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2023-08-29T21:10:58Z

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{{short description|Agroforestry food production system modeled on woodland ecosystems}}
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[[Image:Forestgarden2.jpg|thumb|[[Robert Hart (horticulturist)|Robert Hart]]'s forest garden in [[Shropshire]]]]

'''Forest gardening''' is a low-maintenance, [[Sustainable gardening|sustainable]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Sustaining Forest Ecosystems |author=Klaus von Gadow |author2=Juan Gabriel Álvarez González |author3=Chunyu Zhang |author4=Timo Pukkala |author5=Xiuhai Zhao |page=13 |publisher=Springer Nature |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-030-58714-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eyc9EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13&dq=%22sustainable+forest+management+system%22+%22forest+gardening%22&hl=en}}</ref> plant-based food production and [[agroforestry]] system based on [[woodland]] [[ecosystem]]s, incorporating [[fruit]] and [[Nut (fruit)|nut]] [[tree]]s, [[shrubs]], [[herb]]s, [[vine]]s and [[perennial vegetable]]s which have [[ecological yield|yields]] directly useful to humans. Making use of [[companion planting]], these can be [[Intercropping|intermixed]] to grow in a succession of layers to build a woodland habitat.
Forest [[gardening]] is a [[prehistory|prehistoric]] method of securing food in [[tropical climate|tropical areas]]. In the 1980s, [[Robert Hart (horticulturist)|Robert Hart]] coined the term "forest gardening" after adapting the principles and applying them to [[Temperateness|temperate climates]].<ref name="Crawford 2010 18">{{Cite book |last=Crawford |first=Martin |title=Creating a Forest Garden: Working with Nature to Grow Edible Crops |publisher=Green Books |year=2010 |page=18 |isbn=1900322625 |ol=24327991M}}</ref>

==History==
Since [[Prehistory|prehistoric]] times [[hunter-gatherer]]s might have influenced forests, for instance in Europe by [[Mesolithic]] people bringing favored plants like hazel with them.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paschall |first=Max |date=2020-07-22 |title=The Lost Forest Gardens of Europe |url=https://www.shelterwoodforestfarm.com/blog/the-lost-forest-gardens-of-europe |access-date=2021-01-05 |website=Shelterwood Forest Farm |language=en-US}}</ref> Forest [[garden]]s are probably the world's oldest form of [[land use]] and most resilient [[agroecosystem]].<ref name="Hart-1996a">{{Cite book |last=Hart |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N01940btQAQC |title=Forest Gardening: Cultivating an Edible Landscape |publisher=Chelsea Green |year=1996 |isbn=9781603580502 |edition=2nd |location=White River Junction, VT}}</ref>{{RP|124}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=McConnell |first=Douglas John |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/976441721 |title=The forest farms of Kandy : and other gardens of complete design |date=2 March 2017 |isbn=978-1-351-88963-6 |oclc=976441721 |quote=Forest gardens are probably the world's oldest form of land use and most resilient agroecosystem. They originated in prehistoric times along jungle-clad river banks and in the wet foothills of monsoon regions. ... Robert Hart adapted forest gardening for the United Kingdom's temperate climate during the 1980s.}}</ref> They originated in prehistoric times along [[jungle]]-clad river banks and in the wet foothills of [[monsoon]] regions. In the gradual process of families improving their immediate environment, useful [[tree]] and [[vine]] species were identified, protected and improved whilst undesirable species were eliminated. Eventually superior foreign species were selected and incorporated into the gardens.{{Copyright violation|date=July 2023|sure=yes}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=McConnell |first=Douglas John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G3QPo7lThXsC&q=The%20forest-garden%20farms%20of%20Kandy%2C%20Sri%20Lanka.&pg=PA1 |title=The Forest-Garden Farms of Kandy, Sri Lanka |year=1992 |isbn=9789251028988 |page=1 |publisher=[[Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations]] |ol=868853M}}</ref> First Nation villages in [[Alaska]] with forest gardens, that were filled with nuts, stone fruit, berries, and herbs, were noted by an archeologist from [[Smithsonian Institution|the Smithsonian]] in the 1930s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Coan |first=K.E.D. |date=2021-05-18 |title=Indigenous forest gardens remain productive and diverse for over a century |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/05/indigenous-forest-gardens-remain-productive-and-diverse-for-over-a-century/ |access-date=2021-05-19 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us}}</ref>

