ImportMaster at 13:07, 11 February 2022

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{{merge from|Improved cookstove|discuss=Talk:Energy poverty and cooking#Merger proposal|date=July 2021}}
{{Short description|Issues involving access to clean, modern fuels and technologies for cooking}}
[[File:Tortillera en Guatemala.jpg|thumb|alt=a 3-stone stove|A traditional wood-fired 3-stone stove in Guatemala, which causes [[Indoor air pollution in developing nations|indoor air pollution]]]]
One aspect of '''[[energy poverty]]''' is lack of access to clean, modern fuels and technologies for '''cooking'''. As of 2020, more than 2.6 billion people in [[Developing country|developing countries]] routinely cook with fuels such as wood, [[Dry dung fuel|animal dung]], [[coal]], or [[kerosene]]. Burning these types of fuels in open fires or traditional stoves causes harmful [[household air pollution]], resulting in an estimated 3.8 million deaths annually according to the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO), and contributes to various health, socio-economic, and environmental problems.

A high priority in global sustainable development is to make clean cooking facilities universally available and affordable. Cooking facilities are considered "clean" if their emissions of [[carbon monoxide]] and [[Fine Particulate Matter|fine particulate matter]] are below certain levels as defined by the WHO.

Stoves and appliances that run on electricity, [[Liquefied petroleum gas|liquid petroleum gas]] (LPG), [[piped natural gas]] (PNG), [[biogas]], alcohol, and solar heat are considered to be clean. [[Improved cook stoves]] that burn biomass more efficiently than traditional stoves are an important interim solution in areas where deploying cleaner technologies is less feasible. Universal access to clean cooking facilities would have large benefits for environmental protection and for [[gender equality]].

==Issues with traditional cooking fuels==
{{Main|Household air pollution}}
[[File:Cooking Stoves, Tigray (14425218394).jpg|thumb|Traditional [[wood-burning stove]]s]]As of 2020, more than 2.6 billion people<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=October 2020|title=Access to clean cooking – SDG7: Data and Projections – Analysis|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7-data-and-projections/access-to-clean-cooking|access-date=2021-03-31|website=IEA|language=en-GB}}</ref> in developing countries rely on burning polluting [[Biomass|biomass fuels]] such as wood, [[Dry dung fuel|dry dung]], [[coal]], or [[kerosene]] for cooking, which causes harmful [[household air pollution]] and also contributes significantly to outdoor [[air pollution]].{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=VII–XIV}} The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) estimates that cooking-related pollution causes 3.8 million annual deaths.<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 May 2018|title=Household air pollution and health: fact sheet|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health|access-date=2020-11-21|website=WHO|language=en}}</ref> The [[Global Burden of Disease Study|Global Burden of Disease]] study estimated the number of deaths in 2017 at 1.6 million.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ritchie|first1=Hannah|last2=Roser|first2=Max|date=2019|title=Access to Energy|url=https://ourworldindata.org/indoor-air-pollution#indoor-air-pollution-is-one-of-the-leading-risk-factors-for-premature-death|access-date=1 April 2021|journal=Our World in Data|quote="According to the Global Burden of Disease study 1.6 million people died prematurely in 2017 as a result of indoor air pollution ... But it's worth noting that the WHO publishes a substantially larger number of indoor air pollution deaths.."}}</ref>

Solid fuel smoke contains thousands of substances, many of which are hazardous to human health. The most well understood of these substances are [[Carbon monoxide (data page)|carbon monoxide]] (CO); small [[particulates|particulate matter]]; nitrous oxide; sulfur oxides; a range of volatile organic compounds, including formaldehyde, benzene and 1,3-butadiene; and polycyclic aromatic compounds, such as benzo-a-pyrene, which are thought to have both short and long term health consequences.<ref name=":10">Peabody, J. W., Riddell, T. J., Smith, K. R., Liu, Y., Zhao, Y., Gong, J., ... & Sinton, J. E. (2005). Indoor air pollution in rural China: cooking fuels, stoves, and health status. Archives of environmental & occupational health, 60(2), 86-95.</ref>

Exposure to household air pollution (HAP) nearly doubles the risk of childhood [[pneumonia]] and is responsible for 45 percent of all pneumonia deaths in children under five years of age. Emerging evidence shows that HAP is also a risk factor for [[cataracts]], the leading cause of blindness in lower-middle-income countries, and low birth weight.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=17}} Cooking with open fires or unsafe stoves is a leading cause of [[burn]]s among women and children in developing countries.<ref name=WHO2016>{{cite web|title=Burns|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs365/en/|website=World Health Organization|access-date=1 August 2017|date=September 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721132816/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs365/en/|archive-date=21 July 2017}}</ref>

