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{{short description|Small antelope from Asia (Tetracerus quadricornis)}}
{{Good article}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Four-horned antelope
| image = Tetracerus quadricornis I.jpg
| image_caption = [[Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[India]]
| status = VU
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |title=''Tetracerus quadricornis'' |author=IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group |date=2017 |page=e.T21661A50195368 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS.T21661A50195368.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| display_parents = 3
| parent_authority = [[William Elford Leach|Leach]], 1825
| taxon = Tetracerus quadricornis
| authority = ([[Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville|Blainville]], 1816)
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision = ''T. q. iodes'' (Hodgson, 1847) 
''T. q. quadricornis'' (Blainville, 1816) 
''T. q. subquadricornutus'' ([[Walter Elliot (naturalist)|Elliot]], 1839)
| range_map = Tetracerus quadricornis map.png
| range_map_caption = Range map of the four-horned antelope
| synonyms = {{collapsible list|
* ''Antilope chickara'' (J. B. Fischer, 1829)
* ''A. quadricornis'' (Desmarest, 1816)
* ''Cerophorus quadricornis'' (J. B. Fischer, 1829)
* ''Cervicapra chickara'' ([[Thomas Hardwicke|Hardwicke]], 1825)
* ''C. quadricornis'' (de Blainville, 1816)
* ''Cervus labipes'' (Saint-Hillaire and Cuvier, 1832)
* ''Grimmia quadricornis'' (Laurillard, 1839)
* ''Tetraceros chickera'' ([[Edward Blyth|Blyth]], 1842)
* ''Tetracerus chickara'' (Jardine, 1836)
* ''T. paccerois'' ([[Brian Houghton Hodgson|Houghton]], 1847)
* ''T. quadricornes'' (Jardine, 1836)
* ''T. striaticornis'' ([[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|Saint-Hillaire]] and [[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]], 1832)
* ''T. undicornis'' (Saint-Hillaire and Cuvier, 1832)
}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name=mammal/>
}}

The '''four-horned antelope''' ('''''Tetracerus quadricornis'''''), or '''''chousingha''''', is a small [[antelope]] found in [[India]] and [[Nepal]]. Its four [[Horn (anatomy)|horns]] distinguish it from most other [[bovid]]s, which have two horns (with a few exceptions, such as the [[Jacob sheep]]). The [[monotypic taxon|sole member]] of the [[genus]] '''''Tetracerus''''', the species was first [[scientific description|described]] by French zoologist [[Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville]] in 1816. Three [[subspecies]] are recognised. The four-horned antelope stands nearly {{convert|55|-|64|cm|in}} at the shoulder and weighs nearly {{convert|17|-|22|kg|lb}}. Slender with thin legs and a short tail, the four-horned antelope has a yellowish brown to reddish coat. One pair of horns is located between the ears, and the other on the forehead. The [[Posterior (anatomy)|posterior]] horns are always longer than the [[anterior]] horns, which might be mere fur-covered studs. While the posterior horns measure {{convert|8|-|12|cm|in}}, the anterior ones are {{Convert|2|-|5|cm|in}} long.

The four-horned antelope is [[Diurnality|diurnal]] (active mainly during the day). Though solitary by nature, four-horned antelopes may form loose groups of three to five –with one or more adults, sometimes accompanied by juveniles. This elusive antelope feeds on grasses, herbs, shrubs, foliage, flowers and fruits. It needs to drink water frequently; as such it stays in places near water sources. The breeding behaviour of the four-horned antelope has not been well studied. The age at which they reach [[sexual maturity]] and the season when mating occurs have not been understood well. [[Gestation]] lasts about eight months, following which one or two calves are born. They are kept concealed for the first few weeks of their birth. The young remain with the mother for about a year.

Four-horned antelopes tend to inhabit areas with significant grass cover or heavy [[undergrowth]], and avoid human settlements. Earlier common throughout [[deciduous forest]]s in India, the antelope now occurs in widely disjunct, small populations. Most of the populations are in India, and lower numbers can be found in adjoining [[Nepal]]. The four-horned antelope is threatened by the loss of its natural habitat due to [[agricultural expansion]]. Moreover, the unusual four-horned skull and the horns have been a popular target for [[trophy hunting|trophy hunters]]. The four-horned antelope is classified as [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ([[IUCN]]).