Forest gardens are still common in the [[tropics]] and known by various names such as: {{failed verification span|date=July 2023|text=''home gardens'' in [[Kerala]] in [[south India]], [[Nepal]], [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]] and [[Tanzania]];}} ''Kandyan forest gardens'' in [[Sri Lanka]];<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jacob |first1=V. J. |last2=Alles |first2=W. S. |year=1987 |title=Kandyan gardens of Sri Lanka |journal=Agroforestry Systems |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=123 |doi=10.1007/BF00047517 |s2cid=40793796}}</ref> {{Lang|es|huertos familiares}}, the "family orchards" of [[Mexico]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 2, 2004 |title=Inspector Gadget's green fingers and politics |first=Richard |last=Boyle |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/books/inspector-gadgets-green-fingers-and-politics/182058.article |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119041135/http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=182058&sectioncode=34 |archive-date=January 19, 2012 |website=Times Higher Education}}</ref> These are also called agroforests and, where the wood components are short-statured, the term ''[[shrub]] garden'' is employed. Forest gardens have been shown to be a significant source of income and food security for local populations.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McConnell |first=Douglas John |title=The economic structure of Kandyan forest-garden farms |year=1973}}</ref>

Robert Hart adapted forest gardening for the [[United Kingdom]]'s temperate climate during the 1980s.<ref name="Crawford 2010 18" /> His theories were later developed by [[Martin Crawford]] from the [[Agroforestry Research Trust]] and various permaculturalists such as [[Graham Bell (horticulturist)|Graham Bell]], [[Patrick Whitefield]], [[Dave Jacke]] and [[Geoff Lawton]].{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

==In temperate climates==
[[Image: Robert Hart (horticulturist).jpg|thumb|right|Robert Hart, forest gardening pioneer]]

Hart began farming at [[Wenlock Edge]] in [[Shropshire]] with the intention of providing a healthy and therapeutic environment for himself and his brother Lacon.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Burnett |first=Graham |title=Seven Storeys of Abundance; A visit to Robert Hart's Forest Garden |url=http://www.spiralseed.co.uk/forestgarden/page2.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117034606/http://www.spiralseed.co.uk/forestgarden/page2.html |archive-date=2011-11-17}}</ref> Starting as relatively conventional [[Smallholding|smallholders]], Hart soon discovered that maintaining large annual vegetable beds, rearing livestock and taking care of an [[orchard]] were tasks beyond their strength. However, a small bed of perennial vegetables and herbs he planted was looking after itself with little intervention.{{Copyright violation|date=July 2023|sure=yes}}

Following Hart's adoption of a [[raw veganism|raw vegan diet]] for health and personal reasons, he replaced his farm animals with plants. The three main products from a forest garden are fruit, nuts and [[Leaf vegetable|green leafy vegetables]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitefield |first=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3rd3e69BnC8C |title=How to Make a Forest Garden |year=2002 |isbn=9781856230087 |page=5}}</ref> He created a model forest garden from a 0.12 acre (500 m<sup>2</sup>) orchard on his farm and intended naming his gardening method ''ecological horticulture'' or ''ecocultivation''.<ref name="Hart-1996a" />{{RP|45}} Hart later dropped these terms once he became aware that ''agroforestry'' and ''forest gardens'' were already being used to describe similar systems in other parts of the world.<ref name="Hart-1996a" />{{RP|28, 43}} He was inspired by the [[forest farming]] methods of [[Toyohiko Kagawa]] and James Sholto Douglas, and the productivity of the Keralan home gardens; as Hart explained, "From the agroforestry point of view, perhaps the world's most advanced country is the Indian state of Kerala, which boasts no fewer than three and a half million forest gardens ... As an example of the extraordinary intensity of cultivation of some forest gardens, one plot of only {{convert|0.12|ha|acre|abbr=off}} was found by a study group to have twenty-three young coconut palms, twelve cloves, fifty-six bananas, and forty-nine pineapples, with thirty pepper vines trained up its trees. In addition, the smallholder grew fodder for his [[house-cow]]."<ref name="Hart-1996a" />{{RP|4-5}}

===Seven-layer system===
[[Image:Forgard2-003.gif|thumb|upright=1.5|The seven layers of the forest garden]]

[[Robert Hart (horticulturist)|Robert Hart]] pioneered a system based on the observation that the natural forest can be divided into distinct levels.

