Ajay Kumar at 00:03, 30 August 2023

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{{short description|Plan for the construction of an object or system}}
{{other uses}}{{Original research|date=August 2022}}[[File:Cutlery designed by Zaha Hadid for company WMF, 2007 N.3.jpg|thumb|alt=An image of cutlery designed by Zaha Hadid|[[Cutlery]] designed by architect and designer [[Zaha Hadid]] (2007). The slightly oblique end part of the fork and the spoons, as well as the knife handle, are examples of designing for both aesthetic form and practical function.]][[File:Y-blokken som plassvegg.jpg|thumb|Early concept design sketches by the architect Erling Viksjø, exploring the relationships between existing and proposed new buildings.]]A '''design''' is a concept of either an object, a process, or a system that is specific and, in most cases, detailed. Design refers to something that is or has been intentionally created by a thinking agent, though it is sometimes used to refer to the nature of something. The verb ''to design'' expresses the process of developing a design. In some cases, the direct construction of an object without an explicit prior plan may also be considered to be a design (such as in some artwork and craftwork). The design usually has to satisfy certain [[goal]]s and constraints; may take into account aesthetic, functional, economic, or socio-political considerations; and is expected to interact with a certain [[Environment (systems)|environment]]. Typical examples of designs include [[architectural drawing|architectural]] and [[engineering drawing|engineering]] drawings, [[circuit diagram]]s, [[Pattern (sewing)|sewing patterns]] and less tangible artefacts such as [[business process]] models.<ref>Dictionary meanings in the [//dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/design Cambridge Dictionary of American English], at [//www.dictionary.com/browse/design Dictionary.com] (esp. meanings 1–5 and 7–8) and at [//en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/design AskOxford] (especially verbs).</ref>

==Designing==
People who produce designs are called ''[[designer]]s''. The term 'designer' generally refers to someone who works professionally in one of the various design areas. Within the professions, the word 'designer' is generally qualified by the area of practice (so one may be, for example, a [[fashion design]]er, a [[product design]]er, a [[web design]]er, or an [[interior design]]er), but it can also designate others such as architects and engineers (see below: Types of designing). A designer's sequence of activities to produce a design is called a design process, using [[design thinking]] and possibly [[design methods]]. The process of creating a design can be brief (a quick sketch) or lengthy and complicated, involving considerable research, negotiation, reflection, [[Conceptual model|modeling]], interactive adjustment, and re-design.

Designing is also a widespread activity outside of the professions, done by more people than just those formally recognised as designers. In his influential book ''The Sciences of the Artificial'' the interdisciplinary scientist [[Herbert A. Simon]] proposed that "Everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Simon |first1=Herbert A. |title=The Sciences of the Artificial |date=1969 |edition=first |publisher=M.I.T. Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |page=54 |url=https://archive.org/details/sciencesofartifi00simo/page/54}}</ref> And according to the design researcher [[Nigel Cross]] "Everyone can – and does – design", and "Design ability is something that everyone has, to some extent, because it is embedded in our brains as a natural cognitive function".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cross |first=Nigel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F4SUVT1XCCwC |title=Design Thinking: Understanding How Designers Think and Work |date=2011 |publisher=Berg |isbn=978-1-84788-846-4 |pages=3 & 140 |language=en}}</ref>

==History of design==

{{main|Design history}}
Study of the history of design is complicated by varying interpretations of what constitutes 'designing'. Many design historians, such as [[John Heskett]], start with the Industrial Revolution and the development of mass production.<ref>Heskett, John (1963) ''Industrial Design''. Thames & Hudson.</ref> Others subscribe to conceptions of design that include pre-industrial objects and artefacts, beginning their narratives of design in prehistorical times.<ref name="Huppatz"/> Originally situated within [[art history]], the historical development of the discipline of design history coalesced in the 1970s, as interested academics worked to recognize design as a separate and legitimate target for historical research.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Margolin |first=Victor |date=April 1, 2009 |title=Design in History |journal=Design Issues |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=94–105 |doi=10.1162/desi.2009.25.2.94 |s2cid=57562456 |issn=0747-9360 |eissn=1531-4790|doi-access=free }}</ref> Early influential design historians include German-British art historian [[Nikolaus Pevsner]] and Swiss historian and architecture critic [[Sigfried Giedion]].

