Ajay Kumar at 16:16, 29 August 2023

2023-08-29T16:16:26Z

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{{Short description|Species of flowering plant}}
{{Redirect2|Vendayam|Vendhayam|the 2011 film|Vengayam}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Fenugreek
| image = Illustration Trigonella foenum-graecum0 clean.jpg
| taxon = Trigonella foenum-graecum
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]<ref name=GRIN>{{GRIN | access-date=2008-03-13}}</ref>
}}
[[File:Aesthetic bunch of fenugreek greens.jpg|thumb|Fenugreek greens]]

'''Fenugreek''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|ɛ|nj|ʊ|ɡ|r|iː|k}}; ''Trigonella foenum-graecum'') is an annual plant in the family [[Fabaceae]], with leaves consisting of three small [[Glossary_of_leaf_morphology#Leaf_and_leaflet_shapes|obovate to oblong]] leaflets. It is cultivated worldwide as a semiarid crop. Its seeds and leaves are common ingredients in dishes from the [[Indian subcontinent]], and have been used as a culinary ingredient since ancient times.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of Herbs |date=2009 |isbn=9781604691344 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7_KPgxEglHAC&q=fenugreek+Egyptians&pg=PA321 |access-date=10 May 2021 |last1=Debaggio |first1=Thomas |last2=Tucker |first2=Arthur O. |publisher=Timber Press |archive-date=2 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702043535/https://books.google.com/books?id=7_KPgxEglHAC&q=fenugreek+Egyptians&pg=PA321 |url-status=live }}</ref> Its use as a food ingredient in small quantities is safe.<ref name="Tox2016" /><ref name=drugs/>

Although sold as a [[dietary supplement]],<ref name=nccih/> there is no [[evidence-based medicine|clinical evidence]] that fenugreek has therapeutic properties.<ref name="drugs" /><ref name="nccih">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/fenugreek|title=Fenugreek|publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Library of Medicine|date=14 April 2020|access-date=14 April 2020|archive-date=13 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413033803/https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/fenugreek|url-status=live}}</ref> Commonly used in [[traditional medicine]], fenugreek can increase the risk of serious [[adverse effect]]s, including [[allergic reaction]]s.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=nccih/>

==History==
Fenugreek is believed to have been brought into cultivation in the [[Near East]]. It is uncertain which wild strain of the genus ''Trigonella'' gave rise to domesticated fenugreek. Charred fenugreek seeds have been recovered from Tell Halal, [[Iraq]] ([[radiocarbon dating|carbon dated]] to 4000 BC) and [[Bronze Age]] levels of [[Lachish]], and desiccated seeds from the [[KV62|tomb]] of [[Tutankhamen]].<ref>{{cite book |first1=Daniel |last1=Zohary |first2=Maria |last2=Hopf |first3=Ehud |last3=Weiss |title=Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin |edition=4th |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |page=122 }}</ref> [[Cato the Elder]] lists fenugreek with [[clover]] and [[vetch]] as crops grown to feed cattle.<ref>{{cite book |title= De Agri Cultura |page=27 |author= Cato the Elder|title-link=De Agri Cultura |author-link=Cato the Elder }}</ref>

In one first-century A.D. recipe, the Romans flavoured wine with fenugreek.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Curry A |date=February 2010 |title=A 9,000-Year Love Affair |journal=National Geographic |volume=231 |issue=2 |page=46}}</ref> In the 1st century AD, in [[Galilee]], it was grown as a [[staple food]], as [[Josephus]] mentions it in his book, the ''[[The Jewish War|Wars of the Jews]]''.<ref>Josephus, ''De Bello Judaico'', book 3, chapter 7, vs. 29. The prepared relish made from ground fenugreek seeds is very slimy and slippery, and was therefore poured over ladders as a stratagem to prevent the enemy's ascent.</ref> The plant is mentioned in the 2nd-century compendium of Jewish Oral Law ([[Mishnah]]) under its Hebrew name ''tiltan''.<ref>Commentators [[Maimonides]] and [[Ovadiah di Bertinoro]] on Mishnah ''[[Kil'ayim (tractate)|Kil'ayim]]'' 2:5; ''[[Terumot]]'' 10:5; ''[[Orlah (tractate)|Orlah]]'' 3:6; ''ibid''. 10:6; ''[[Ma'aserot]]'' 1:3, ''ibid''. 4:6; ''[[Ma'aser Sheni]]'' 2:2–3; ''[[Niddah (Talmud)|Niddah]]'' 2:6.</ref>