==Etymology==
The [[scientific name]] of the four-horned antelope is ''Tetracerus quadricornis''. The [[Generic name (biology)|generic name]] ''Tetracerus'' is the combination of two [[Greek language|Greek]] words: ''tetra'' meaning "four"<ref name="RWB" />{{rp|351}} and ''keras'' meaning "horn".<ref name="RWB">{{cite book|last1=Brown|first1=Roland Wilbur|title=The Composition of Scientific Words|date=1956|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press|location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref>{{rp|422}} The [[Specific name (zoology)|specific name]] ''quadricornis'' is derived from two [[Latin]] words: ''quattuor'' meaning "four"<ref name="RWB" />{{rp|351}} and ''cornu'' "horn".<ref name="RWB" />{{rp|421}} The four-horned antelope is known by several vernacular names: ''chausingha'', ''chowsingha'', ''chousingha'' ([[Hindi language|Hindi]] for "four horns"), ''doda'', ''ghutri'' (mainly in central India) (Hindi); ''kondu kuri'' ([[Kannada Language|Kannada]]); ''chauka'' ([[Nepali language|Nepalese]]); ''nari komboo marn'' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]).<ref name=mammal/>

==Taxonomy and phylogeny==

The four-horned antelope is the sole member of the [[Genus (biology)|genus]] ''Tetracerus'', and is placed under the [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Bovidae]]. The species was first [[scientific description|described]] by French zoologist [[Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville]] in 1816.<ref name=MSW3/> The four-horned antelope has only one other relative in the tribe [[Boselaphini]], the [[nilgai]] (''Boselaphus tragocamelus'').<ref name=mammal/> The Boselaphini have horns with a keel on the front and lack rings as found in other antelope groups.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The book of Indian animals|last=Prater|first=S.H.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1980|isbn=978-0195621693|location=Chennai|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bookofindiananim0000prat/page/271 271–272]|url=https://archive.org/details/bookofindiananim0000prat/page/271}}</ref>

The [[Binomial nomenclature#Authority|authority]] for ''Tetracerus'' is variously indicated according to interpretations of the [[International Code of Zoological Nomenclature]]. The name was first published in an 1825 publication by English naturalist [[Thomas Hardwicke]] but cited the English zoologist [[William Elford Leach]] – probably by an editor – as the authority in a footnote at the end of the publication.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hardwicke|first1=T.|author-link=Thomas Hardwicke|title=XXIII. Descriptions of two species of antelope from India.|journal=[[Transactions of the Linnean Society of London]]|date=1825|volume=14|issue=3|pages=518–24|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1823.tb00099.x|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1447474}}</ref> [[Philip Sclater]] and [[Oldfield Thomas]] listed Hardwicke as the genus authority by virtue of his being the author of the publication. However, Leach is now identified as the appropriate authority based on Article 50.1.1 of the Zoological Code.<ref name=mammal />

A 1992 [[phylogenetic]] study showed a strong possibility of a [[clade]] consisting of Boselaphini, [[Bovini]] and [[Tragelaphini]]. Bovini consists of the genera ''[[Bubalus]]'', ''[[Bos]]'', ''Pseudoryx'' ([[saola]]), ''Syncerus'' ([[African buffalo]]), ''[[Bison]]'' and the [[extinct]] ''[[Pelorovis]]''. Tragelaphini consists of two genera: ''[[Taurotragus]]'' (eland) and ''[[Tragelaphus]]''. Boselaphini and Tragelaphini were predicted to be close;<ref name="allard">{{cite journal|last1=Allard|first1=M.W.|last2=Miyamoto|first2=M.M.|last3=Jarecki|first3=L.|last4=Kraus|first4=F.|last5=Tennant|first5=M.R.|title=DNA systematics and evolution of the artiodactyl family Bovidae|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]]|date=1992|volume=89|issue=9|pages=3972–6|pmid=1570322|doi=10.1073/pnas.89.9.3972|pmc=525613|bibcode=1992PNAS...89.3972A|doi-access=free}}</ref> this was seconded by a similar study in 1999.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hassanin|first1=A.|last2=Douzery|first2=E.J.P.|title=Evolutionary affinities of the enigmatic saola (''Pseudoryx nghetinhensis'') in the context of the molecular phylogeny of Bovidae|journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences]]|date=1999|volume=266|issue=1422|pages=893–900|doi=10.1098/rspb.1999.0720|jstor=51466|pmc=1689916|pmid=10380679}}</ref> The following cladogram is based on the 1992 study:<ref name=allard/>

