ImportMaster at 16:31, 3 May 2022

2022-05-03T16:31:33Z

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{{short description|Animal feces that has been dried in order to be used as a fuel source}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
[[File:Stirling-Motor Kuhdung Hochhut 16082007.JPG|thumbnail|[[Stirling engine|Stirling-Motor]] powered with cow dung in the Technical Collection Hochhut in Frankfurt on Main]]
'''Dry dung fuel''' (or '''dry manure fuel''') is animal [[feces]] that has been dried in order to be used as a fuel source. It is used in many countries. Using dry [[manure]] as a fuel source is an example of [[reuse of excreta]]. A disadvantage of using this kind of fuel is increased air pollution.<ref name="MudwayDuggan2005">{{cite journal|last1=Mudway|first1=Ian S|last2=Duggan|first2=Sean T|last3=Venkataraman|first3=Chandra|last4=Habib|first4=Gazala|last5=Kelly|first5=Frank J|last6=Grigg|first6=Jonathan|title=Combustion of dried animal dung as biofuel results in the generation of highly redox active fine particulates| journal=Particle and Fibre Toxicology|volume=2|issue=1|year=2005|pages=6|issn=1743-8977|doi=10.1186/1743-8977-2-6|pmid=16202154|pmc=1262769}}</ref> In India, it is known as "dung cakes".

== Types ==

===Dry dung and moist dung===
Dry dung is more commonly used than moist dung, because it [[Combustion|burns]] more easily. Dry manure is typically defined as having a moisture content less than 30 percent.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.fs.fed.us/woodybiomass/documents/Yakima_County_Biomass_Report.pdf|title = Biomass Report, Yakima County Public Works Solid Waste Division|accessdate = 11 October 2012}}</ref>

=== Dung cakes ===
[[File:A Pile of Dung Cakes.JPG|thumb|A pile of dung cakes in the village [[Nihal Singh Wala]] of District [[Moga District|Moga]] in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]]]
"Dung cakes", made from the by-products of [[animal husbandry]], are traditionally used as fuel in [[India]] for cooking food in a domestic [[hearth]] called a [[Chulha]]. They are made by hand by village women and are traditionally made from cow or buffalo dung. One dung cake of an average size gives 2100 kJ worth of energy. Dung cakes are also known as ''goitha'', ''uple'', ''kande'', ''gosse'' or ''thepdi''.

These are the cakes of cow dung molded by bare hands with a curvature to be able to keep stuck to the walls. Once dried they are put in a pile and covered with thatch called ''bitauda''. These bitaudas are visible in parts of rural India albeit with different names. The size and shape of the cake might vary with region. Its also not uncommon to see these cakes directly used in earthen ovens.

This bio-fuel has been used primarily for two reasons: for easy disposal of cow dung and as easily available and cheap fuel.

=== Human feces ===
[[Human feces]] can in principle also be dried and used as a fuel source if they are collected in a type of [[dry toilet]], for example an [[incinerating toilet]]. Since 2011, the [[Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation]] is supporting the development of such toilets as part of their "Reinvent the Toilet Challenge" to promote safer, more effective ways to treat human [[excreta]].<ref>Elisabeth von Muench, Dorothee Spuhler, Trevor Surridge, Nelson Ekane, Kim Andersson, Emine Goekce Fidan, Arno Rosemarin (2013) [http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/2-2042-ssp-17okt20134-10-about-the-gates-sanitation-grants-on-forum.pdf Sustainable Sanitation Alliance members take a closer look at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation’s sanitation grants], Sustainable Sanitation Practice Journal, Issue 17, pp. 4–10</ref> The [[omniprocessor|omni-processor]] is another example of using human feces contained in [[Fecal sludge management|fecal sludge]] or [[sewage sludge]] as a fuel source.