==Etymology==
The English name derives via Middle French ''fenugrec'' from [[Latin]] ''faenugraecum'', ''faenum Graecum'' meaning "Greek hay".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=fenugreek|title=Online Etymology Dictionary|website=www.etymonline.com|language=en|access-date=2017-02-07|archive-date=2016-12-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221005645/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=fenugreek|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Production==
[[Fenugreek production in India|India is a major producer of fenugreek]], and over 80% of India's output is from [[Rajasthan]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Organic Spices|editor=V. A. Parthasarathy, K. Kandinnan and V. Srinivasan|article=Fenugreek|pages=694|publisher=New India Publishing Agencies}}</ref>

==Uses==
[[File:2017 0102 fenugreek seeds.jpg|thumb|right|Fenugreek seeds]]

Fenugreek is used as a [[herb]] (dried or fresh leaves), [[spice]] (seeds), and vegetable (fresh leaves, [[sprouting|sprouts]], and [[microgreens]]). [[Sotolon]] is the chemical responsible for the distinctive [[maple syrup]] smell of fenugreek.<ref name=pubchem/><ref name=drugs/>

[[Cuboid]], yellow- to amber-coloured fenugreek seeds are frequently encountered in the [[cuisines of the Indian subcontinent]], used both whole and powdered in the preparation of [[Indian pickle|pickles]], vegetable dishes, [[dal]], and spice mixes such as ''[[panch phoron]]'' and [[Sambar (dish)|''sambar'']] powder. They are often roasted to reduce inherent bitterness and to enhance flavour.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/fenugreek|title=BBC - Food - Fenugreek recipes|access-date=2017-02-07|archive-date=2017-01-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118063645/http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/fenugreek|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Cooking ===
{{refimprove|section|date=July 2018}}

Fresh fenugreek leaves are an ingredient in some [[curry|curries]], such as with potatoes in [[cuisines of the Indian subcontinent]] to make "aloo methi" ("potato fenugreek") curry.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK501779/ |title=Fenugreek |date=2021-08-16 |publisher=National Library of Medicine (US) |language=en |pmid=30000838 |access-date=2022-06-07 |archive-date=2022-05-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521191832/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK501779/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In [[Armenian cuisine]], fenugreek seed powder is used to make a paste that is an important ingredient to cover dried and cured beef to make [[basturma]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wani |first1=Sajad Ahmad |last2=Kumar |first2=Pradyuman |date=2018-04-01 |title=Fenugreek: A review on its nutraceutical properties and utilization in various food products |journal=Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences |language=en |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=97–106 |doi=10.1016/j.jssas.2016.01.007 |issn=1658-077X|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In [[Iranian cuisine]], fenugreek leaves are called ''shambalileh''. They are one of several greens incorporated into the herb stew ''[[ghormeh sabzi]]'', the herb frittata [[Kuku (food)|kuku sabzi]] and a soup known as ''eshkeneh''.

In [[Georgian cuisine]], a related species—''[[Trigonella caerulea]]'' called "blue fenugreek"—is used.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trigonella caerulea Sweet Trefoil, Blue fenugreek PFAF Plant Database |url=https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Trigonella+caerulea |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=pfaf.org |archive-date=2022-06-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607094652/https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Trigonella+caerulea |url-status=live }}</ref>

In [[Egyptian cuisine]], fenugreek is known by the Arabic name ''hilba'' or ''helba'' حلبة. Seeds are boiled to make a drink that is consumed at home, as well as in coffee shops. [[fellah|Peasants]] in [[Upper Egypt]] add fenugreek seeds and [[maize]] to their pita bread to produce ''[[aish merahrah]]'', a staple of their diet. Basterma, a cured dried beef, has its distinctive flavour from the fenugreek used as a coating.

