Debadrito Dutta at 22:10, 10 June 2025

2025-06-10T22:10:55Z

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| footer = In Hinduism, god is sometimes visualized as a male god such as [[Shiva]] (left), or goddess such as [[Durga]] (center), bigender such as [[Ardhanarishvara]] (a composite of [[Shiva]] - male - and [[Parvati]] - female) (right), or as formless and genderless [[Brahman]] (Universal Absolute, Supreme Self as Oneness in everyone).
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In [[Hinduism]], there are diverse approaches to conceptualizing [[Gender of God|God and gender]]. Many Hindus focus upon the impersonal [[Absolute (philosophy)|Absolute]] ([[Brahman]]) which is genderless. Other Hindu traditions conceive God as [[bigender]] (both female and male), alternatively as either male or female, while cherishing gender [[henotheism]], that is without denying the existence of other gods in either gender.<ref>John Renard (1999), Responses to 101 Questions on Hinduism, Paulist, {{ISBN|978-0809138456}}, pages 74-76</ref><ref>{{Google books|9XC9bwMMPcwC|What is Hinduism?|page=PR17}}, Hinduism Today, Hawaii</ref>

The [[Shakta]] tradition conceives of God as a female. Other [[Bhakti]] traditions of Hinduism have both male and female gods. In ancient and medieval Indian mythology, each masculine [[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]] of the Hindu pantheon is partnered with a feminine who is often a [[devi]].<ref>[http://www.adishakti.org/forum/concept_of_shakti_hinduism_as_a_liberating_force_for_women_1-18-2005.htm The Concept of Shakti: Hinduism as a Liberating Force for Women] by Frank Morales</ref>

==Literature==
{{Hinduism}}
Male and female deities are extensively mentioned in the ''[[Vedas]]''. The earliest ''mandalas'' ("Books"; the authorship of each ''mandala'' is traditionally ascribed to a particular ''[[rishi]]'' or that ''rishi'''s family) of the [[Rigveda]], estimated to have been composed sometime in the 2nd millennium BCE, invoke and praise both gods and goddesses. ''[[Ushas]]'' ("Goddess of Dawns") is praised in twenty Hymns of Chapters VI.64, VI.65, VII.78 and X.172, with Hymn VI.64.5 declaring goddess Ushas as the one who must be worshipped first.<ref name=davidk/><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/rigvedasanhitac00websgoog#page/n19/mode/2up Rigveda] Hymn VI.64.5, HH Wilson (Translator), Trubner & Co London, page 7</ref>

{{Quote|
'''Hymn to Ushas''' (Abridged): 
The shining tints of the Dawn have spread like the waves of the waters, 
Beautifying the world, she renders all good roads easy to traverse, 
She who is replete with delight, excellence and health, 
Divine Ushas, though art seen auspicious, thou shinest afar, 
thy bright rays spread over the sky, lovely and radiant with great splendour; 
Do thou Ushas bring me opulence, daughter of heaven; 
thou who art divine, who art lovely, who art to be worshipped at the first daily rite; 
At thy dawning, divine Ushas, birds fly from their resting places, men arise to work; 
Thou, divine Ushas, bring ample wealth to the mortal, the offerer of these prayers.
|Rigveda|VI.64<ref>
*Original Sanskrit: '''एषा''' स्या नो दुहिता दिवोजाः क्षितीरुच्छन्ती मानुषीरजीगः । या भानुना रुशता राम्यास्वज्ञायि तिरस्तमसश्चिदक्तून् ॥१॥ वि तद्ययुररुणयुग्भिरश्वैश्चित्रं '''भान्त्युषसश्चन्द्ररथाः''' । अग्रं यज्ञस्य बृहतो नयन्तीर्वि ता बाधन्ते तम ऊर्म्यायाः ॥२॥ (...) इदा हि त '''उषो''' अद्रिसानो गोत्रा गवामङ्गिरसो गृणन्ति । व्यर्केण बिभिदुर्ब्रह्मणा च सत्या नृणामभवद्देवहूतिः ॥५॥ '''उच्छा''' दिवो दुहितः प्रत्नवन्नो भरद्वाजवद्विधते मघोनि । सुवीरं रयिं गृणते रिरीह्युरुगायमधि धेहि श्रवो नः ॥६॥ (Source: [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_६.६५ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं ६.६५] Wikisource)
*English Translation: [https://archive.org/stream/rigvedasanhitac00websgoog#page/n19/mode/2up Rigveda] Hymn VI.64.5, HH Wilson (Translator), Trubner & Co London, page 7</ref>}}