Health effects are concentrated among women, who are likely to be responsible for cooking, and young children.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=VII–XIV}} The work of gathering fuel exposes women and children to safety risks and often consumes 15 or more hours per week, constraining their available time for education, rest, and paid work.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=VII–XIV}} Women and girls must often walk long distances to obtain cooking fuel, and, as a result, face increased risk of physical and sexual violence.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=20}} Many children, particularly girls, may not attend school in order to help their mothers with firewood collection and food preparation.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=20}} Serious local environmental damage, including [[desertification]], can be caused by excessive harvesting of wood and other combustible material.{{sfn|Tester|2012|p=504}}

===Traditional cooking facilities===

The traditional method of cooking is on a three-stone cooking fire or on a mud stove. The three-stone fire is the cheapest stove to produce, requiring only three suitable stones of the same height on which a [[cooking pot]] can be balanced over a fire. Smoke is vented into the home rather than out through a chimney.

Traditional cooking facilities allow heat to escape into the open air, which wastes fuel. The use of an open fire creates a risk of [[Burn (injury)|burns]] and [[Burn (injury)#Thermal|scalds]]. Particularly when the stove is used indoors, cramped conditions make adults and particularly children susceptible to falling or stepping into the fire and receiving burns. Additionally, accidental spills of boiling water may result in scalding, and blowing on the fire to supply oxygen may discharge burning embers and cause eye injuries.

==Clean cooking facilities==
[[File:ALSOL.jpg|thumb|[[Solar cookers]] are nonpolluting and free to use, but require favourable weather and longer cooking times.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=25–29}}]]
{{Further|Clean fuel}}
A high priority in global sustainable development is to make clean cooking facilities universally available and affordable.<ref>{{Cite web|last=United Nations|date=2018|title=Accelerating SDG 7 Achievement Policy Brief 02: Achieving Universal Access to Clean and Modern Cooking Fuels, Technologies and Services|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/17465PB2.pdf|access-date=April 5, 2021|website=UN.org}}</ref> According to the World Health Organization, cooking facilities are considered "clean" if their emissions of [[carbon monoxide]] and [[Fine Particulate Matter|fine particulate matter]] are below certain levels.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=11}}

Stoves and appliances that are powered by electricity, liquid petroleum gas (LPG), piped natural gas (PNG), biogas, alcohol, and solar heat are clean.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=25–29}} Best-in-class [[fan gasifier]] stoves that burn [[biomass pellets]] can be classified as clean cooking facilities if they are correctly operated and the pellets have sufficiently low levels of moisture, but these stoves are not widely available.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=19}} As of 2016, no widely-available biomass stoves meet recommended emissions limits for indoor household use.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=88}}

Electricity can be used to power appliances such as [[rice cookers]] and highly efficient [[induction stove]]s, in addition to standard electric stoves. [[Induction cooking|Electric induction stoves]] are so efficient that they create less pollution than liquified petroleum gas (LPG) even when connected to coal power sources, and are sometimes cheaper.<ref name="Injury Prevention and Environmental Health">{{cite book|author=Nugent R Mock CN (Kobusingye O, et al., editors)|title=Injury Prevention and Environmental Health. 3rd Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnsBwgEACAAJ|year=2017|publisher=International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank |chapter= Chapter 7 Household Air Pollution from Solid Cookfuels and Its Effects on Health|chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525225/}}</ref> As of 2019, 770 million people do not have access to electricity,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Access to electricity – SDG7: Data and Projections – Analysis|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7-data-and-projections/access-to-electricity|access-date=2021-05-05|website=IEA|language=en-GB}}</ref> and for many others electricity is not affordable or reliable.

[[Biogas]] digesters convert waste, such as human waste and animal dung, into a methane-rich gas that burns cleanly. Biogas systems are a promising technology in areas where each household has at least two large animals to provide dung, and a steady supply of water is also available.<ref name="Injury Prevention and Environmental Health2">{{cite book|last1=Nugent|first1=R|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnsBwgEACAAJ|title=Injury Prevention and Environmental Health. 3rd Edition|last2=Mock|first2=C.N.|publisher=[[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] / The World Bank|year=2017|editor-last1=Kobusingye|editor-first1=O.|chapter=Chapter 7 Household Air Pollution from Solid Cookfuels and Its Effects on Health|access-date=13 April 2021|display-editors=etal|chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525225/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413111557/https://books.google.com/books?id=KnsBwgEACAAJ|archive-date=13 April 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Solar cooker]]s collect and concentrate the sun's heat when sunshine is available.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=25–29}}