In the same way in [[Turkish cuisine]] fenugreek seed powder, called 'çemen', is used to make a paste with paprika powder and garlic to cover dried and cured beef in making [[pastirma]]/[[basturma]]. (Its name comes from the Turkish verb 'bastırmak', meaning 'to press').</ref>

In [[Moroccan cuisine]], fenugreek is used in [[Rfissa]], a dish associated with the countryside.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Idrissi|first=Abdelbaar Mounadi|date=2018-12-18|title=Anny Gaul: "The Cuisine of the City of Tetouan"|url=https://legation.org/anny-gaul-the-cuisine-of-the-city-of-tetouan/|access-date=2021-10-28|website=Tangier American Legation Museum|language=en-US|archive-date=2022-05-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519093252/https://legation.org/anny-gaul-the-cuisine-of-the-city-of-tetouan/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Fenugreek is used in [[Cuisine of Eritrea|Eritrean]] and [[Cuisine of Ethiopia|Ethiopian]] cuisine.<ref name="ethnomed">{{Cite web | first=Alevtina | last=Gall | author2=Zerihun Shenkute | title=Ethiopian Traditional and Herbal Medications and their Interactions with Conventional Drugs | url=http://ethnomed.org/clinical/pharmacy/ethiopian-herb-drug-interactions | work=EthnoMed | publisher=[[University of Washington]] | date=November 3, 2009 | access-date=January 27, 2011 | archive-date=March 19, 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190319012225/http://ethnomed.org/clinical/pharmacy/ethiopian-herb-drug-interactions | url-status=live }}</ref> The word for fenugreek in [[Amharic language|Amharic]] is ''abesh'' (or ''abish''), and the seed is used in Ethiopia as a natural herbal medicine in the treatment of [[diabetes]].<ref name="ethnomed" />

[[Yemenite Jews]] following the interpretation of Rabbi [[Shlomo Yitzchaki|Shelomo Yitzchak]] (Rashi) believe fenugreek, which they call ''[[hilbah]]'', ''hilbeh, hilba, helba'', or'' halba'' "חילבה", to be the Talmudic ''rubia''.{{cn|date=June 2022}} When the seed kernels are ground and mixed with water they greatly expand; [[Zhug|hot spices]], turmeric and lemon juice are added to produce a frothy relish eaten with a sop. The relish is also called ''hilbeh''; it is reminiscent of curry.{{cn|date=June 2022}} It is eaten daily and ceremonially during the meal of the first and/or second night of the Jewish New Year, [[Rosh Hashana]].<ref>This is based on the assumption that the Aramaic name רוביא corresponds to it. (Karetot 6a; Horiyot 12a) Rabbenu Nissim at the end of Rosh Hashana, citing the custom of R Hai Gaon. This follows Rashi's translation of רוביא, cited as authoritative by Tur and Shulchan Aruch OC 583:1. But [[Abudirham]] interprets רוביא as black-eyed peas.</ref>

In [[Yemen]], a small amount of Oud Al Hilba (عود الحلبة), which appears to be the same as [[Withania somnifera|Ashwagandha]], is traditionally added to ground Fenugreek seeds before they are mixed with water to prepare the [[Hulbah]] paste. This is believed to aid in digestion and more importantly to prevent or lessen the maple-syrup smell that usually occurs when consuming Fenugreek.

===Nutritional profile===
{{Infobox nutritional value
| name = Fenugreek seed
| kJ = 1352
| water = 8.8 g
| protein = 23 g
| fat = 6.4 g
| carbs = 58 g
| fiber = 25 g
| calcium_mg = 176
| iron_mg = 34
| magnesium_mg = 191
| phosphorus_mg = 296
| potassium_mg = 770
| sodium_mg = 67
| zinc_mg = 2.5
| manganese_mg = 1.23
| vitC_mg = 3
| thiamin_mg = 0.322
| riboflavin_mg = 0.366
| niacin_mg = 1.64
| vitB6_mg = 0.6
| folate_ug = 57
| source_usda = 1
| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/171324/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}

In a 100 gram reference amount, fenugreek seeds provide {{convert|323|kcal|kJ|order=flip}} of [[food energy]] and contain 9% water, 58% [[carbohydrate]]s, 23% [[protein]], and 6% [[fat]], with [[calcium]] at 40% of the [[Daily Value]] (DV, table). Fenugreek seeds (per 100 grams) are a rich source of protein (46% DV), [[dietary fiber]], [[B vitamins]], and [[Mineral (nutrient)|dietary minerals]], particularly [[manganese]] (59% DV) and [[iron]] (262% DV) (table).