==Benefits==
[[File:Yavari (5690014405).jpg|thumbnail|The M.N. Yavari, of Peru built by Thames Iron Works, London in 1861-62 had a Watt steam engine (powered by dried llama dung) until 1914]]
The benefits of using dry animal dung include:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.anl.gov/PCS/acsfuel/preprint%20archive/Files/47_2_Boston_10-02_0316.pdf |title=Pyrolysis Processing of Animal Manure to Produce Fuel Gases |accessdate=11 October 2012}}</ref>
*Cheaper than most modern fuels
*Efficient
*Alleviates local pressure on wood resources
*Readily available - short walking time required to collect fuel
*No cash outlays necessary for purchase (can be exchanged for other products)
*Less environmental pollution compared to some other fuels
*Safe disposal of animal dung
*Sustainable and renewable energy source

==Countries==
[[File:Tibet-5874 - Something smells here! (2212605065).jpg|thumbnail|Drying cow dung fuel]]

===Africa===
[[File:Egyptian women making dry animal dung fuel.jpg|thumbnail|Egyptian women making "Gella" dry animal dung fuel]]
*In [[Egypt]] dry animal dung (from cows & buffaloes) is mixed with straw or crop residues to make dry fuel called "Gella" or "Jilla" dung cakes in modern times and ""khoroshtof"" in medieval times.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/32/97/46369/Folk/Street-Smart/Egyptian-cities-and-markets-Whats-behind-a-name-.aspx |title=Egyptian cities and markets: What's behind a name? - Street Smart - Folk - Ahram Online |publisher=English.ahram.org.eg |date=28 June 2012 |accessdate=11 October 2012}}</ref> Ancient Egyptians used the dry animal dung as a source of fuel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/1999/413/chrncls.htm |title=Al-Ahram Weekly | Chronicles | |publisher=Weekly.ahram.org.eg |accessdate=11 October 2012 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111217021432/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/1999/413/chrncls.htm |archivedate=17 December 2011 }}</ref> Dung cakes and building crop residues were the source of 76.4% of gross energy consumed in Egypt's rural areas during the 1980s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.egyptchm.org/chm/implementation/pdf/tech_transfer/EL_S0291.pdf |title=Biogas Technology Transfer To Rural Communities in Egypt |accessdate=11 October 2012 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123011949/http://www.egyptchm.org/chm/implementation/pdf/tech_transfer/EL_S0291.pdf |archivedate=23 November 2011 }}</ref> Temperatures of dung-fueled fires in an experiment on Egyptian village-made dung cake fuel produced
::""a maximum of 640 °C in 12 minutes, falling to 240 °C after 25 minutes and 100 °C after 46 minutes. These temperatures were obtained without refueling and without bellows etc.""<ref name="upenn1">{{cite web|url=http://www.sas.upenn.edu/~nmiller0/dung.html |title=Dung & Archeology |publisher=Sas.upenn.edu |accessdate=11 October 2012}}</ref>
Also, camel dung is used as fuel in Egypt.
* ''Lisu'' is the cakes of dry cow dung fuel in [[Lesotho]] (see photo)
[[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-208-30.jpg|thumbnail|Huts in a village near Maseru, Lesotho. The fuel being used on the fire is dried cattle dung]]
*[[Mali]]

===Asia===
[[File:Dung cooking fire. Pushkar India.JPG|thumbnail|Dung cooking fire. Pushkar India.]]
*[[Afghanistan]]
*[[Bangladesh]], dry cow dung fuel is called Ghunte.
*[[China]]
*[[India]], dry [[Water buffalo|buffalo]] dung is used as fuel and it is sometimes a sacred practice to use cow dung fuel in some areas in India. Cow dung is known as "Gomaya" or "Komaya" in India. Dry animal dung cakes are called upla in Hindi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.agriculturaits.czu.cz/pdf_files/vol_43_2_pdf/vankat.pdf |title=Animal Dung As A Source of Energy in Remote Areas of Indian Himalayas |accessdate=11 October 2012}}</ref>[[File:Dungcakes_at_Village_Bhraj,_Sangrur_District_04.jpg|thumb|Dungcakes at Village Bhraj, Sangrur District,Punjab ]]
*[[Iran]], since prehistoric time to modern eras<ref name="academia1"/>
*[[Kyrgyz Republic]], dung is used in specially designed home stoves, which vent to the outside
*[[Mongolia]], dry cow dung and sheep dung cakes are commonly used as fuel.
*[[Nepal]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://saneinetwork.net/Files/10_14___K_P_Pant.pdf |title=Health Costs of Dung-Cake Fuel Use by the Poor in Rural Nepal |accessdate=11 October 2012 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714153753/http://saneinetwork.net/Files/10_14___K_P_Pant.pdf |archivedate=14 July 2014 }}</ref>
*[[Pakistan]], cow/buffalo dung is used as fuel.<ref name="upenn1"/>
[[File:Defense.gov photo essay 120707-A-8536E-694.jpg|thumbnail|U.S. soldiers patrolling outside a qalat covered in caked and dried cow dung in an Afghani village]]
[[File:Gauchar's Historical Field.jpg|thumbnail|Cow dung fuel was burnt on the [[Gochar|Gauchar's]] Historical Field, India to gauge the direction of air currents]]
[[File:Komaya (cow dung).jpg|thumbnail|Making Komaya (cow dung fuel in India)]]