He used [[intercropping]] to develop an existing small orchard of apples and pears into an edible [[polyculture]] landscape consisting of the following layers:

#‘'''[[Canopy layer]]’''' consisting of the original mature fruit trees.
#'''‘[[Low-tree layer]]’''' of smaller nut and fruit trees on dwarfing rootstocks.
#'''‘[[Shrub layer]]’''' of fruit bushes such as currants and berries.
#‘'''[[Herbaceous layer]]’''' of perennial vegetables and herbs.
#‘'''[[Rhizosphere]]’''' or ‘underground’ dimension of plants grown for their roots and tubers.
#'''‘[[Ground cover layer]]’''' of edible plants that spread horizontally.
#'''‘Vertical layer’''' of vines and climbers.

A key component of the seven-layer system was the plants he selected. Most of the traditional vegetable crops grown today, such as [[carrot]]s, are sun-loving plants not well selected for the more shady forest garden system. Hart favored shade-tolerant perennial vegetables.

===Further development===
The [[Agroforestry Research Trust]], managed by [[Martin Crawford]], runs experimental forest gardening projects on a number of plots in [[Devon]], United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Agroforestry Research Trust |url=http://www.agroforestry.co.uk/trustinf.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108011007/http://www.agroforestry.co.uk/trustinf.html |archive-date=2011-11-08}}</ref> Crawford describes a forest garden as a low-maintenance way of [[Sustainable agriculture|sustainably producing food]] and other household products.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Forest gardening |url=http://www.agroforestry.co.uk/forgndg.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130211233059/http://www.agroforestry.co.uk/forgndg.html |archive-date=2013-02-11 |access-date=13 Feb 2013 |publisher=Agroforestry Research Trust}}</ref>

Ken Fern had the idea that for a successful temperate forest garden a wider range of edible shade tolerant plants would need to be used. To this end, Fern created the organisation [[Plants for a Future]] which compiled a plant database suitable for such a system. Fern used the term ''woodland gardening'', rather than forest gardening, in his book ''Plants for a Future''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Woodland Gardening |url=http://www.pfaf.org/user/PlantUses.aspx?id=19 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111128033102/http://pfaf.org/user/PlantUses.aspx?id=19 |archive-date=2011-11-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Plants for a Future - The book |url=http://www.pfaf.org/user/cmspage.aspx?pageid=32 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111128105319/http://pfaf.org/user/cmspage.aspx?pageid=32 |archive-date=2011-11-28}}</ref>

Kathleen Jannaway, the cofounder of Movement for Compassionate Living (MCL) with her husband Jack,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vegan Views 96 - Kathleen Jannaway 1915-2003: A Life Well Lived |url=http://www.veganviews.org.uk/vv96/vv96jannaway.html |access-date=2021-10-28 |website=www.veganviews.org.uk}}</ref> wrote a book outlining a sustainable vegan future called ''Abundant Living in the Coming Age of the Tree'' in 1991. The MCL promotes forest gardening and other types of [[vegan organic gardening]]. In 2009 it provided a grant of £1,000 to the Bangor Forest Garden project in [[Gwynedd]], North West Wales.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2009 |title=Bangor Forest Garden |url=http://www.mclveganway.org.uk/Publications/New_Leaves/NL93.pdf |url-status=dead |publisher=The Movement for Compassionate Living - New Leaves (issue no.93) |pages=6–8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718030359/http://www.mclveganway.org.uk/Publications/New_Leaves/NL93.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-18}}</ref>

Kevin Bradley in the US called his property and nursery "Edible Forest" in 1985, which combined trees and field crops. Today, his business and the 2005 book ''Edible Forest Gardens'' have spawned little "edible forests" all over the world.