===Dietary supplement===
Fenugreek [[dietary supplement]]s are manufactured from powdered seeds into [[capsule (pharmacy)|capsules]], loose powders, teas, and liquid [[extract]]s in many countries.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=nccih/> Powders may also be used as a [[topical medication]] or dressing for skin wounds or [[eczema]].<ref name=drugs/> There is no high-quality evidence that these products have any clinical effectiveness.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=nccih/>

===Animal feed===
Fenugreek is sometimes used as animal feed. It provides a green fodder palatable to ruminants. The seeds are also used to feed fish and domestic rabbits.<ref>Heuzé V., Thiollet H., Tran G., Lebas F., 2018. Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum). Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/242 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328231329/https://www.feedipedia.org/node/242 |date=2018-03-28 }}</ref>

===Food additive===
Fenugreek seeds and leaves contain the molecule [[sotolone]], which imparts the [[odor|aroma]] of fenugreek and curry in high concentrations, and [[maple syrup]] or [[caramel]] in lower concentrations.<ref name="drugs">{{cite web |title=Fenugreek |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/fenugreek.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=25 September 2021 |date=20 December 2020 |archive-date=12 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812145952/https://www.drugs.com/npp/fenugreek.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="pubchem">{{cite web|title=3-Hydroxy-4,5-dimethylfuran-2(5H)-one; CID=62835|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Sotolone|publisher=PubChem, US National Library of Medicine|date=3 March 2019|access-date=17 March 2019|archive-date=15 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615210917/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Sotolone|url-status=live}}</ref> Fenugreek is used as a flavoring agent in imitation maple syrup or tea, and as a [[dietary supplement]].<ref name=nccih/>

==Research==
Constituents of fenugreek seeds include [[flavonoid]]s, [[alkaloid]]s, [[coumarin]]s, [[vitamin]]s, and [[saponin]]s; the most prevalent alkaloid is [[trigonelline]] and coumarins include [[cinnamic acid]] and [[scopoletin]].<ref name=Tox2016>{{cite journal|last1=Ouzir|first1=M|last2=El Bairi|first2=K|last3=Amzazi|first3=S|title=Toxicological properties of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum)|journal=Food and Chemical Toxicology|year= 2016|volume=96|pages=145–54|pmid=27498339|doi=10.1016/j.fct.2016.08.003}}</ref> Research into whether fenugreek reduces [[biomarkers]] in people with [[diabetes]] and with pre-diabetic conditions is of limited quality.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gong|first1=J|last2=Fang|first2=K|last3=Dong|first3=H|last4=Wang|first4=D|last5=Hu|first5=M|last6=Lu|first6=F|title=Effect of Fenugreek on Hyperglycaemia and Hyperlipidemia in Diabetes and Prediabetes: a Meta-analysis|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=194|pages=260–268|date=2 August 2016|pmid=27496582|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2016.08.003}}</ref>

As of 2020, there was no high-quality evidence for whether fenugreek is safe and effective to relieve [[dysmenorrhea]]<ref name=drugs/><ref name="patt">{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002124.pub2|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|title=Dietary supplements for dysmenorrhoea|year=2016|volume=2016|page=CD002124|pmid=27000311|last1=Pattanittum|first1=Porjai|last2=Kunyanone|first2=Naowarat|last3=Brown|first3=Julie|last4=Sangkomkamhang|first4=Ussanee S|last5=Barnes|first5=Joanne|last6=Seyfoddin|first6=Vahid|last7=Marjoribanks|first7=Jane|issue=3|pmc=7387104}}</ref> or improve [[lactation]] during [[breastfeeding]].<ref name="foong">{{cite journal | last1=Foong | first1=Siew Cheng | last2=Tan | first2=May Loong | last3=Foong | first3=Wai Cheng | last4=Marasco | first4=Lisa A | last5=Ho | first5=Jacqueline J | last6=Ong | first6=Joo Howe | title=Oral galactagogues (natural therapies or drugs) for increasing breast milk production in mothers of non-hospitalised term infants | journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume=2020 | issue=5 | date=2020-05-18 | pages=CD011505 | issn=1465-1858 | pmid=32421208 | pmc=7388198 | doi=10.1002/14651858.cd011505.pub2}}</ref> Studies of fenugreek are characterized as having variable, poor [[experimental design]] and quality, including small numbers of subjects, failure to describe methods, inconsistency and duration of dosing, and non-recording of [[adverse effect]]s.<ref name=patt/><ref name=foong/>