===Europe===
[[File:Brittanydung.jpg|thumbnail|Dung cakes being prepared for fuel on the Ile de Brehat, Brittany, France, c. 1900.]]
*Kazakhs dry animal dung is known as "Kiziak" which is made by collecting dried animal dung on the steppe, wetting it in water then mixing it with straw then making it in discs which were then dried in the sun. It was used as a source of fuel for the winter and, throughout the summer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.polishresettlementcampsintheuk.co.uk/stories/biegus.htm |title=Polish settlements in Russia during WW II |publisher=Polishresettlementcampsintheuk.co.uk |date=19 September 1936 |accessdate=11 October 2012}}</ref>
* France in Maison du Marais poitevin in Coulon there is a demonstration of traditional usage of dry dung fuel.

===The Americas===
*Early European settlers on the Great Plains of the United States used dried buffalo manure as a fuel. They called it buffalo chips.
* American officials in Texas are studying using dry [[cow dung]] as a fuel
* [[Pueblo Indians]] used dry animal dung as a fuel
* In [[Peru]], the [[Yavari (ship)|Yavari]] steam ship was fueled by llama dung fuel for several decades.
* Dry dung can be used in the production of [[celluloid]] for film.

==History==
Dry animal dung was used from prehistoric times,<ref name="Mlekuž2009">{{cite journal|last1=Mlekuž|first1=Dimitrij|title=The materiality of dung: the manipulation of dung in Neolithic Mediterranean caves|journal=Documenta Praehistorica|volume=36|year=2009|pages=219|issn=1854-2492|doi=10.4312/dp.36.14|doi-access=free}}</ref>
including in Ancient Persia,<ref name="academia1">{{cite journal|last=Miller |first=Naomi |url=https://www.academia.edu/1163075 |title=The use of dung as fuel: an ethnographic example and an archaeological application | Naomi Miller |journal=Paléorient |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=71–79 |publisher=Academia.edu |date=1 January 1984 |accessdate=11 October 2012|doi=10.3406/paleo.1984.941 }}</ref> Ancient Egypt and early modern England.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fiennes|first=Celia|url=https://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/travellers/Fiennes/20|title=Through England on a Side Saddle in the Time of William and Mary|publisher=Field & Tuer, The Leadenhall Press, E.C.|year=1888 |origyear=1702|editor-last=Griffiths}}</ref> In [[Equatorial Guinea]] archaeological evidence has been found of the practice<ref name="Picornell GelabertAsouti2011">{{cite journal|last1=Picornell Gelabert|first1=Llorenç|last2=Asouti|first2=Eleni|last3=Martí|first3=Ethel Allué|title=The ethnoarchaeology of firewood management in the Fang villages of Equatorial Guinea, central Africa: Implications for the interpretation of wood fuel remains from archaeological sites|journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology|volume=30|issue=3|year=2011|pages=375–384|issn=0278-4165|doi=10.1016/j.jaa.2011.05.002}}</ref> and biblical records indicate animal and human dung were used as fuel.<ref>The Bible Ezekiel 4:12 And you shall eat it as barley cakes, and you shall bake it with dung that comes out of man. http://bibleapps.com/ezekiel/4-12.htm</ref>

