>Pied Hornbill at 16:31, 18 February 2021

2021-02-18T16:31:11Z

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{{main|Rashtrakuta Empire}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}
'''The Rashtrakuta empire of [[Manyakheta]]''' came to power in South India in 753 C.E. and ruled for over two centuries. At its peak the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta ruled a vast empire stretching from the [[Ganges|Ganges River]] and [[Yamuna River]] [[doab]] in the north to [[Cape Comorin]] in the south, in a time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary contributions.

The Rashtrakuta economy derived its funding from its natural and agricultural produce, its manufacturing revenues and moneys gained from its conquests. Cotton was the chief crop of the regions of southern Gujarat, [[Khandesh]] and Berar while cotton yarn and cloth was exported from [[Bharuch|Bharoch]] and incense and perfumes from the ports of [[Thane|Thana]] and Saimur. Minnagar, Gujarat, [[Ujjain]], [[Paithan]] and Tagara were important centres of textile industry. White calicos were manufactured in Burhanpur and Berar and exported to Persia, Turkey, Poland, Arabia and Cairo.<ref name="trade">Altekar (1934), p356</ref> Jawarit Bajri was grown in some regions of modern Maharashtra and oil seeds in dry areas of northern Karnataka region. The Konkan region, ruled by the feudatory Silharas, produced large quantities of betel leaves, coconut and rice while the lush forests of Mysore, ruled by the feudtory [[Gangas]], produced such woods as sandal, timber, teak and ebony. The Rashtrakuta empire controlled most of the western sea board of the subcontinent which facilitated its maritime trade.<ref name="trade1">Altekar (1934), p354</ref>

The deccan soil, though not as fertile as that of the Gangetic plains, was rich in minerals. The copper mines of [[Cudappah]], [[Bellary]], Chanda, Buldhana, Narsingpur, [[Ahmadnagar]], Bijapur and [[Dharwar]] were a source of income and played an important role in the economy.<ref name="trade2">Altekar (1934), p355</ref> Diamonds were mined in Cudappah, Bellary, [[Kurnool]] and [[Golconda]]; the capital Manyakheta and Devagiri were important [[diamond]] and jewellery trading centres. Muslin cloth were manufactured in [[Paithan]] and [[Warangal]] and the leather industry and tanning flourished in Gujarat. Some regions of northern Maharashtra and Mysore, with its vast elephant herds, were important for the ivory industry.<ref name="trade3">From notes of Periplus, Al Idrisi and Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p357)</ref> The Gujarat branch of the empire earned a significant income from the port of Bharoch, one of the most prominent ports in the world at that time. Other important ports were Naosari, Sopara, Thana, Saimur, Dabhol, Jayagad, Kharepatan and Kalyan.<ref name="trade4">Altekar (1934), p358</ref> The empire's chief exports were cotton yarn, cotton cloth, muslins, hides, mats, indigo, incense, perfumes, betel nuts, coconuts, sandal, teak, timber, sesame oil and ivory. Its major imports were pearls, gold, dates from Arabia, slaves, [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] wines, tin, lead, topaz, storax, sweet clover, flint glass, [[antimony]], [[gold]] and [[silver]] coins, singing boys and girls (for the entertainment of the royalty) from other lands. Trading in horses was an important and profitable business, monopolised the Arabs and some local merchants.<ref name="trade5">Altekar (1934), p358-359</ref>