Goddesses, other than Ushas, mentioned in early Vedic literature include ''[[Prthivi]]'' (earth), ''[[Aditi]]'' (mother of gods, abundance), ''[[Sarasvati]]'' (river, nourishment), ''[[Vāc|Vac]]'' (sound and speech), and ''[[Nirrti]]'' (death, destruction).<ref name=davidk/> Similarly male gods feature prominently in the Vedas, with ''[[Indra]]'' (rain, lightning), ''[[Agni]]'' (fire), ''[[Varuna]]'' (rta, law), ''[[Dyaus]]'' (sky, virility), ''[[Savitr]]'' (''Surya'', sun), and ''[[Soma (drink)|Soma]]'' (drink) some of the most mentioned. The two deities most mentioned in Rigveda are Indra and Agni, both male.<ref>David R. Kinsley (1986), Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520053939}}, pages 6-8</ref> Surya is the third most revered god, again a male.<ref name=wjw>William Joseph Wilkins, {{Google books|ZBUHAAAAQAAJ|Hindu Mythology: Vedic and Purānic|page=8}}, London Missionary Society, Calcutta</ref> Each is mentioned, anywhere rain and fire is evoked. They are profusely praised, with ceremonies and prayers to all gods and goddesses symbolically organized around fire (Agni [[yajna]]). The hymns seek strengthening of fire, and it is god Indra who increases the energy of the fire, while god Surya increases his brightness. [[Max Muller]] states that, while there are difference in frequency of mentions, gods and goddesses in Rig veda are "neither superior nor inferior; almost every one is represented as supreme and absolute".<ref name=wjw/>

Gross states that ancient and medieval Hindu literature is richly endowed with gods, goddesses and androgynous representations of God.<ref name=rmg>RM Gross (1978), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1463798 Hindu Female Deities as a Resource for the Contemporary Rediscovery of the Goddess], Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 46, No. 3 (Sep., 1978), pages 269-291</ref> This, states Gross, is in contrast with several monotheistic religions, where God is often synonymous with "He" and theism is replete with male anthropomorphisms.<ref name=rmg/> In Hinduism, goddess-imagery does not mean loss of male-god, rather the ancient literature presents the two genders as balancing each other and complementary. The Goddesses in Hinduism, states Gross,<ref name=rmg/> are strong, beautiful and confident, symbolizing their vitality in cycle of life. While masculine Gods are symbolically represented as those who act, the feminine Goddesses are symbolically portrayed as those who inspire action.<ref name=rmg/> Goddesses in Hinduism are envisioned as the patrons of arts, culture, nurture, learning, arts, joys, spirituality and liberation.<ref name=davidk>David R. Kinsley (1986), Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520053939}}</ref><ref name=rmg/>

God is not either male or female concept in ancient Indian literature. Androgynous concepts of god are common place as well.<ref name=rmg/>