===Permaculture===
[[Bill Mollison]], who coined the term ''[[permaculture]]'', visited Robert Hart at his forest garden in Wenlock Edge in October 1990.<ref name="Hart-1996a" />{{RP|149}} Hart's seven-layer system has since been adopted as a common permaculture design element.

Numerous [[:Category:Permaculturalists|permaculturalists]] are proponents of forest gardens, or food forests, such as Graham Bell, [[Patrick Whitefield]], Dave Jacke, [[Eric Toensmeier]] and [[Geoff Lawton]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-01-28|title=About|url=https://paradiselot.com/about/|access-date=2021-11-04|website=Paradise Lot|language=en}}</ref> Bell started building his forest garden in 1991 and wrote the book ''The Permaculture Garden'' in 1995, Whitefield wrote the book ''How to Make a Forest Garden'' in 2002, Jacke and Toensmeier co-authored the two volume book set ''Edible Forest Gardens'' in 2005, and Lawton presented the film ''Establishing a Food Forest'' in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Graham Bell's Forest Garden |url=http://permaculture.mediamice.net/?page_id=26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308060346/http://permaculture.mediamice.net/?page_id=26 |archive-date=2012-03-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Edible Forest Gardening |url=http://www.edibleforestgardens.com/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111101061331/http://www.edibleforestgardens.com/ |archive-date=2011-11-01 |access-date=2011-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=''Establishing a Food Forest'' review |url=http://transitionculture.org/2009/02/11/film-review-%E2%80%9Cestablishing-a-food-forest-the-permaculture-way-series/ |url-status=live |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522171206/http://transitionculture.org/2009/02/11/film-review-%E2%80%9Cestablishing-a-food-forest-the-permaculture-way-series/ |archive-date=2016-05-22}}</ref>

==In tropical climates==
Forest gardens, or home gardens, are common in the tropics, using [[intercropping]] to cultivate [[tree]]s, [[agriculture|crops]], and [[livestock]] on the same land. In [[Kerala]] in [[south India]] as well as in [[northeastern India]], the home garden is the most common form of land use and is also found in [[Indonesia]]. One example combines [[coconut]], [[black pepper]], [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]] and [[pineapple]]. These gardens exemplify [[polyculture]], and conserve much crop [[genetic diversity]] and [[heirloom plant]]s that are not found in [[monocultures]]. Forest gardens have been loosely compared to the religious concept of the [[Garden of Eden]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bell|first=Graham|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/60454349|title=The permaculture garden|date=2004|publisher=Permanent Publications|others=Sarah Bunker|isbn=1-85623-027-9|location=East Meon, Hampshire, U.K.|oclc=60454349}}</ref>

===Americas===
The BBC's ''[[Unnatural Histories]]'' claimed that the [[Amazon rainforest]], rather than being a pristine [[wilderness]], has been shaped by humans for at least 11,000 years through practices such as forest gardening and ''[[terra preta]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Unnatural Histories - Amazon |work=BBC Four |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0122njp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151229160346/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0122njp |archive-date=2015-12-29}}</ref> Since the 1970s, numerous [[geoglyph]]s have been discovered on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest, furthering the evidence of [[Pre-Columbian era|pre-Columbian]] civilizations.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Romero |first=Simon |date=January 14, 2012 |title=Once Hidden by Forest, Carvings in Land Attest to Amazon's Lost World |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/15/world/americas/land-carvings-attest-to-amazons-lost-world.html?_r=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220021324/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/15/world/americas/land-carvings-attest-to-amazons-lost-world.html?_r=1 |archive-date=December 20, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pärssinen |first1=Martti |last2=Schaan |last3=Ranzi |first3=Alceu |year=2009 |title=Pre-Columbian geometric earthworks in the upper Purús: a complex society in western Amazonia |journal=Antiquity |volume=83 |issue=322 |pages=1084–1095 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00099373 |first2=Denise |s2cid=55741813}}</ref>