==Practicalities==
[[Oxen]] and [[bullock cart]]s were used for business and leisure travel within the kingdom. While superior quality horses served the purpose for army cavalry, inferior horses were used as pack animals for moving commodities, especially in the hilly regions where cattle driven carts were too slow. Buying and selling land was not just the business of the two concerned parties but needed the consent of village elders and Mahajans (Brahmins).<ref name="trade6">From the Saundatti inscription (Altekar 1934, p362)</ref> Artists and craftsman operated as corporations rather than as individual business. Inscriptions mention guilds of weavers, oilmen, artisans, basket and mat makers and fruit sellers. A Saundatti inscription refers to an assemblage of all the people of a district headed by the guilds of the region.<ref name="trade7">Altekar (1934), p368</ref> The weaver guild of Lakshmeshwar (in [[Gadag]]) had one executive head and the Mulgund guild had four executives with a membership of about two thousand artisans. The largest guilds were the Vira Balanju guilds of Belgamve (Balligavi) with nine heads and the Miraj inscription mentions another with nineteen executives. The number of executives depended directly on the membership in the guild.<ref name="trade8">Altekar (1934), p369</ref> The Belgamve guild had five hundred inscriptions (''Shasana'') written outlining the rules and regulations by which all members had to adhere. Some guilds were considered superior to others, just as some corporations were, and received royal charters determining their powers and privileges. The [[Dambal]] inscription mentions its guild as the "lord of [[Aihole]]" and that its members owned their own royal umbrellas. Inscriptions suggest these guilds had their own militia to protect goods in transit and, like village assemblies, they operated banks that lent money to traders and businesses.<ref name="trade9">Altekar (1934), p370-371</ref>

==Taxation==
Information on the kingdom's revenue system is now available from its copper plate grants, contemporaneous writings and inscriptions from neighbouring kingdoms. The accounts of Muslim writers of the time also provide insight into details. The government's income came from five principal sources: regular taxes, occasional taxes, fines, income taxes and tributes from feudatories.<ref name="trade10">Altekar (1934), p223</ref> Regular taxes were called ''Ujranga'', ''Uparikara'', ''Sidddhaya'' and ''Visthi''. There were some miscellaneous taxes as well. Occasional taxes were called ''chcitabhata pravesadavala'' and ''Rajasevakanam vasatidan''. An emergency tax was also imposed occasionally. Income tax included taxes on crown land, wasteland, specific types of trees considered valuable to economy, mines, salt, treasures unearthed by prospectors, and estates and moneys of persons who died without an heir.<ref name="trade11">Altekar (1934), p213</ref>

''Ujranga'' and ''Uparikara'' were universal produce taxes applied to items such as betel leaves, fruits, vegetables, flowers and grass. This may have included some additional taxes to pay for the salaries of government officials.<ref name="trade12">Altekar (1934), p 215</ref> The land owner or tenant paid a variety of taxes, including land taxes, produce taxes and payment of overheads for maintenance of the Gavunda. The theory that ''Udranga'' was applied to permanent landowners and ''uparikara'' to temporary land tenants has been proposed.<ref name="trade13">Altekar (1934), p 216</ref> Land taxes were varied, based on type of land, its produce and situation. A Banavasi inscription of 941 mentions reassessment of land tax due to the drying up of an old irrigation canal in the region. Various tax levels were determined ranging from 8% to 16%. The king determined the tax levels based on need and circumstances in the kingdom while ensuring that an undue burden was not placed on the peasants.<ref name="trade14">From the writings of Chandesvara (Altekar 1934, p216)</ref> A portion of all taxes earned by the government (usually 15%) was returned to the villages for maintenance. There is no mention of taxes on water, roads and other local facilities.<ref name="trade15">Altekar (1934), p 222</ref> The Rashtrakuta empire was frequently at war with the Palas and Gurjaras, a political situation that required significant expenditure to upgrade and maintain the army. The land tax therefore may have been as high as 20%.<ref name="trade16">From the notes of Al Idrisi (Altekar (1934), p 223)</ref>