==Design education==
Institutions for design education date back to the nineteenth century. The [[Norwegian National Academy of Craft and Art Industry]] was founded in 1818, followed by the United Kingdom's [[Royal College of Art|Government School of Design]] (1837), [[Konstfack]] in Sweden (1844), and [[Rhode Island School of Design]] in the United States (1877). The German art and design school [[Bauhaus]], founded in 1919, greatly influenced modern design education.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Naylor |first=Gillian |title=The Bauhaus Reassessed |date=1985 |publisher=Herbert Press |isbn=0906969301}}</ref>

[[Design education]] covers the teaching of theory, knowledge and values in the design of products, services and environments, and focusses on the development of both particular and general skills for designing. It is primarily orientated to preparing students for professional design practice, and based around project work and studio or [[atelier]] teaching methods.

There are also broader forms of higher education in [[design studies]] and [[design thinking]], and design also features as a part of general education, for example within [[Design and Technology]]. The development of design in general education in the 1970s led to a need to identify fundamental aspects of 'designerly' ways of knowing, thinking and acting, and hence to the establishment of design as a distinct [[Academic discipline|discipline]] of study.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cross |first1=Nigel |title=Design as a Discipline: Designerly Ways of Knowing |journal= Design Studies |date=1982 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=221–227 |doi=10.1016/0142-694X(82)90040-0 |url= https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0142-694X%2882%2990040-0}}</ref>

==Design process==
Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or professional, alone or in teams, produce designs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Coyne |first=Richard |date=1990 |title=Logic of design actions |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0950-7051(90)90103-o |journal=Knowledge-Based Systems |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=242–257 |doi=10.1016/0950-7051(90)90103-o |issn=0950-7051 |access-date=2020-10-01 |archive-date=2022-08-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220827204830/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/095070519090103O?via%3Dihub |url-status=live}}</ref> Design researchers Dorst and Dijkhuis acknowledge that "there are many ways of describing design processes", and compare and contrast two dominant but different views of the design process: as a rational problem solving process and as a process of reflection-in-action. They suggested that these two paradigms "represent two fundamentally different ways of looking at the world{{snd}} positivism and constructionism".<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0142-694X(94)00012-3 |title=Comparing paradigms for describing design activity |journal=Design Studies |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=261–274 |year=1995 |last1=Dorst |first1=Kees |last2=Dijkhuis |first2=Judith |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0142-694X%2894%2900012-3}}</ref> The paradigms may reflect differing views of how designing ''should be'' done and how it ''actually is'' done, and they both have a variety of names. The problem-solving view has been called "the rational model",<ref name="Brooks"/> "technical rationality"<ref name="Schön 1983"/> and "the reason-centric perspective".<ref name="Ralph 2010"/> The alternative view has been called "reflection-in-action",<ref name="Schön 1983"/> "co-evolution",<ref name=DC/> and "the action-centric perspective".<ref name="Ralph 2010"/>

===Rational model===
The rational model was independently developed by Herbert A. Simon,<ref>Newell, A., and Simon, H. (1972) ''Human problem solving'', Prentice-Hall, Inc.</ref><ref name="Simon">Simon, H.A. (1996) [https://books.google.com/books?id=k5Sr0nFw7psC The sciences of the artificial] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217052045/http://books.google.com/books?id=k5Sr0nFw7psC&printsec=frontcover |date=2013-12-17 }}, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, USA. p. 111. {{ISBN|0-262-69191-4}}.</ref> an American scientist, and two German engineering design theorists, Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz.<ref>Pahl, G., and Beitz, W. (1996) [https://books.google.com/books?id=8fuhesYeJmkC ''Engineering design: A systematic approach''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217052518/http://books.google.com/books?id=8fuhesYeJmkC&printsec=frontcover |date=2013-12-17 }}, Springer-Verlag, London. {{ISBN|3-540-19917-9}}.</ref> It posits that:
# Designers attempt to [[Optimization (mathematics)|optimize]] a design candidate for known [[constraint optimization|constraints]] and [[Goal|objectives]].
# The design process is plan-driven.
# The design process is understood in terms of a discrete sequence of stages.