On the [[Yucatán Peninsula]], much of the [[Maya civilization|Maya]] food supply was grown in "orchard gardens", known as ''pet kot''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Michael Ernest |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FHRiisPV0FkC&pg=PA127 |title=The Ancient Civilizations of Mesoamerica |last2=Masson |year=2000 |isbn=9780631211167 |page=127 |first2=Marilyn A.}}</ref> The system takes its name from the low wall of stones (''pet'' meaning 'circular' and ''kot'', 'wall of loose stones') that characteristically surrounds the gardens.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JsuiJEwOIJUC&pg=PA212 |title=Imperfect Balance: Landscape Transformations in the Precolumbian Americas |year=2000 |isbn=9780231111577 |editor-last=Lentz |editor-first=David L. |page=212}}</ref>

===Africa===
In many [[Africa]]n countries, for example [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Ethiopia]] and [[Tanzania]], gardens are widespread in rural, [[periurban]], and urban areas and they play an essential role in establishing [[food security]]. Most well known are the [[Chaga]] or Chagga gardens on the slopes of [[Mount Kilimanjaro]] in Tanzania. These are an example of an [[agroforestry]] system. In many countries, women are the main actors in home gardening and food is mainly produced for [[subsistence economy|subsistence]]. In North Africa, oasis-layered gardening with palm trees, fruit trees, and vegetables is a traditional type of forest garden.

==Plants==
Some plants, such as wild yam, work as both a root plant and a vine. Ground covers are low-growing edible '''forest garden plants'' that help keep weeds in control and provide a way to utilize areas that would otherwise be unused.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How to Grow Plants from Seeds Step by Step - Webgardener - Gardening and Landscaping Made Simple |date=2 August 2021|url=https://www.webgardner.com/gardening/grow-plants-from-seeds-step-by-step/}}</ref>

=== Plants ===
* Cardamom
* Ginger
* Chervil
* Bergamot
* Sweet woodruff
* Sweet cicely

==Projects==
[[El Pilar]] on the [[Belize]]–[[Guatemala]] border features a forest garden to demonstrate [[Agriculture in Mesoamerica|traditional Maya agricultural]] practices.<ref name="Ford">{{Cite journal |last=Ford |first=Anabel |date=May 2, 2009 |title=El Pilar Archaeological Reserve for Maya Flora and Fauna |url=http://www.guatemala-times.com/archeology/others/1081-el-pilar-archaeological-reserve-for-maya-flora-and-fauna-.html |url-status=live |journal=The Guatemala Times |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505115733/http://www.guatemala-times.com/archeology/others/1081-el-pilar-archaeological-reserve-for-maya-flora-and-fauna-.html |archive-date=May 5, 2009 |access-date=2009-07-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ford |first=Anabel |date=December 15, 2010 |title=Legacy of the Ancient Maya: The Maya Forest Garden |url=http://popular-archaeology.com/issue/january-2011/article/the-legacy-of-el-pilar-the-maya-forest-garden |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115154220/http://popular-archaeology.com/issue/january-2011/article/the-legacy-of-el-pilar-the-maya-forest-garden |archive-date=January 15, 2012 |publisher=Popular Archaeology}}</ref> A further one acre model forest garden, called Känan K’aax (meaning 'well-tended garden' in Mayan), is funded by the [[National Geographic Society]] and developed at Santa Familia Primary School in [[Cayo District|Cayo]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=National Geographic Society Funds Mayan Garden |url=http://www.ambergristoday.com/content/stories/2011/may/27/national-geographic-society-funds-mayan-garden |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111223101847/http://www.ambergristoday.com/content/stories/2011/may/27/national-geographic-society-funds-mayan-garden |archive-date=2011-12-23}}</ref>