==Improved cook stoves==
[[File:Clean Cooking in Refugee Settlement.jpg|thumb|Improved cook stoves, such as the ones shown here, burn biomass relatively efficiently but usually still emit toxic levels of pollutants.]]{{Main|Improved cookstove}}

Improved cook stoves (ICS) are typically more fuel-efficient than traditional stoves, and can be deployed as an interim step towards clean cooking.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=12}} As of 2009, less than 30% of people who cook with some sort of biomass stove use ICS.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shankar|first1=Anita|last2=Johnson|first2=Michael|last3=Kay|first3=Ethan|last4=Pannu|first4=Raj|last5=Beltramo|first5=Theresa|last6=Derby|first6=Elisa|last7=Harrell|first7=Stephen|last8=Davis|first8=Curt|last9=Petach|first9=Helen|date=2014-07-22|title=Maximizing the benefits of improved cookstoves: moving from acquisition to correct and consistent use|journal=Global Health: Science and Practice|volume=2|issue=3|pages=268–274|doi=10.9745/GHSP-D-14-00060|issn=2169-575X|pmc=4168629|pmid=25276586}}</ref>

The efficiency improvements of ICS do not necessarily translate into meaningful reductions in health risks{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=11–12}} because for certain conditions, such as childhood [[pneumonia]], the relationship between pollution levels and effects on the body has been shown to be [[Non-linear effects|non-linear]]. This means, for example, that a 50 percent reduction in exposure would not halve the health risk.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=19}} A 2020 [[systematic review]] found that ICS usage led to modest improvements in terms of blood pressure, shortness of breath, emissions of cancer-causing substances, and cardiovascular diseases, but no improvements in pregnancy outcomes or children's health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pratiti|first1=Rebecca|last2=Vadala|first2=David|last3=Kalynych|first3=Zirka|last4=Sud|first4=Parul|date=April 28, 2020|title=Health effects of household air pollution related to biomass cook stoves in resource limited countries and its mitigation by improved cookstoves|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32668541|journal=Environmental Research|volume=186|pages=109574|doi=10.1016/j.envres.2020.109574|issn=1096-0953|pmid=32668541|bibcode=2020ER....186j9574P|s2cid=219033298}}</ref>

The World Health Organization encourages further research to develop biomass stove technology that is low-emission, affordable, durable, and meets users' needs.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=88}}

==Non-technological interventions==
Behavioral change interventions, in reducing childhood household exposures, have the potential to reduce household air pollution exposure by 20 to 98%. Indoor Air Pollution (IAP) exposure can be greatly reduced by cooking outdoors, reducing time spent in the cooking area, keeping the kitchen door open while cooking, avoid leaning over the fire while attending to the  meal preparation, staying away while carrying children when cooking and keeping the children away from the cooking area. Negative impacts can also be reduced by changes to the environment (e.g. use of a chimney), drying fuel wood before use, and using a lid during cooking.<ref name="WHO">[https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs292/en/index.html Indoor air pollution and health] - [[World Health Organization]] fact sheet.</ref>

Opportunities to educate communities on reducing household indoor air pollution exposure include festival collaborations, religious meetings, and medical outreach clinics. Community health workers represent a significant resource for educating communities to help raise awareness regarding reducing the effects of indoor air pollution.<ref>Amegah, A. K., & Jaakkola, J. J. (2016). Household air pollution and the sustainable development goals. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 94(3), 215.</ref>

==Challenges==
Many users of clean stoves and fuels continue to make frequent use of traditional fuels and stoves, a phenomenon known as "fuel stacking" or "stove stacking".{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=42}} For instance, a recent study in [[Kenya]] found that households that are primary LPG users consume 42 percent as much [[charcoal]] as households that are primary charcoal users.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=42}} When stacking is practiced, the introduction of clean cooking facilities may not reduce household air pollution enough to make a meaningful difference in health outcomes.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=25–29}} There are many reasons to continue to use traditional fuels and stoves, such as unreliable fuel supply, the cost of fuel, the ability of stoves to accommodate different types of pots and cooking techniques, and the need to travel long distances to repair stoves.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|pp=25–29}}

Efforts to improve access to clean cooking fuels and stoves have barely kept up with population growth, and current and planned policies would still leave 2.4 billion people without access in 2030.<ref name=":3" />