The rational model is based on a [[Rationalism|rationalist philosophy]]<ref name="Brooks" /> and underlies the [[waterfall model]],<ref name=Royce/> [[systems development life cycle]],<ref name=Bourque/> and much of the [[engineering design]] literature.<ref>Pahl, G., Beitz, W., Feldhusen, J., and Grote, K.-H. (2007 ) [https://books.google.com/books?id=qsKNwB2gL5wC Engineering design: A systematic approach] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217050322/http://books.google.com/books?id=qsKNwB2gL5wC&printsec=frontcover |date=2013-12-17 }}, (3rd ed.), Springer-Verlag, {{ISBN|1-84628-318-3}}.</ref> According to the rationalist philosophy, design is informed by research and knowledge in a predictable and controlled manner.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mielnik |first=Anna |url=https://suw.biblos.pk.edu.pl/downloadResource%26mId%3D2650996 |title=Under the power of reason |publisher=Krakow University of Technology |access-date=2022-08-27 |archive-date=2022-08-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220827204829/https://suw.biblos.pk.edu.pl/downloadResource%26mId%3D2650996 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Typical stages consistent with the rational model include the following:<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Condrea |first1=Ionut |url=https://media.proquest.com/media/hms/PFT/1/MNTnI?_s=zo3qVt0Rq8V3x%2FgZKecWt8ICAzY%3D |title=Elaboration of the initial requirements in the design activities |last2=Botezatu |first2=C. |last3=Slătineanu |first3=L. |last4=Oroian |first4=B. |journal=IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering |date=February 2021 |volume=1037 |issue=1 |page=012002 |doi=10.1088/1757-899X/1037/1/012002 |bibcode=2021MS&E.1037a2002S |s2cid=234019940|doi-access=free }}</ref>

* Pre-production design
**[[Design brief]] – initial statement of intended outcome.
**[[Analysis]] – analysis of design goals.
**[[Research]] – investigating similar designs in the field or related topics.
**[[Specification]] – specifying requirements of a design for a product ([[product design specification]])<ref>Cross, N., (2006). ''T211 Design and Designing: Block 2'', p. 99. Milton Keynes: The Open University.</ref> or service.
**[[Problem solving]] – [[wikt:conceptualize|conceptualizing]] and [[document]]ing designs.
**[[Presentation]] – presenting designs.
* Design during production.
**[[Product development|Development]] – continuation and improvement of a design.
** [[Product testing]] – ''[[in situ]]'' testing of a design.
* Post-production design feedback for future designs.
**[[Implementation]] – introducing the design into the environment.
**[[Evaluation]] and [[logical consequence|conclusion]] – summary of process and results, including [[constructive criticism]] and suggestions for future improvements.
* Redesign – any or all stages in the design process repeated (with corrections made) at any time before, during, or after production.

Each stage has many associated [[best practices]].<ref>Ullman, David G. (2009) ''The Mechanical Design Process'', Mc Graw Hill, 4th edition {{ISBN|0-07-297574-1}}</ref>

====Criticism of the rational model====
The rational model has been widely criticized on two primary grounds:

# Designers do not work this way – extensive empirical evidence has demonstrated that designers do not act as the rational model suggests.<ref name="Schön 1983"/><ref name="Ralph 2010"/><ref name=Cross/>
# Unrealistic assumptions – goals are often unknown when a design project begins, and the requirements and constraints continue to change.<ref name="Brooks"/><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1145/1005937.1005943 |url=http://www.deepdyve.com/lp/association-for-computing-machinery/life-cycle-concept-considered-harmful-WXRCv45NVM |author1=McCracken, D.D. |author2=Jackson, M.A. |title=Life cycle concept considered harmful |journal=ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes |volume=7 |issue=2 |year=1982 |pages=29–32 |s2cid=9323694 |access-date=2012-03-25 |archive-date=2012-08-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812035944/http://www.deepdyve.com/lp/association-for-computing-machinery/life-cycle-concept-considered-harmful-WXRCv45NVM |url-status=live|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Action-centric model===
The action-centric perspective is a label given to a collection of interrelated concepts, which are antithetical to the rational model.<ref name="Ralph 2010"/> It posits that:

# Designers use [[creativity]] and [[emotion]] to generate design candidates.
# The design process is [[Improvisation|improvised]].
# No universal sequence of stages is apparent – analysis, design and implementation are contemporary and inextricably linked.<ref name="Ralph 2010"/>