In the United States, the largest known food forest on public land is believed to be the seven acre [[Beacon Food Forest]] in Seattle, Washington.<ref name="Crosscut">{{Cite news |last=Mellinger |first= Robert |date=16 February 2012 |title=Nation's Largest Food Forest takes root on Beacon Hill |work=Crosscut |url=http://crosscut.com/2012/02/16/agriculture/21892/Nation-s-largest-public-Food-Forest-takes-root-on-Beacon-Hill |url-status=dead |access-date=14 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330165843/http://crosscut.com/2012/02/16/agriculture/21892/Nation-s-largest-public-Food-Forest-takes-root-on-Beacon-Hill/ |archive-date=30 March 2012}}</ref> Other forest garden projects include those at the central Rocky Mountain Permaculture Institute in [[Basalt, Colorado]], and Montview Neighborhood farm in [[Northampton, Massachusetts]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Central Rocky Mountain Permaculture Institute |url=http://www.crmpi.org/CRMPI/Home.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524141839/http://www.crmpi.org/CRMPI/Home.html |archive-date=2013-05-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Montview Neighborhood farm |url=http://www.montviewfarm.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024110544/http://www.montviewfarm.org/ |archive-date=2008-10-24}}</ref> The Boston Food Forest Coalition promotes local forest gardens.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bukowski |first1=Catherine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=44ViDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |title=The Community Food Forest Handbook: How to Plan, Organize, & Nurture Edible Gathering Places |last2=Munsell |first2=John |year=2018 |isbn=9781603586443 |pages=83–86 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024110544/http://www.montviewfarm.org/ |archive-date=2008-10-24 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=An Urban Food Forest: The Gift of Harvest|first = Cara |last = Brostrom |url=http://tellnewengland.com/foodforest |website=tell New England}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=He's on a mission to turn Boston into a collection of food forests |url=https://www.dotnews.com/2018/he-s-mission-turn-boston-collection-food-forests |website=Dorchester Reporter}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=May 10, 2018 |title=Community engagement sprouts fresh ideas and nonprofit leadership |url= https://www.gmafoundations.com/nonprofit-leadership-development/ |website=GMA Foundations}}</ref>

In Canada Richard Walker has been developing and maintaining food forests in [[British Columbia]] for over 30 years. He developed a three-acre food forest that at maturity provided raw materials for a plant nursery and herbal business as well as food for his family.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Richard Walker |url=http://www.permaculturebc.com/Permaculture-Instructor-British-Columbia-Richard-Walker |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910135747/http://www.permaculturebc.com/Permaculture-Instructor-British-Columbia-Richard-Walker |archive-date=2011-09-10}}</ref> The Living Centre has developed various forest garden projects in [[Ontario]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Forest Gardening |url=http://www.thelivingcentre.com/cms/forest-gardening-home-page |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526003055/http://www.thelivingcentre.com/cms/forest-gardening-home-page |archive-date=2013-05-26}}</ref>

In the United Kingdom, other than those run by the Agroforestry Research Trust (ART), there are numerous forest garden projects such as the Bangor Forest Garden in [[Gwynedd]], northwest Wales.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bangor Forest Garden |url=https://sites.google.com/site/bangorforestgarden/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801112013/https://sites.google.com/site/bangorforestgarden/ |archive-date=2013-08-01}}</ref> Martin Crawford from ART administers the Forest Garden Network, an informal network of people and organisations who are cultivating forest gardens.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Agroforestry and Forest Garden Network |url=http://www.agroforestry.co.uk/fgnetwork.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120818011124/http://www.agroforestry.co.uk/fgnetwork.html |archive-date=2012-08-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Crawford |first=Martin |year=2014 |title=List of visitable forest garden and agroforestry projects in the UK, Europe and North America |url=https://docs.google.com/file/d/0BxX6k4pU4Gt1MHpEeHh2NzNJYXc/edit |publisher=Agroforestry Research Trust}}</ref>