== Environmental and sustainable development effects ==
[[File:Bread Maker, Adigrat (11815897476).jpg|thumb|left|alt=Woman baking bread on an electric stove|A woman cooks with electricity, a clean energy source, in [[Ethiopia]]]]
Transitioning to cleaner cooking methods is expected to either slightly raise [[greenhouse gas emissions]] or decrease emissions, even if the replacement fuels are fossil fuels. There is evidence that switching to LPG and PNG has a smaller climate effect than the combustion of solid fuels, which emits [[methane]] and [[black carbon]].{{sfn|World Health Organization|2016|p=75}} The burning of residential solid fuels accounts for up to 58 percent of global black carbon emissions.{{sfn|ESMAP|2020|p=22}} The [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] stated in 2018, "The costs of achieving nearly universal access to electricity and clean fuels for cooking and heating are projected to be between 72 and 95 billion USD per year until 2030 with minimal effects on GHG emissions."{{sfn|IPCC SR15 Ch5|2018|loc=SPM.5.1}}

Universal access to clean cooking is an element of the UN [[Sustainable Development Goal 7]], whose first target is to: "By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services".<ref name=":172">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313])</ref> Progress in clean cooking would facilitate progress in other Sustainable Development goals, such as eliminating poverty ([[Sustainable Development Goal 1|Goal 1]]), good health and well-being ([[Sustainable Development Goal 3|Goal 3]]), gender equality ([[Sustainable Development Goal 5|Goal 5]]), and climate action ([[Sustainable Development Goal 13|Goal 13]]).<ref>{{Cite web|last=United Nations|date=2018|title=Accelerating SDG 7 Achievement Policy Brief 02: Achieving Universal Access to Clean and Modern Cooking Fuels, Technologies and Services|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/17465PB2.pdf|access-date=April 5, 2021|website=UN.org}}</ref>

SDG 7 specifies Indicator 7.1.2 as: "Proportion of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technology".<ref name=":172" /> - The indicator is calculated as the number of people using clean fuels and technologies for cooking, heating and lighting divided by total population reporting that any cooking, heating or lighting, expressed as a percentage.<ref name=":0">UN Statistics (2016) [https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/files/metadata-compilation/Metadata-Goal-7.pdf Goal 7 Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all] (Updated on 30 March 2016)</ref> "Clean fuel" in this context is defined by the emission rate targets and specific fuel recommendations (i.e. against unprocessed [[coal]] and [[kerosene]]) included in the normative guidance [[World Health Organization|WHO]] guidelines for [[indoor air quality]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>WHO (2014) [https://web.archive.org/web/20180312135439/http://www.who.int/airpollution/publications/household-fuel-combustion/en/ WHO indoor air quality guidelines: household fuel combustion], World Health Organization, Geneva.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Indoor air pollution in developing nations|Indoor air pollution in developing countries]]
*[[Energy poverty]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Book sources===
* {{cite book|last =Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP)|year= 2020|title= The State of Access to Modern Energy Cooking Services|ref={{harvid|ESMAP|2020}}|location=Washington, DC|publisher= World Bank|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/energy/publication/the-state-of-access-to-modern-energy-cooking-services}} Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGO
* {{cite book|last=Tester|first=Jefferson|title=Sustainable Energy : Choosing Among Options|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachutetts|pages=|year=2012|isbn=978-0-262-01747-3|oclc=892554374}}
*{{Cite book|last=World Health Organization|url=https://www.who.int/airpollution/publications/burning-opportunities/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124101534/http://www.who.int/airpollution/publications/burning-opportunities/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 24, 2017|title=Burning opportunity : clean household energy for health, sustainable development, and wellbeing of women and children|year=2016|location=Geneva, Switzerland}}
*{{cite book |ref={{harvid|IPCC SR15 Ch5|2018}} 
|year=2018
|chapter=Chapter 5: Sustainable Development, Poverty Eradication and Reducing Inequalities
|chapter-url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_Chapter5_High_Res.pdf
|display-authors=4
|first1=J. |last1=Roy
|first2=P. |last2=Tschakert
|first3=H. |last3=Waisman
|first4=S. |last4=Abdul Halim
|first5=P. |last5=Antwi-Agyei
|first6=P. |last6=Dasgupta
|first7=B. |last7=Hayward
|first8=M. |last8=Kanninen
|first9=D. |last9=Liverman
|first10=C. |last10=Okereke
|first11=P. F. |last11=Pinho
|first12=K. |last12=Riahi
|first13=A. G. |last13=Suarez Rodriguez
|title=Special Report: Global Warming of 1.5 °C
|pages=445–538
}}

==External links==
* [https://energypedia.info/wiki/Main_Page Energypedia] - collaborative knowledge exchange on renewable energy, energy access, and energy efficiency topics in developing countries

[[Category:Sustainable energy]]
[[Category:International development]]
[[Category:Air pollution]]
[[Category:Cooking]]
[[Category:Environmental health]]
[[Category:Sustainable development]]

Energy poverty and cooking - Revision history

ImportMaster at 13:07, 11 February 2022