Taxes on lands and property gifted to war heroes were lightly taxed while other lands were taxed in three installments. This type of taxation was called ''Balagachchu''. The Ukkal inscription records that when land owners defaulted on taxes for three years in a row under normal circumstances, the lands were seized and sold by the village community.<ref name="trade17">Altekat (1934), p226</ref> In most of the kingdom, land taxes were paid in goods and services and rarely was cash accepted. This was true in the domains of the feudatory Gangas and Cholas as well.<ref name="trade18">From the Begumra plates of Krishna II (Altekar 1934, p227</ref> From inscriptions it is known that government owned granaries and storehouses which ensured that grain and corn of the best quality was available at market rates, while old or low quality material was auctioned off at bargain prices or destroyed. A tax called ''Bhutapattapratyaya'' was levied on imported items called {{transl|kn|upatta}} while locally produced items were called ''bhuta'' and manufactured and stored items were called ''sambhrta''. In addition, there were general excise and local taxes levied on villages.<ref name="trade19">Altekar (1934), p229</ref> Taxes were levied on daily household items such as clarified butter and charcoal. Among non-agricultural rural people, herdsman and cattle breeders had to pay taxes also.<ref name="trade20">From the Sirur plates of Amoghavarsha I and Soratur inscriptions of Krishna III (Altekar 1934, p229)</ref>

The Rashtrakuta government levied a shipping tax of one golden Gadyana on all foreign vessels embarking to any other ports and a fee of one silver Ctharna on vessels travelling locally. Taxes were levied on all types of artisans such as potters, sheep herders, weavers, oilmen, shopkeepers, stall owners, brewers and gardeners. Taxes on perishable items such as fish, meat, honey, medicine, fruits and essentials like fuel was as high as 16%.<ref name="trade21">Altekar (1934), p230</ref> Under miscellaneous taxes were ferry and house taxes, only the Brahmins and their temple institutions being subjected at a lower rate.<ref name="trade22">From the Hebbal inscriptions and Torkhede inscriptions of Govinda III (Altekar 1934, p232</ref> Some forms of taxation was occasional or uncommon, levied on villages only during encampment of the army or the police (''Bhafas'') on a march. Under such circumstances, the army (''Chata'') was allowed limited access to the village or township and that was only under special circumstances which ensured daily life in the communities continued unhindered. Customary presents were give to the king or royal officers on such festive occasions of as marriage or the birth of a son.<ref name="trade23">From the Davangere inscription of Santivarma of Banavasi-12000 province (Altekar 1934, p 234</ref>

Emergency taxes are described in the writings of Somadeva and were applied under extraordinary circumstances when even Brahmins and temples were not excluded. These were applicable when the kingdom was under duress, facing natural calamities, or preparing for war or overcoming its ravages. Fines were charged on socially or politically alienated villages, the term used being ''Sadandadas aparadhah'' or ''Pratishisiddhaya''. Since these taxes were uncommon, income to state from these sources was small overall.<ref name="trade24">Altekar (1934), p 236</ref> Income on government property included taxes on stray plots of cultivable land, forests, forest produce, waste lands, lands awaiting cultivation and specific trees such as sandal, Hirda, mango and Madhuka, even when these were found growing on private property. The kingdom did not lay claim to the entire land inside its territory. A record of the feudatory Vaidumba king from southern Deccan says the king had to purchase three veils of land from a local assembly in order to assign it to a temple in a village.<ref name="trade25">From the 961 inscription of Krishna III (Altekar 1934, p 237</ref> Taxes on salt and minerals were mandatory, although the empire did not claim sole ownership of mines, implying that private mineral prospecting and the quarrying business may have been active. The term used for these taxes was ''Sahadhyantara Siddhi''.<ref name="trade26">Altekar (1934), p 242</ref> Treasures, even when discovered on private land, were included as taxable earnings as were the incomes and properties of persons who died without heirs. If there were no survivors in the family, the state claimed all the properties.<ref name="trade27">From the writings of Somadeva (Altekar 1934, p 244)</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|3}}

==References==
*{{cite book |last= Altekar|first= Anant Sadashiv |title= The Rashtrakutas And Their Times; being a political, administrative, religious, social, economic and literary history of the Deccan during C. 750 A.D. to C. 1000 A.D|origyear=1934|year=1934|publisher= Oriental Book Agency|location= Poona|oclc=3793499}}

[[Category:Rashtrakuta dynasty]]
[[Category:Economic history of India]]
[[Category:Historical economies of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Medieval economics]]

Economy of Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta - Revision history

>Pied Hornbill at 16:31, 18 February 2021