{{clade | style=font-size:100%;line-height:100%;
|1={{clade
|1= [[Bovini]]
|2= {{clade
|1=[[Tragelaphini]]
|2=[[Boselaphini]]}}}}}}

[[Colin Groves]] (2003) recognizes three [[subspecies]] of the four-horned antelope on the basis of distribution and physical characteristics such as [[Coat (animal)|coat]] colour, body size and the number of horns:<ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 | id = 14200722 | page = 697}}</ref><ref name=groves>{{cite journal|last1=Groves|first1=C.|author-link=Colin Groves|title=Taxonomy of ungulates of the Indian subcontinent|journal=[[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]]|date=2003|volume=100|pages=353–4}}</ref>
* ''T. q. iodes'' ([[Brian Houghton Hodgson|Hodgson]], 1847): distributed north of the Ganges in Nepal<ref>{{cite journal| author=Hodgson, B.H.|title=On the four-horned antelopes of India| pages=87–94|url=https://archive.org/stream/calcuttajournalo08#page/86/mode/2up | journal=Calcutta Journal of Natural History| volume=8| year=1847}}</ref>
* ''T. q. quadricornis'' (de Blainville, 1816): distributed in peninsular India
* ''T. q. subquadricornutus'' ([[Walter Elliot (naturalist)|Elliot]], 1839) distributed in the Western Ghats and southern India<ref>{{cite journal| journal= Madras Journal of Literature and Science |year=1839| volume=10| title=A catalogue of the species of mammalia found in the Southern Mahratta Country; with their Synonymes in the Native Languages in use there| author=Elliot, Walter|pages=207–233|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/46487879}}</ref>

==Evolution==
[[File:ChausinghaSkullLyd2.png|thumbnail|right|Skull of the four-horned antelope]]
Though Boselaphini has no African representation today,<ref name="brain">{{cite book|last1=Brain|first1=C.K.|title=The Hunters or the Hunted?: An Introduction to African Cave Taphonomy|date=1981|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago, USA|isbn=978-0-226-07089-6|page=167}}</ref> [[fossil]] evidence supports its presence in the continent during as early as the late [[Miocene]] – the two living antelopes of this tribe, in fact, have been found to have a closer relationship with the earliest bovids (like ''[[Eotragus]]'' species) than do the other bovids.<ref name="pilgrim">{{cite journal|last1=Pilgrim|first1=G.E.|title=The fossil Bovidae of India|journal=Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India |series=New Series|date=1939|volume=26|pages=1–356}}</ref><ref name="pitra">{{cite journal|last1=Pitra|first1=C.|last2=Furbass|first2=R.|last3=Seyfert|first3=H.M.|title=Molecular phylogeny of the tribe Bovini (Mammalia: Artiodactyla): alternative placement of the anoa|journal=[[Journal of Evolutionary Biology]]|date=1997|volume=10|issue=4|pages=589–600|doi=10.1046/j.1420-9101.1997.10040589.x|s2cid=84545142|doi-access=free}}</ref> This tribe originated at least 8.9 [[Mya (unit)|Mya]], in much the same area where the four-horned antelope occurs today, and may represent the most "primitive" of all living bovids, having changed the least since the origins of the family.<ref name=Bibi2007>{{cite journal | last = Bibi | first = F. | year = 2007 | title = Origin, paleoecology, and paleobiogeography of early Bovini | journal = [[Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] | volume = 248 | issue = 1 | pages = 60–72 | doi = 10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.11.009| bibcode = 2007PPP...248...60B }}</ref> The extant and extinct boselaphine forms show similar development of the horn cores (the central bony part of the horn).<ref name="solounias">{{cite journal|last1=Solounias|first1=N.|title=A new hypothesis uniting ''Boselaphus'' and ''Tetracerus'' with the Miocene Boselaphini (Mammalia, Bovidae) based on horn morphology|journal=Annales Musei Goulandris|date=1990|volume=8|pages=425–39}}</ref> It is thought that ancestral bovids had a [[diploidy|diploid]] [[chromosome]] number of 58 which has reduced in ''Tetracerus'' to 38 through a process of concatenation of some chromosomes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ropiquet|first1=A.|last2=Hassanin|first2=A.|last3=Pagacova|first3=E.|last4=Gerbault-Seureau|first4=M.|last5=Cernohorska|first5=H.|last6=Kubickova|first6=S.|last7=Bonillo|first7=C.|last8=Rubes|first8=J.|last9=Robinson|first9=T.J.|date=2010|title=A paradox revealed: karyotype evolution in the four-horned antelope occurs by tandem fusion (Mammalia, Bovidae, ''Tetracerus quadricornis'')|journal=Chromosome Research|volume=18|issue=2|pages=277–86|doi=10.1007/s10577-010-9115-1|pmid=20204496|s2cid=8973690}}</ref>