===Brahman===
Most major schools of [[Hindu philosophy]] focus their philosophical discourse on the [[Absolute (philosophy)|Universal Absolute]], called [[Brahman]], which is a grammatically genderless noun.<ref name=hrz>Heinrich Robert Zimmer (1972), Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691017785}}, pages 123-128</ref> This Universal Absolute, states Zimmer, is "beyond the differentiating qualifications of sex, beyond any and all limitations, individualizing characteristics whatsoever". The ''Brahman'' is the Great Cosmic Spirit, the Ultimate True Reality, the Supreme Self. It is a transcendental concept that includes all virtues, forms, genders, characteristics, capacities, knowledge and being-ness.<ref name=hrz/> The history of the genderless concept of Brahman, as the omnipresent Absolute Spirit and Supreme Self, can be traced back to Vedas, and extensively in the earliest Upanishads, such as hymns 1.4.10 and 4.4.5 of [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]],<ref>Original Sanskrit: [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद् बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद्] Wikisource; English Translation Hymn 1.4.10: [https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n171/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad - 1.4.10] pages 145-146; English Translation Hymn 4.4.5: [https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n739/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad - 4.4.5] pages 712-713;</ref> and hymn 6.2.1 of [[Chandogya Upanishad]] 6.2.1.<ref>Original Sanskrit: सर्वं खल्विदं ब्रह्म तज्जलानिति शान्त उपासीत । अथ खलु क्रतुमयः पुरुषो यथाक्रतुरस्मिँल्लोके पुरुषो भवति तथेतः प्रेत्य भवति स क्रतुं कुर्वीत ॥ १ ॥ ([http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_२ छान्दोग्योपनिषद्] Wikisource); English Translation 1: All this indeed is '''Brahman'''. From It the universe comes forth, in It the universe merges, and in It the universe breathes. Therefore a man should meditate on Brahman with a calm mind. Now, a man consists of free will. As he wills in this world, so does he become. Let him, with this knowledge in mind, form his free will. ([http://www.bharatadesam.com/spiritual/upanishads/chandogya_upanishad.php Chandogya Upanishad The Sandilya Doctrine - 3.14.1]); English Translation 2: [https://archive.org/stream/Shankara.Bhashya-Chandogya.Upanishad-Ganganath.Jha.1942.English#page/n165/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad III.xiv.1] GN Jha (Translator), page 151</ref>

Zimmer clarifies the notion of gender in Sanskrit language and its relation to the concepts of Brahman and God in Hinduism, as follows:

{{Quote|
It must be understood that in Sanskrit, grammatical gender is not always a sign of physical sex. Gender infers function, sex infers form; so that an individual<ref>man or woman</ref> may be masculine from one point of view and feminine from another. (...) Brahman can be regarded as the "womb" of life, and as in Christianity "this man" and "this woman" are equally "feminine to God" [in Hinduism]. Absolutely, Brahman, although grammatically neuter, is the principle of all such differentiation. Essence and nature are respectively masculine and feminine, logically distinct, but "one in God," who is neither this nor that [in Hinduism], and therefore "It" rather than "He" or "She" specifically.
|[[Heinrich Zimmer]]|Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization<ref name=hrz/>}}

==Mythology==
Hindu mythology incorporates numerous devas (gods) and devis (goddesses). These are symbolic stories that synthesize God and gender, with ideas and values. The [[Vishnu Purana]], for example, recites one such myth describes gods and goddesses with names that are loaded with symbolism. An excerpt of the story is as follows,<ref name=vp/>

{{Quote|
The progeny of [[Dharma]] by the daughters of Daksha were as follows: by Sraddhá (devotion) he had [[Kama]] (desire); by Lakshmí (wealth, prosperity), was born Darpa (pride); by Dhriti (courage), the progeny was [[Niyama]] (precept); by Tusht́i (inner comfort), Santosha (contentment); by Pusht́i (opulence), the progeny was Lobha (cupidity, greed); by Medhá (wisdom, experience), Sruta (sacred tradition); by Kriyá (hard work, labour), the progeny were Dańd́a, Naya, and Vinaya (justice, politics, and education); by Buddhi (intellect), Bodha (understanding); by Lajjá (shame, humility), Vinaya (good behaviour); by Vapu (body, strength), Vyavasaya (perseverance). Shanti (peace) gave birth to Kshama (forgiveness); Siddhi (excellence) to Sukha (enjoyment); and Kírtti (glorious speech) gave birth to Yasha (reputation). These were the sons of Dharma; one of whom, Kama (love, emotional fulfillment) had baby Hersha (joy) by his wife Nandi (delight).