== Air pollution ==
[[File:Smouldering cow dung cake sample.jpg|thumb|The burning of cow dung cake releases a range of organic and inorganic gases in both gas and particle phases]]
[[File:Volatility distribution of organic emissions from dried cow dung cake combustion.jpg|thumb|The burning of cow dung cake releases organic air pollutants over a wide range of volatilities into both gas and particle phases.]]
The [[combustion]] of dried dung cakes has been shown to release many thousands of [[Organic chemistry|organic]] components into gas and aerosol phases, some of which are unique tracers of dung combustion such as [[cholestanol]] and [[coprostanol]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stewart|first=Gareth J.|last2=Nelson|first2=Beth S.|last3=Acton|first3=W. Joe F.|last4=Vaughan|first4=Adam R.|last5=Farren|first5=Naomi J.|last6=Hopkins|first6=James R.|last7=Ward|first7=Martyn W.|last8=Swift|first8=Stefan J.|last9=Arya|first9=Rahul|last10=Mondal|first10=Arnab|last11=Jangirh|first11=Ritu|date=2021-02-18|title=Emissions of intermediate-volatility and semi-volatile organic compounds from domestic fuels used in Delhi, India|url=https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/21/2407/2021/|journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics|language=English|volume=21|issue=4|pages=2407–2426|doi=10.5194/acp-21-2407-2021|issn=1680-7316|doi-access=free}}</ref> Dung cakes are generally a higher emission [[fuel]], with the [[combustion]] of cow dung cake samples collected from the [[Delhi]] area of [[India]] releasing around four times more [[Volatile organic compound|volatile organic compounds]] than fuel [[wood]] samples.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stewart|first=Gareth J.|last2=Acton|first2=W. Joe F.|last3=Nelson|first3=Beth S.|last4=Vaughan|first4=Adam R.|last5=Hopkins|first5=James R.|last6=Arya|first6=Rahul|last7=Mondal|first7=Arnab|last8=Jangirh|first8=Ritu|last9=Ahlawat|first9=Sakshi|last10=Yadav|first10=Lokesh|last11=Sharma|first11=Sudhir K.|date=2021-02-18|title=Emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds from combustion of domestic fuels in Delhi, India|url=https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/21/2383/2021/|journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics|language=English|volume=21|issue=4|pages=2383–2406|doi=10.5194/acp-21-2383-2021|issn=1680-7316|doi-access=free}}</ref> The [[volatile organic compounds]] released from [[Cattle|cow]] dung cake combustion have been shown to be significantly more reactive with the [[hydroxyl radical]], with the [[Gas|gases]] released from the [[combustion]] of cow dung cake samples collected from [[Delhi]] in India around 120 times more reactive with the [[hydroxyl radical]] than the emissions from [[liquefied petroleum gas]]. The [[volatile organic compounds]] from [[cow]] dung cake combustion have also been shown to result in 3-4 times more [[secondary organic aerosol]] production than fuel wood and release many more toxic [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stewart|first=Gareth J.|last2=Nelson|first2=Beth S.|last3=Acton|first3=W. Joe F.|last4=Vaughan|first4=Adam R.|last5=Hopkins|first5=James R.|last6=Yunus|first6=Siti S. M.|last7=Hewitt|first7=C. Nicholas|last8=Nemitz|first8=Eiko|last9=Mandal|first9=Tuhin K.|last10=Gadi|first10=Ranu|last11=Sahu|first11=Lokesh K.|date=2021-02-25|title=Comprehensive organic emission profiles, secondary organic aerosol production potential, and OH reactivity of domestic fuel combustion in Delhi, India|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2021/ea/d0ea00009d|journal=Environmental Science: Atmospheres|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=104–117|doi=10.1039/D0EA00009D|issn=2634-3606|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==See also==

*[[Improved cookstove|Cook stove]]

==References==
{{Commons category|Dry animal dung fuel}}

{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20121116024344/http://www.careforcows.org/news/preparing_cow_dung_for_fuel Preparing Cow Dung For Fuel]

[[Category:Animal waste products]]
[[Category:Feces]]
[[Category:Biodegradable waste management]]
[[Category:Bioenergy]]
[[Category:Biofuels]]
[[Category:Fuels]]
[[Category:Biomass]]

Dry dung fuel - Revision history

ImportMaster at 16:31, 3 May 2022