Fossils of ''[[Protragocerus|Protragocerus labidotus]]'' and ''[[Sivoreas eremita]]'' dating back to the late Miocene have been discovered in the Ngorora formation ([[Kenya]]).<ref name="benefit">{{cite journal|last1=Benefit|first1=B.R.|last2=Pickford|first2=M.|title=Miocene fossil cercopithecoids from Kenya|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|date=April 1986|volume=69|issue=4|pages=441–64|doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330690404}}</ref> fossils from the same period have also been excavated in the eastern [[Mediterranean region]].<ref name="kostopoulus">{{cite journal|last1=Kostopoulus|first1=D.S.|title=The Bovidae (Mammalia, Artiodactyla) from the late Miocene of Akkas¸dag˘i, Turkey|journal=Geodiversitas|date=2005|volume=27|pages=747–91|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257306924}}</ref> Other Miocene fossils of boselaphines discovered are of ''[[Miotragocerus]]'', ''[[Tragocerus]]'' and ''[[Tragoportax]]''. Fossils of ''Miotragoceros'' are not apparent in Africa (only ''M. cyrenaicus'' has been reported from the continent), but have significant presence in the [[Shiwalik Hills]] in [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], as do several ''Tragoportax'' species. A 2005 study suggested the migration of ''Miotragoceros'' to eastern Asia around 8 Mya.<ref name="zhang">{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Z.|title=Late Miocene Boselaphini (Bovidae, Artiodactyla) from Fugu, Shaanxi Province, China|journal=Vertebrata PalAsiatica|date=2005|volume=43|issue=3|pages=208–18|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262300595}}</ref> Alan W. Gentry of the [[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]] reported the presence of another boselaphine, ''[[Mesembriportax]]'', from [[Langebaanweg]] ([[South Africa]]).<ref name="ak">{{cite book|last1=WoldeGabriel|first1=G.|editor1-last=Haile-Selassie|editor1-first=Y.|title=Ardipithecus Kadabba: Late Miocene Evidence from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia|url=https://archive.org/details/ardipithecuskada00hail|url-access=limited|date=2009|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley, USA|isbn=978-0-520-25440-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ardipithecuskada00hail/page/n311 289]–90}}</ref>

Evidence of early [[humans]] hunting four-horned antelope during the [[Mesolithic]] period (5,000 to 8,000 years ago) have been found in the Kurnool caves of southern India<ref name="murty">{{cite journal|last1=Murty|first1=M.L.K.|title=Ethnoarchaeology of the Kurnool cave areas, South India|journal=World Archaeology|date=2010|volume=17|issue=2|pages=192–205|doi=10.1080/00438243.1985.9979962}}</ref> and similar evidence has been found from the [[Chalcolithic]] period (3,000 years ago) in Orissa, eastern India.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Badam|first1=G.L.|last2=Behera|first2=P.|last3=Mishra|first3=J.|title=Chalcolithic faunal economy at Khambeswarpally, middle Mahanadi Valley, Orissa: a bioarchaeological perspective|journal=[[Current Science]]|date=2001|volume=80|issue=7|pages=828–30}}</ref>