The wife of Adharma (vice, wrong, evil) was Hinsá (violence), on whom he begot a son Anrita (falsehood), and a daughter Nikriti (immorality): they intermarried, and had two sons, Bhaya (fear) and Naraka (hell); and twins to them, two daughters, Máyá (deceit) and Vedaná (torture), who became their wives. The son of Bhaya (fear) and Máyá (deceit) was the destroyer of living creatures, or Mrityu (death); and Dukha (pain) was the offspring of Naraka (hell) and Vedaná (torture). The children of Mrityu were Vyádhi (disease), Jará (decay), Soka (sorrow), Trishńa (greediness), and Krodha (wrath). These are all called the inflictors of misery, and are characterised as the progeny of Vice (Adharma). They are all without wives, without posterity, without the faculty to procreate; they perpetually operate as causes of the destruction of this world. On the contrary, Daksha and the other Rishis, the elders of mankind, tend perpetually to influence its renovation: whilst the Manus and their sons, the heroes endowed with mighty power, and treading in the path of truth, as constantly contribute to its preservation.|Vishnu Purana|Chapter 7, Translated by [[Horace Hayman Wilson]]<ref name=vp>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp041.htm Vishnu Purana] Chapter 7</ref>}}

==Examples==
{{refimprove section|date=February 2015}}

=== Smarta and Advaita ===
The [[Smarta]] tradition, which by and large, follows [[Advaita]] philosophy believes all forms, male and female, to be different forms of the impersonal Absolute, [[Brahman]] which is of neuter gender and can never be defined.
Brahman is viewed as without personal attributes ([[Nirguna Brahman]]) or with attributes ([[Saguna Brahman]], equated with [[Ishvara]]) as [[God]]. In [[Advaita Vedanta]], Ishvara is Brahman. Thus according to [[Smarta]] views, the divine can be with attributes, [[Saguna Brahman]], and also be viewed with whatever attributes, (e.g., a goddess) a devotee conceives.

===Shiva and Vishnu===
In [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Shaivism]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dvaita.org/docs/srv_faq.html#who= |title=Dvaita Documentation: Vaishnava FAQ |access-date=2008-02-24 |archive-date=2010-07-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100722155749/http://www.dvaita.org/docs/srv_faq.html#who= |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://www.shaivam.org/shpintro.htm Shaivam – An Introduction]</ref> God, [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]] respectively, is personified as male. God, however, transcends gender in these sub-schools, and the male form is used as an icon to help focus the [[Puja (Hinduism)|Puja]] (worship). The use of icons is not restricted to male forms. It takes various forms and shapes. The Shaivites and Vaishnavites worship God in non-anthropomorphic, symbolic male-female images as well, such as the [[linga|lingam]]-[[yoni]] and [[shaligram]] respectively. In their literature, the principle of God's true nature as sexless is emphasized as in the [[Vishnu sahasranama]].{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}

Thus, the first few names,{{which|date=February 2015}} of Vishnu sahasranama, in particular, do not describe features of Vishnu in detail and hence are not [[anthropomorphic]].{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}

=== Shakti ===
[[Shaktism]], on the other hand, is a denomination of Hinduism that worships [[Mahadevi|Adi Shakti]], or Mahadevi—the Hindu name for the [[Mother goddess|Great Divine Mother]]—in all of her forms whilst not rejecting the importance of masculine and neuter divinity (which are however deemed to be inactive in the absence of the Shakti). In pure Shaktism, the Great Goddess, or Devi, is worshiped. N. N. Bhattacharyya{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} explained that "[those] who worship the Supreme Deity exclusively as a Female Principle are called [[Shakta]].{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}

Alternative interpretations of Shaktism, however—primarily those of [[Shaivite]] scholars, such as [[Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami]]—argue that the feminine manifest is ultimately only the vehicle through which the masculine Un-manifest [[Parasiva]] is ultimately reached.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}