Since 2014, Gisela Mir and Mark Biffen have been developing a small-scale edible forest garden ({{Lang|ca|Verger}} in Catalan) in [[Cardedeu]], a village near [[Barcelona]], Catalunya. During their previous years of [[permaculture]] training they were introduced to various edible forest garden projects in [[Wales]] and other parts of the UK. It is intended as a space for experimentation and demonstration: "...we want to learn and test what it means to have an orchard in an area with a [[Mediterranean climate]]: which species grow well here; how to manage limiting aspects, such as water; and, above all, what design implications there are due to the characteristics of our climate and our latitude.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-01-22 |title=El verger de Phoenicurus, un bosc comestible mediterrani |url=https://phoenicurus-permacultura.org/2016/01/22/el-verger-de-phoenicurus-un-bosc-comestible-mediterrani/ |access-date=2021-04-22 |website=phoenicurus |language=ca}}</ref>" In April 2021, they published in Spanish the book ''Food forests and edible gardens'' ({{Lang|es|Bosques y jardines de alimentos}}), where they draw on their first experimental progresses and experiences, delving into the particularities of the [[Mediterranean climate]] through a book adapted to that climate and to those species. It is one of the first works on this subject not written in English.

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Agroecology]]
* [[Analog forestry]]
* [[Climate-friendly gardening]]
* [[Deep ecology]]
* [[Forest farming]]
* [[Gardening]]
* [[Hügelkultur]]
* [[List of companion plants]]
* [[Multiple cropping]]
* [[Mycoforestry]]
* [[Natural farming]]
* [[Nutrient cycle]]
* [[Orchard]]
* [[Pekarangan]]
* [[Polyculture]]
* [[Vegan organic gardening]]
{{div col end}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{Reflist|2}}

===Sources===
*d'Arms, Deborha 2011. ''Jardin d’Or (Garden of Gold): A Treatise on Forest Gardening, Recreating Sustainable Gardens of Eden''. Los Gatos, CA: Robertson Publishing. {{ISBN|978-1611700299}}.
*Douglas, J. Sholto and Hart, Robert A. de J. 1985. ''Forest Farming''. Intermediate Technology. {{ISBN|0-946688-30-3}}.
*Fern, Ken 1997. ''Plants for a Future: Edible and Useful Plants for a Healthier World''. Hampshire: Permanent Publications. {{ISBN|1-85623-011-2}}.
* {{cite book |last=Hart |first= Robert A. de J.|author-link=Robert Hart (horticulturist) |year=1996 |title=Beyond the Forest Garden |publisher=Gaia Books |isbn=185675037X}}
*Jacke, Dave, and Toensmeier, Eric 2005. ''Edible Forest Gardens''. Two volume set. Volume One: ''Ecological Vision and Theory for Temperate Climate Permaculture'', {{ISBN|1-931498-79-2}}. Volume Two: ''Ecological Design and Practice for Temperate Climate Permaculture'', {{ISBN|1-931498-80-6}}. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green.
*Jannaway, Kathleen 1991. ''[https://archive.org/details/AbundantLiving Abundant Living in the Coming Age of the Tree]''. Movement for Compassionate Living. {{ISBN|0-9517328-0-3}}.
*Smith, Joseph Russell 1988 (first published in 1929). ''Tree Crops: A Permanent Agriculture''. Island Press. {{ISBN|0-933280-44-0}}
*Mir, Gisela Biffen, Mark 2021. ''Bosques y jardines de alimentos. La Fertilidad de la Tierra Ediciones.'' (in Spanish) ISBN 978-84-121830-1-6

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[https://www.permaculturenews.org/2011/10/21/why-food-forests/ Why Food Forests?], Permaculture Research Institute
*[https://www.motherearthnews.com/organic-gardening/plant-an-edible-forest-garden-zmaz07aszgoe/ Plant an Edible Forest Garden], ''[[Mother Earth News]]''
*[https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/dec/06/ethicalliving.conservation The garden of the future?], ''[[The Guardian]]''
*[https://www.permaculture.org.uk/our-work/forest-gardens Forest gardens], [[Permaculture Association]]
*[http://www.mayaforestgardeners.org/ El Pilar Forest Garden Network], information on traditional Maya forest gardening

{{Permaculture}}
{{Horticulture and gardening}}
{{Forestry}}
{{Non-timber forest products}}
{{Simple living}}
{{Sustainability}}
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[[Category:Agroforestry]]

[[de:Permakultur#Waldgarten]]

Forest gardening - Revision history

Ajay Kumar at 21:10, 29 August 2023