==Description==
{{multiple image |perrow=1 |align=right
|image1=Vierhornantilope.jpg |caption1=Doe
|image2=Tetracerus quadricornis III.jpg |caption2=Buck}}
The four-horned antelope is one of the smallest Asian bovids. The number of its horns distinguishes it from most of the other bovids, that have two horns<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vaughan |first1=T.A. |last2=Ryan |first2=J.M. |last3=Czaplewski |first3=N.J. |title=Mammalogy |date=2015|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |location=Massachusetts, USA|isbn=978-1-284-03209-3|page=353|edition=6th}}</ref> The four-horned antelope stands {{convert|55|-|64|cm|in}} at the shoulder and weighs {{convert|17|-|22|kg|lb}}; the head-and-body length is typically between {{convert|80|and|110|cm|in}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sharma |first1=K. |last2=Rahmani |first2=A.R. |title=Four-horned antelope or chowsingha (''Tetracerus quadricornis'' Blainville, 1816|journal=ENVIS Bulletin (Wildlife and Protected Areas): Ungulates of India |date=2004 |volume=7 |url=http://www.wii.gov.in/envis/ungulatesofindia/index.htm}}{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> [[Sexual dimorphism]] is not very notable, though only males possess horns.<ref name=mammal/>

Slender with thin legs and a short tail, the four-horned antelope has a yellowish brown to reddish coat. The underparts and the insides of the legs are white. Facial features include black markings on the [[snout|muzzle]] and behind the ears. A black stripe marks the outer surface of each leg. Females have four teats far back on the abdomen.<ref name=mammal>{{cite journal | last1 = Leslie |first1=D.M. |last2=Sharma |first2= K. | year = 2009 | title = ''Tetracerus quadricornis'' (Artiodactyla: Bovidae) | journal=[[Mammalian Species]] | volume = 843 | pages = 1–11 | doi = 10.1644/843.1 | doi-access = free}}</ref> The hair feels coarse, more like that of a [[deer]] than the glossy hair typical of [[antelope]]s.<ref name=kinloch/> The [[fetlock]]s are marked with white patches.<ref name=kinloch/>

One pair of horns is located between the ears, and the other on the forehead. The [[posterior (anatomy)|posterior]] horns are always longer than the [[anterior]] horns, which might be mere fur-covered studs. While the posterior horns each measures {{convert|8|-|12|cm|in}}, the anterior ones measure {{Convert|2|-|5|cm|in}}.<ref name="kinloch">{{cite book|last1=Kinloch|first1=A.A.A.|title=Large Game Shooting in Tibet, the Himalayas, and Northern India|date=1885|publisher=Thacker, Spink and Co.|location=Calcutta (Kolkata), India|isbn=978-1-295-81380-3|chapter=The four-horned antelope}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Carwardine|first1=M.|title=Animal Records|date=2008|publisher=Sterling|location=New York, USA|isbn=978-1-4027-5623-8|pages=10–1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/illustratedcatal00bentuoft#page/46/mode/2up/|pages=46–7| last=Bentham | first=T.| title=An illustrated catalogue of the Asiatic horns and antlers in the collection of the Indian museum| year=1908 | publisher=[[Indian Museum]] | location = Kolkata, India}}</ref> Horns emerge at 10 to 14 months.<ref name=mammal/> According to Groves, anterior horns show the poorest development in the subspecies ''T. q. subquadricornutus''. These horns measure nearly {{Convert|4.5|-|5|cm|in}} in ''T. q. quadricornis'', and nearly {{convert|1.5|-|2.5|cm|in}} in ''T. q. iodes''. The posterior horn lengths for the subspecies recorded by him were: {{convert|8|-|10|cm|in}} for ''T. q. quadricornis'', {{convert|6.5|-|7.5|cm|in}} in ''T. q. iodes'' and {{convert|1.8|-|2|cm|in}} in ''T. q. subquadricornutus''.<ref name=groves/>