The action-centric perspective is based on an [[Empiricism|empiricist philosophy]] and broadly consistent with the [[Agile software development|agile approach]]<ref name=Beck/> and methodical development.<ref name=Truex/> Substantial empirical evidence supports the veracity of this perspective in describing the actions of real designers.<ref name=Cross/> Like the rational model, the action-centric model sees design as informed by research and knowledge.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Faste |first1=Trygve |last2=Faste |first2=Haakon |date=2012-08-15 |title=Demystifying "design research": design is not research, research is design |url=https://www.idsa.org/sites/default/files/Faste.pdf |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=Industrial Designers Society of America |archive-date=2022-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819163610/https://www.idsa.org/sites/default/files/Faste.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

At least two views of design activity are consistent with the action-centric perspective. Both involve these three basic activities:

* In the [[Reflective practice|reflection-in-action paradigm]], designers alternate between "[[Framing (social sciences)|framing]]", "making moves", and "evaluating moves". "Framing" refers to conceptualizing the problem, i.e., defining goals and objectives. A "move" is a tentative design decision. The evaluation process may lead to further moves in the design.<ref name="Schön 1983" />
* In the sensemaking–coevolution–implementation framework, designers alternate between its three titular activities. [[Sensemaking (information science)|Sensemaking]] includes both framing and evaluating moves. Implementation is the process of constructing the design object. Coevolution is "the process where the design agent simultaneously refines its mental picture of the design object based on its mental picture of the context, and vice versa".<ref name="Ralph 2010" />

The concept of the [[design cycle]] is understood as a circular time structure,<ref>Fischer, Thomas "Design Enigma. A typographical metaphor for enigmatic processes, including designing", in: T. Fischer, K. De Biswas, J.J. Ham, R. Naka, W.X. Huang, ''Beyond Codes and Pixels: Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Computer-Aided Architectural Design Research in Asia'', p. 686</ref> which may start with the thinking of an idea, then expressing it by the use of visual or verbal means of communication (design tools), the sharing and perceiving of the expressed idea, and finally starting a new cycle with the critical rethinking of the perceived idea. Anderson points out that this concept emphasizes the importance of the means of expression, which at the same time are means of perception of any design ideas.<ref>Anderson, Jane (2011) ''Architectural Design'', Basics Architecture 03, Lausanne, AVA academia, p. 40. {{ISBN|978-2-940411-26-9}}.</ref>

== Philosophies ==
[[Philosophy of design]] is the study of definitions of design, and the assumptions, foundations, and implications of design. There are also many informal 'philosophies' for guiding design such as personal values or preferred approaches.