=== Divine couples ===
{{main|Radha Krishna|Lakshmi Narayana|Shiva Parvati}}
The common separation of ''[[shakti]]'' (energy) and ''shaktimana'' (energetic) principle in god arrives at the conclusion that ''shakti'' and ''shaktimana'' are the same.<ref>Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy (1991) p. 31</ref> Every masculine form of god has their partner, female counterpart (''shakti'') and without this divine energy he is sometimes viewed as the one without the essential power.<ref>Santilata Dei, Del Santilata, Vaisnavism in Orissa (1988) p. 167</ref> In some Bhakti schools, devotees of Hinduism worship both the genders together as the divine couple rather than a specific gender.<ref>{{cite book |author=Beck, Guy L. |title=Alternative Krishnas: regional and vernacular variations on a Hindu deity |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany, N.Y |year=2005 |isbn=0-7914-6415-6 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0SJ73GHSCF8C&dq=Radha+is+supreme&pg=PA68 p. 68]}}</ref><ref>Kakoli Basak, (1991) Rabindranath Tagore, a Humanist - p. 11</ref>
[[File:Vaikuntha Kamalaja (Podar Haveli Museum).jpg|thumb|Vaikuntha Kamalaja, a composite form of Lakshmi and Narayana]]
In the Vaishnava tradition, the divine feminine energy (''shakti'') implies a divine source of energy of the masculine aspect of God, "[[Sita]] relates to [[Rama]]; [[Lakshmi]] belongs to [[Narayana]]; [[Radha]] has Her [[Krishna]]." The female, in these divine pairs, is viewed as the source of energy and essence of the male form.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rosen|2002|p=54}}</ref><ref>Dave Symmons (1998), This is Hinduism, Nelson Thornes, {{ISBN|978-0748730933}}, page 20</ref><ref>Stella Kramrisch (1975), The Indian Great Goddess, History of Religions, Vol. 14, No. 4, pages 260-263</ref> In the [[Sri Vaishnavism|Sri Vaishnava]] tradition, Lakshmi is described to be the mediatrix of Vishnu's grace, regarded by devotees to intercede on their behalf. Her forgiveness of sins is believed to allow devotees to be in the presence of her consort, highlighting her importance.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carman |first=John Braisted |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyVfKEmEK2QC&pg=PA280 |title=Majesty and Meekness: A Comparative Study of Contrast and Harmony in the Concept of God |date=1994 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-0693-2 |pages=280 |language=en}}</ref>

In the Shaiva tradition, the supreme goddess Mahadevi is regarded to assume the form of [[Sati (Hindu goddess)|Sati]] and later [[Parvati]] to become the divine energy of Shiva.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Markale |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d3P2woLxXVsC&pg=PA173 |title=The Great Goddess: Reverence of the Divine Feminine from the Paleolithic to the Present |date=September 1999 |publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co |isbn=978-0-89281-715-3 |pages=173 |language=en}}</ref>

One of the prominent features of [[Manipuri Vaishnavism|Vaishnavism in Manipur]] is the worship of the two genders together. Devotees do not worship Krishna or Radha alone, but they worship Radha-Krishna together.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=g-wbAAAAIAAJ&q=Manipur+Radha Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature - p. 4290], Amaresh Datta, Mohan Lal,1994</ref> ''[[Rasa (theology)|Rasa]]'' and other dances are a feature of the regional folk and religious tradition and often the dancer portrays both Krishna and his consort Radha in the same piece.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schwartz|2004|p=35}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Gender of God|God and gender]]
* [[Radha Krishna]]
* [[Ardhanarishvara]]
* [[Sky father]]
{{-}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
*{{cite book
|last=Schwartz |first=Susan
|title=Rasa: performing the divine in India
|publisher=Columbia University Press
|location=New York
|year=2004
|isbn=0-231-13145-3
|url-access=registration
|url=https://archive.org/details/rasa00susa
}}
*{{cite book |last=Rosen |first=Steven |title=The hidden glory of India |publisher=[[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]] |location=[[Los Angeles]] |year=2002 |isbn=0-89213-351-1 }}
*{{cite book
|author=Valpey, Kenneth Russell
|title=Attending {{IAST|Kṛṣṇa}}'s image: {{IAST|Caitanya Vaiṣṇava mūrti-sevā}} as devotional truth
|publisher=Routledge
|location=New York
|year=2006
|isbn=0-415-38394-3
}}
*{{cite book
| author = Schweig, G.M.
| year = 2005
| title = Dance of divine love: The Rasa Lila of Krishna from the Bhagavata Purana, India's classic sacred love story.
| publisher = Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ; Oxford
| isbn = 0-691-11446-3
}}

==External links==
*{{Commonscatinline}}

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God and gender in Hinduism - Revision history

Debadrito Dutta at 22:10, 10 June 2025