The four-horned antelope differs greatly from the nilgai in colour, is much smaller and has an extra pair of horns. The nilgai is nearly nine times heavier and two times taller than the four-horned antelope. Two deer species, the [[Indian muntjac]] and the [[Indian hog deer]], can be confused with this antelope. The four-horned antelope, however, lacks their [[antler]]s.<ref name=mammal/> The [[chinkara]], a [[gazelle]], can be told apart by its light brown coat and larger, ringed horns.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Castelló|first1=J.R.|title=Bovids of the World: Antelopes, Gazelles, Cattle, Goats, Sheep, and Relatives|date=2016|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, USA|isbn=978-1-4008-8065-2|pages=118–9}}</ref>

==Ecology and behaviour==
The four-horned antelope is [[Diurnality|diurnal]] (active mainly during the day), though it mainly rests or [[ruminants|ruminates]] in dense [[undergrowth]] at noon.<ref name="sharma2">{{cite journal|last1=Sharma|first1=K.|last2=Rahmani|first2=A.R.|last3=Chundawat|first3=R.S.|title=Natural history observations of the four-horned antelope ''Tetracerus quadricornis''|journal=[[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]]|date=2009|volume=106|issue=1|pages=72–82|url=https://archive.org/stream/journalofbomb10612009bomb#page/72/mode/1up/}}</ref> Though solitary by nature, the four-horned antelope may form loose groups of three to five. Groups consist of one or more adults, sometimes accompanied by juveniles. Males and females hardly interact, except in the mating season.<ref name=baskaran/>

The antelope is shy and elusive. When alarmed, it stands motionless and may nervously leap away from the danger or even sprint. It often conceals itself in tall grasses to escape predators.<ref name=kinloch/> The use of alarm calls to alert others is not common because the antelope tries to avoid the attention of predators. However, in extreme cases, these calls may be used to warn predators that they have been identified. Adults [[Territorial marking|mark]] vegetation in their [[Territory (animal)|territories]] with a colourless secretion of [[preorbital gland]]s, that soon condenses to form a white film. They maintain multiple latrine sites where piles of their pellet droppings are formed by regular use.<ref name=sharma2/> Latrine sites can be confused with those of the barking deer but the pellets are longer and larger in four-horned antelopes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pokharel|first1=Krishna Prasad|last2=Ludwig|first2=Tobias|last3=Storch|first3=Ilse|date=2015-02-25|title=Spatial Niche Partitioning in Sub-Tropical Solitary Ungulates: Four-Horned Antelope and Barking Deer in Nepal|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=10|issue=2|pages=e0117917|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0117917|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4340944|pmid=25714092|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1017917P|doi-access=free}}</ref> Submissive [[display (zoology)|display]] consists of shrinking the body, lowering the head and pulling the ears back.<ref name=sharma2/> Predators of four-horned antelopes include [[tiger]]s,<ref name=Biswas2006>{{cite journal | last1 = Biswas | first1 = S. |last2= Sankar|first2= K. | year = 2002 | title = Prey abundance and food habit of tigers (''Panthera tigris tigris'') in Pench National Park, Madhya Pradesh, India | journal = [[Journal of Zoology]] | volume = 256 | issue = 3 | pages = 411–20 | doi = 10.1017/S0952836902000456}}</ref> [[leopard]]s, and [[dhole]]s.<ref name=Karanth1992>{{cite journal | last1 = Karanth |first1= K.U. |last2= Sunquist |first2= M.E. | year = 1992 | title = Population structure, density and biomass of large herbivores in the tropical forests of Nagarhole, India | journal = Journal of Tropical Ecology | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 21–35 | doi = 10.1017/S0266467400006040|s2cid= 84489998 }}</ref>