===Approaches to design===
Some of these values and approaches include:
* [[Critical design]] uses designed artifacts as an embodied critique or commentary on existing values, morals, and practices in a culture.
* [[Ecological design]] is a design approach that prioritizes the consideration of the environmental impacts of a product or service, over its whole lifecycle.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1332789897 |title=The Routledge companion to ecological design thinking : healthful ecotopian visions for architecture and urbanism |date=2023 |first=Mitra |last=Kanaani |isbn=978-1-003-18318-1 |location=New York, NY |oclc=1332789897 |access-date=2022-08-19 |archive-date=2022-08-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220827204829/https://www.worldcat.org/title/1332789897 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=van der Ryn |first1=Sim |title=An Introduction to Ecological Design |last2=Cowan |first2=Stuart |publisher=Island Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-59726-140-1 |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref>
* [[Participatory design]] (originally co-operative design, now often co-design) is the practice of collective creativity to design, attempting to actively involve all stakeholders (e.g. employees, partners, customers, citizens, end-users) in the design process to help ensure the result meets their needs and is usable.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://studiolab.ide.tudelft.nl/manila/gems/contextmapping/PreprintDraft.pdf |title=Co-creation and the new landscape of design |access-date=2018-04-13 |archive-date=2017-08-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808170815/http://studiolab.ide.tudelft.nl/manila/gems/contextmapping/PreprintDraft.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>
* Scientific design refers to industrialised design based on scientific knowledge.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cross |first1=Nigel |title=Science and design methodology: A review |journal=Research in Engineering Design |date=1 June 1993 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=63–69 |doi=10.1007/BF02032575 |s2cid=110223861 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%252FBF02032575 |access-date=16 April 2021 |language=en |issn=1435-6066 |archive-date=19 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419101156/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02032575 |url-status=live}}</ref> Science can be used to study the effects and need for a potential or existing product in general and to design products that are based on scientific knowledge. For instance, a scientific design of [[Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic|face masks for COVID-19 mitigation]] may be based on investigations of filtration performance, mitigation performance,<ref>{{cite news |title=Face shields, masks with valves ineffective against COVID-19 spread: study |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-09-shields-masks-valves-ineffective-covid-.html |access-date=8 October 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=17 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117012058/https://phys.org/news/2020-09-shields-masks-valves-ineffective-covid-.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Verma |first1=Siddhartha |last2=Dhanak |first2=Manhar |last3=Frankenfield |first3=John |title=Visualizing droplet dispersal for face shields and masks with exhalation valves |journal=Physics of Fluids |date=1 September 2020 |volume=32 |issue=9 |pages=091701 |doi=10.1063/5.0022968 |pmid=32952381 |pmc=7497716 |arxiv=2008.00125 |bibcode=2020PhFl...32i1701V |issn=1070-6631 |doi-access=free}}</ref> thermal comfort, [[biodegradability]] and flow resistance.<ref>{{cite news |title=Face masks slow spread of COVID-19; types of masks, length of use matter |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-11-masks-covid-length.html |access-date=9 December 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=23 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023065428/https://phys.org/news/2020-11-masks-covid-length.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Sanjay |last2=Lee |first2=Heow Pueh (李孝培) |title=The perspective of fluid flow behavior of respiratory droplets and aerosols through the facemasks in context of SARS-CoV-2 |journal=Physics of Fluids |date=1 November 2020 |volume=32 |issue=11 |pages=111301 |doi=10.1063/5.0029767 |pmid=33281434 |pmc=7713871 |arxiv=2010.06385 |bibcode=2020PhFl...32k1301K |issn=1070-6631}}</ref>
* [[Service design]] designing or organizing the experience around a product and the service associated with a product's use.
* [[Sociotechnical system]] design, a philosophy and tools for participative designing of work arrangements and supporting processes – for organizational purpose, quality, safety, economics, and customer requirements in core work processes, the quality of peoples experience at work, and the needs of society.
* [[Transgenerational design]], the practice of making products and environments compatible with those physical and sensory impairments associated with human aging and which limit major activities of daily living.
* [[User-centered design]], which focuses on the needs, wants, and limitations of the end-user of the designed artifact. One aspect of user-centered design is [[ergonomics]].

== Relationship with the arts ==
[[File:Brionvega RR126, Pier Giacomo Castiglioni - MNAM.jpg|thumb|RR 126 [[Radiogram (device)|radiogram]] designed for [[Brionvega]]]]
The boundaries between art and design are blurry, largely due to a range of applications both for the term 'art' and the term 'design'. [[Applied arts]] can include [[industrial design]], [[graphic design]], [[fashion design]], and the [[decorative arts]] which traditionally includes craft objects. In [[graphic art]]s (2D image making that ranges from photography to illustration), the distinction is often made between [[fine art]] and [[commercial art]], based on the context within which the work is produced and how it is traded.

== Types of designing ==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=15em|
* [[Applied arts]]
* [[Architecture]]
* [[Automotive design]]
* [[Synthetic biology|Biological design]]
* [[Cartographic design|Cartographic or map design]]
* [[Configuration design]]
* [[Communication design]]
* [[Costume design]]
* [[Design management]]
* [[Engineering design process|Engineering design]]
* [[Experience design]]
* [[Fashion design]]
* [[Floral design]]
* [[Game design]]
* [[Graphic design]]
* [[Information architecture]]
* [[Information design]]
* [[Industrial design]]
* [[Instructional design]]
* [[Interaction design]]
* [[Interior design]]
* [[Landscape architecture]]
* [[Lighting designer|Lighting design]]
* [[Modular design]]
* [[Motion graphic design]]
* [[Organizational architecture|Organization design]]
* [[Process design]]
* [[Product design]]
* [[Production designer|Production design]]
* [[Property designer|Property design]]
* [[Scenic design]]
* [[Service design]]
* [[Social design]]
* [[Software design]]
* [[Sound design]]
* [[Spatial design]]
* [[Strategic design]]
* [[Systems architecture]]
* [[Systems design]]
* [[Systems modeling]]
* [[Urban design]]
* [[User experience design]]
* [[User interface design]]
* [[Vexillography]]
* [[Web design]]
}}