Because research on potential biological effects of consuming fenugreek has provided no [[evidence-based medicine|high-quality evidence for health or anti-disease effect]], fenugreek is not approved or recommended for clinical use by the United States [[Food and Drug Administration]].<ref name=drugs/><ref name=nccih/>

==Traditional medicine==
Although once a [[traditional medicine|folk remedy]] for an insufficient milk supply when nursing, there is no good evidence that fenugreek is effective or safe for this use.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=nccih/><ref name=foong/> There is no good evidence it is useful in traditional practices for treating dysmennorhea, [[inflammation]], [[diabetes]], or any human disorder.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=nccih/><ref name=patt/>

==Adverse effects and allergies==
Use of fenugreek has potential for serious adverse effects, as it may be unsafe for women with hormone-sensitive cancers.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=nccih/> Fenugreek is not safe for use during pregnancy, as it has possible [[abortifacient]] effects and may induce [[Preterm birth|preterm]] [[uterine contraction]]s.<ref name="Tox2016" /><ref name=drugs/>

Some people are [[Allergy|allergic]] to fenugreek, including those with [[peanut allergy]] or [[chickpea]] allergy.<ref name=Tox2016/><ref name=drugs/> Fenugreek seeds can cause [[diarrhea]], [[dyspepsia]], [[abdominal distention]], [[flatulence]], perspiration, and a maple-like smell to sweat, urine or breast milk.<ref name=Tox2016/><ref name=drugs/><ref name=nccih/> There is a risk of [[hypoglycemia]] particularly in people with diabetes, and it may interfere with the activity of [[anti-diabetic drug]]s.<ref name=Tox2016/><ref name=drugs/> Because of the high content of [[coumarin]]-like compounds in fenugreek, it may interfere with the activity and dosing of [[anticoagulants]] and [[antiplatelet drugs]].<ref name=Tox2016/><ref name=drugs/>

Fenugreek sprouts, cultivated from a single specific batch of seeds imported from Egypt into Germany in 2009, were implicated as the source of the [[2011 Germany E. coli O104:H4 outbreak|2011 outbreak]] of [[Escherichia coli O104:H4|''Escherichia coli'' O104:H4]] in Germany and France.<ref>{{cite magazine| url=https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2011/07/e-coli-3-years/ | magazine=Wired | first=Maryn | last=McKenna | title=E. coli: A Risk for 3 More Years From Who Knows Where | date=2011-07-07}}</ref> Identification of a common producer and a single batch of fenugreek seeds was evidence for the origin of the outbreaks.<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=3|last1=King|first1=L. A.|last2=Nogareda|first2=F.|last3=Weill|first3=F.-X.|last4=Mariani-Kurkdjian|first4=P.|last5=Loukiadis|first5=E.|last6=Gault|first6=G.|last7=Jourdan-DaSilva|first7=N.|last8=Bingen|first8=E.|last9=Mace|first9=M.|last10=Thevenot|first10=D.|last11=Ong|first11=N.|last12=Castor|first12=C.|last13=Noel|first13=H.|last14=Van Cauteren|first14=D.|last15=Charron|first15=M.|last16=Vaillant|first16=V.|last17=Aldabe|first17=B.|last18=Goulet|first18=V.|last19=Delmas|first19=G.|last20=Couturier|first20=E.|last21=Le Strat|first21=Y.|last22=Combe|first22=C.|last23=Delmas|first23=Y.|last24=Terrier|first24=F.|last25=Vendrely|first25=B.|last26=Rolland|first26=P.|last27=de Valk|first27=H.|title=Outbreak of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli O104:H4 Associated With Organic Fenugreek Sprouts, France, June 2011|journal=[[Clinical Infectious Diseases]]|volume=54|issue=11|year=2012|pages=1588–1594|issn=1058-4838|doi=10.1093/cid/cis255|pmid=22460976|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Wiktionary inline}}

{{Herbs & spices}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q133205}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Edible legumes]]
[[Category:Forages]]
[[Category:Indian spices]]
[[Category:Iraqi cuisine]]
[[Category:Jewish cuisine]]
[[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
[[Category:Nitrogen-fixing crops]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Plants used in traditional Chinese medicine]]
[[Category:Spices]]
[[Category:Traditional medicine in India]]
[[Category:Trifolieae]]
[[Category:Yemeni cuisine]]

Fenugreek - Revision history

Ajay Kumar at 16:16, 29 August 2023