===Diet===
[[File:Four-horned Antelope.jpg|thumb|right|Four-horned antelope prefer habitats with dense undergrowth and tall grasses.]]
The four-horned antelope feeds on grasses, herbs, shrubs, foliage, flowers and fruits. A study in [[Mudumalai National Park]] ([[Tamil Nadu]], India) showed that the antelope prefers grass species of the family [[Cyperaceae]]; genera ''[[Axonopus]]'', ''[[Cynodon]]'', ''[[Digitaria]]'', ''[[Echinochloa]]'', ''[[Panicum]]'', ''[[Sehima]]'' and ''[[Sporobolus]]''; and the species ''[[Imperata cylindrica]]'', ''[[Ottochloa nodosa]]'', ''[[Pseudanthistria umbellata]]'' and ''[[Themeda cymbaria]]''. The shrub ''[[Grewia hirsuta]]'' is frequently eaten. Preferred herbs include ''[[Helichrysum]]'', ''[[Indigofera]]'' and ''[[Tinospora]]'' species and ''[[Leucas aspera]]''. The four-horned antelope feeds on the leaves of trees such as ''[[Cordia wallichii]]'', ''[[Emblica officinalis]]'', ''[[Randia dumetorum]]'' and ''[[Zizyphus xylopyrus]]''. Grasses comprise nearly 29 percent of the diet, followed by foliage from trees (nearly nine percent). Grass and [[Browsing (herbivory)|browse]] were consumed in nearly equal proportions.<ref name="baskaran">{{cite journal|last1=Baskaran|first1=N.|last2=Kannan|first2=V.|last3=Thiyagesan|first3=K.|last4=Desai|first4=A.A.|title=Behavioural ecology of four-horned antelope (''Tetracerus quadricornis'' de Blainville, 1816) in the tropical forests of southern India|journal=Mammalian Biology – Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde|date=2011|volume=76|issue=6|pages=741–7|doi=10.1016/j.mambio.2011.06.010}}</ref> A study in the [[Panna National Park]] ([[Madhya Pradesh]], India) showed preference for ''[[Zizyphus mauritiana]]'', ''[[Acacia nilotica]]'', ''[[Acacia leucophloea|A. leucophloea]]'' and ''[[Acacia catechu|A. catechu]]''. [[Babool]] flowers were frequently eaten. The antelope often associates with [[langur]]s under fruiting trees, just as [[chital]] frequently do. Interaction with chital, a [[sympatric]] species, was infrequent.<ref name=sharma2/> The antelope is wary when feeding, often raising its head and looking about its vicinity.<ref name=sharma2/> The four-horned antelope needs to drink water frequently; as such it stays in places near water sources.<ref name=kinloch/>

===Reproduction===
[[File:ChousinghaHead.jpg|thumb|illustration of the head from 1903.]]
Breeding behaviour of the four-horned antelope has not been well studied. The age at which [[sexual maturity]] is gained is doubted; two captive females had their first parturition at less than two years.<ref name=mammal/> The breeding season in Panna National Park probably lasts from May to July,<ref name=sharma2/> and from June to August in Mudumalai National Park.<ref name=baskaran/> The male approaches the female in a relaxed gait, giving out low coughs. The two may kneel and push against each other with the necks intertwined. The male makes a few short mounting attempts; the female may be foraging all the while without any reaction.<ref name=sharma2/> [[Gestation]] lasts about eight months, followed by the birth of one or two calves. The newborn has a head-and-body length of {{convert|42|to|46|cm|in}}, and weighs {{convert|0.7|to|1.1|kg|abbr=on}}. Juveniles are kept concealed for the first few weeks of birth. Births in Mudumalai National Park peak from February to April. Juveniles remain with their mothers for about a year.<ref name=mammal/>