==See also==
{{Columnslist|colwidth=30em|
* [[Design-based learning]]
* [[Design methods]]
* [[Design research]]
* [[Design science]]
* [[Design theory]]
* [[Design thinking]]
* [[Design museums]]
* [[Design prototyping]]
* [[Evidence-based design]]
* [[Visual design elements and principles]]
* [[List of design awards]]
* [[List of furniture designers]]
* [[List of industrial designers]]
* [[Global Design Database]]
}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="Beck">Beck, K., Beedle, M., van Bennekum, A., Cockburn, A., Cunningham, W., Fowler, M., Grenning, J., Highsmith, J., Hunt, A., Jeffries, R., Kern, J., Marick, B., Martin, R.C., Mellor, S., Schwaber, K., Sutherland, J., and Thomas, D. (2001) [http://www.agilemanifesto.org/ Manifesto for agile software development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210327170434/http://www.agilemanifesto.org/ |date=2021-03-27 }}.</ref>
<ref name="Bourque">Bourque, P., and Dupuis, R. (eds.) (2004) [http://webyes.com.br/wp-content/uploads/ebooks/book_SWEBOK.pdf Guide to the software engineering body of knowledge] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120124015740/http://webyes.com.br/wp-content/uploads/ebooks/book_SWEBOK.pdf |date=2012-01-24 }} (SWEBOK). IEEE Computer Society Press, {{ISBN|0-7695-2330-7}}.</ref>
<ref name="Brooks">{{Cite book |title=The Design of Design: Essays from a Computer Scientist |last=Brooks |first=F. P |publisher=Pearson Education |year=2010 |isbn=9780321702067 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0qG4TQi-e-4C}}</ref>
<ref name="Cross">Cross, N., Dorst, K., and Roozenburg, N. (1992) ''Research in design thinking'', Delft University Press, Delft. {{ISBN|90-6275-796-0}}.</ref>
<ref name="DC">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0142-694X(01)00009-6 |title=Creativity in the design process: Co-evolution of problem–solution |journal=Design Studies |volume=22 |issue=5 |pages=425–437 |year=2001 |last1=Dorst |first1=Kees |last2=Cross |first2=Nigel |url=http://oro.open.ac.uk/3278/1/Creativity_-_coevolution.pdf |access-date=2019-11-02 |archive-date=2019-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029080256/http://oro.open.ac.uk/3278/1/Creativity_-_coevolution.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Huppatz">{{cite journal |last1=Huppatz |first1=D. J. |title=Globalizing Design History and Global Design History |journal=Journal of Design History |date=2015 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=182–202 |doi=10.1093/jdh/epv002 |jstor=43831904 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43831904 |issn=0952-4649}}</ref>

<ref name="Ralph 2010">Ralph, P. (2010) "Comparing two software design process theories". International Conference on Design Science Research in Information Systems and Technology (DESRIST 2010), Springer, St. Gallen, Switzerland, pp. 139–153. {{doi|10.1007/978-3-642-13335-0_10}}.</ref>
<ref name="Royce">Royce, W.W. (1970) [http://www-scf.usc.edu/~csci201/lectures/Lecture11/royce1970.pdf "Managing the development of large software systems: Concepts and techniques,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002080351/http://www-scf.usc.edu/~csci201/lectures/Lecture11/royce1970.pdf |date=2020-10-02 }} Proceedings of Wescon.</ref>
<ref name="Schön 1983">Schön, D.A. (1983) ''The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action'', Basic Books, USA. {{ISBN|978-0465068784}}</ref>
<ref name="Truex">{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0959-8022(99)00009-0|author1=Truex, D. |author2=Baskerville, R. |author3=and Travis, J. |title=Amethodical systems development: The deferred meaning of systems development methods|journal=Accounting, Management and Information Technologies |volume=10|issue=1|pages=53–79|year=2000}}</ref>
}}

==Further reading==
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*Raizman, David Seth (12 November 2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=fkZJAQAAIAAJ ''The History of Modern Design'']. Pearson. {{isbn|978-0131830400}}.

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Design - Revision history

Ajay Kumar at 00:03, 30 August 2023