ah' plus word-initial 'a' merge into 'o'. In actual Sanskrit literature, with the effects of sandhi, this sentence would be expected to appear as ''Eṣá ékóśvósti''. Also, word-final 'a' is Sanskrit is a [[schwa]], {{IPA|[ə]}} (similar to the ending 'e' in the German name, [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]), so e.g. the second word is pronounced {{IPA|[éːk'''ə''']}}. Pitch accent is indicated with an [[acute accent]] in the case of the older [[Vedic Sanskrit|Vedic language]], which was inherited from Proto-Indo-European.
:4.{{note|4}}Hindi-Urdu, and other non-Dardic Indo-Aryan languages, also sometimes utilize a "verb second" order (similar to Kashmiri and English) for dramatic effect.<ref name="mgihu2001">{{Citation | title=Hindi: language, discourse, and writing, Volume 2 | year=2001 | access-date=2010-05-28 | publisher=Mahatma Gandhi International Hindi University | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YMZjAAAAMAAJ| quote=... the verbs, positioned in the middle of the sentences (rather than at the end) intensify the dramatic quality ...}}</ref> ''Yeh ek ghoṛā '''hai''''' is the normal conversational form in Hindi-Urdu. ''Yeh '''hai''' ek ghoṛā'' is also grammatically correct but indicates a dramatic revelation or other surprise. This dramatic form is often used in news headlines in Hindi-Urdu, Punjabi and other Indo-Aryan languages.

==Sources==

'''Academic literature from outside South Asia'''
* Morgenstierne, G. Irano-Dardica. Wiesbaden 1973;
* Morgenstierne, G. Die Stellung der Kafirsprachen. In Irano-Dardica, 327-343. Wiesbaden, Reichert 1975
* Decker, Kendall D. Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan, Volume 5. Languages of Chitral.

'''Academic literature from South Asia'''

* The Comparative study of Urdu and Khowar. [[Badshah Munir Bukhari]] National Language Authority Pakistan 2003. [No Reference]
* National Institute of Pakistani Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University & Summer Institute of Linguistics

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* {{citation |last=Koul |first=Omkar N. |chapter=Dardic Languages |editor=Vennelakanti Prakāśam |title=Encyclopaedia of the Linguistic Sciences: Issues and Theories |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9WroLC__7EUC&pg=PA142 |year=2008 |publisher=Allied Publishers |isbn=978-81-8424-279-9 |pages=142–147}}
* {{citation |last=Masica |first=Colin P. |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC |date=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29944-2 }}

{{Dardic languages}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dardic Languages}}
[[Category:Dardic languages| ]]

Dardic languages - Revision history

77.0.83.38 at 09:03, 18 June 2021