==Distribution and habitat ==
[[File:Four-horned Antelope.JPG|thumbnail|Male four-horned antelope in the [[Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve]]]]
The four-horned antelope is confined to the [[Indian subcontinent]], occurring widely in disjunct and small populations. The range in India covers a vast expanse, from the foothills of the [[Himalayas]] in the north to the [[Deccan Plateau]] in the south. Most of the existing populations live in India, and lower numbers in adjoining [[Nepal]].<ref name=iucn />
The four-horned antelope inhabits open, dry, [[deciduous forest]]s in hilly terrain.<ref name=Krishna2008>{{cite journal |last1=Krishna |first1=Y.C.|last2=Krishnaswamy|first2=J.|last3=Kumar|first3=N.S.|title=Habitat factors affecting site occupancy and relative abundance of four-horned antelope |journal=[[Journal of Zoology]] |date=2008 |volume=276 |issue=1 |pages=63–70|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00470.x}}</ref><ref name=Krishna2009>{{cite journal |last1=Krishna |first1=Y.C. |last2=Clyne |first2=P.J. |last3=Krishnaswamy |first3=J. |last4=Kumar |first4=N.S.|title=Distributional and ecological review of the four horned antelope, ''Tetracerus quadricornis'' |journal=Mammalia |date=2009 |volume=73 |issue=1 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1515/MAMM.2009.003 |s2cid=83806831}}</ref> It prefers areas close to water bodies that are covered with grasses or heavy undergrowth. It generally keeps away from settlements.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}

It was earlier common throughout deciduous forests in India, but the population declined to an estimated at slightly above 10,000 mature individuals in 2001, with a decreasing trend.<ref name=Krishna2008/><ref name=iucn /> Numbers in [[Gir National Park]] were estimated at 256 individuals in 1974; later estimates at waterholes in the same location put them a little above 1,000. Densities of above 0.7 individuals per km2 have been considered as being healthy.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=[[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]] |volume=88 | issue=1| year=1991 |last=Rice | first=C.G.| title=The status of four-horned antelope ''Tetracerus quadricornis'' |pages=63–66 |url=https://archive.org/stream/journalofbombay881991bomb#page/62/mode/2up}}</ref>

==Threats and conservation==
The four-horned antelope is threatened by the loss of its natural habitat due to agricultural expansion.<ref name=iucn /> Moreover, the unusual four-horned skull and the horns have been a popular target for [[trophy hunting|trophy hunters]].<ref name="Nowak">{{cite book|last1=Nowak|first1=R. M.|title=Walker's Mammals of the World |chapter-url-access=registration|date=1999|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore, Maryland|isbn=978-0-8018-5789-8 |page=1147 |chapter=Four-horned antelope |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa/page/1147 |edition=Sixth}}</ref>

The four-horned antelope is classified as [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] on the [[IUCN Red List]]. It is protected under Schedule I of the Indian [[Wildlife Protection Act of 1972]]; the population in Nepal is listed in [[CITES Appendix III]].<ref name=iucn />

Major protected areas across India where four-horned antelopes occur include:<ref name="belsare">{{cite book |last1=Belsare |first1=D.K. |title=Vanishing Roar of Bengal Tigers|date=2011|publisher=RoseDog Books|location=Pennsylvania, USA |isbn=978-1-4349-8509-5|pages=17–29}}</ref>
*[[Gir National Park]] in Gujarat;
*[[Sariska Tiger Reserve]] in Rajasthan;
*[[Bandhavgarh National Park]], [[Bori Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Kanha National Park]], [[Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve]], [[Panna Tiger Reserve]], [[Pench Tiger Reserve]], [[Sanjay National Park]], [[Satpura National Park]] in Madhya Pradesh;
*[[Tadoba Andhari Tiger Project#Tadoba Andhari Reserve|Tadoba Andhari Reserve]] in [[Maharashtra]];
*[[Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Ranthambore National Park]], [[Rangayyanadurga Four–horned antelope Wildlife Sanctuary]] in Karnataka.

==See also==
{{portal|Mammals}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Tetracerus quadricornis}}
* {{Wikispecies-inline|Tetracerus quadricornis}}

{{Artiodactyla|R.4}}
{{Taxonbar|from1=Q273580|from2=Q10824586}}

[[Category:Bovines]]
[[Category:Mammals of India]]
[[Category:Mammals of Nepal]]
[[Category:Fauna of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1816]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville]]

Four-horned antelope - Revision history

Ajay Kumar at 21:23, 30 August 2023