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<p><b>New page</b></p><div>{{Short description|Writing systems of the Hindustani language}}<br />
{{More citations needed|date=May 2020}}<br />
{{Hindustani_language}}<br />
<br />
'''[[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]''' (standardized [[Hindi]] and standardized [[Urdu]]) has been written in several different scripts. Most Hindi texts are written in the [[Devanagari script]], which is derived from the [[Brāhmī script]] of [[Middle kingdoms of India|Ancient India]]. Most Urdu texts are written in the [[Urdu alphabet]], which comes from the [[Persian alphabet]]. Hindustani has been written in both scripts. In recent years, the [[Latin script]] has been used in these languages for technological or internationalization reasons. Historically, [[Kaithi script]] has also been used.<br />
<br />
==Devanagari script==<br />
{{See also|Devanagari}}<br />
<br />
The Devanagari script is an [[abugida]], as written consonants have an inherent vowel, which in Standard Hindi is a [[schwa]]. In certain contexts, such as at the end of words, there is no vowel, a phenomenon called the schwa syncope.<ref name="bhatia1987">{{Citation | title=A history of the Hindi grammatical tradition: Hindi-Hindustani grammar, grammarians, history and problems | author=Tej K. Bhatia | year=1987 | isbn=90-04-07924-6 | publisher=BRILL | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJOXzRXsSK0C | quote=... Hindi literature fails as a reliable indicator of the actual pronunciation because it is written in the Devanagari script ... the schwa syncope rule which operates in Hindi ...}}</ref> Other vowels are written with a diacritic on the consonant letter. Devanagari is written from left to right, with a top-bar connecting the letters together.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
! {{lang|hi|अ}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|आ}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|इ}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ई}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|उ}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ऊ}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ऋ}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ए}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ऐ}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ओ}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|औ}}<br />
!अं<br />
!अः<br />
!ऍ<br />
! {{lang|hi|ऑ}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{IPA|ə}}<br />
| {{IPA|aː}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɪ}}<br />
| {{IPA|iː}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʊ}}<br />
| {{IPA|uː}}<br />
| r̩<br />
| {{IPA|eː}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɛː}}<br />
| {{IPA|oː}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɔː}}<br />
|{{IPA|ə}}m / {{IPA|ə}}{{IPA|ɳ}} / {{IPA|ə}}{{IPA|ŋ}} / {{IPA|ə}}n <br />
|{{IPA|ə}}h<br />
|æ<br />
| {{IPA|ɒ}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
! {{lang|hi|क}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ख}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ग}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|घ}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ङ}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{IPA|k}}<br />
| {{IPA|kʰ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɡ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɡʱ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|-<br />
! {{lang|hi|च}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|छ}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ज}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|झ}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ञ}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{IPA|t͡ʃ}}<br />
| {{IPA|t͡ʃʰ}}<br />
| {{IPA|d͡ʒ}}<br />
| {{IPA|d͡ʒʱ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɲ}}<br />
|-<br />
! {{lang|hi|ट}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ठ}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ड}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ढ}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ण}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{IPA|ʈ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʈʰ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɖ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɖʱ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɳ}}<br />
|-<br />
! {{lang|hi|त}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|थ}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|द}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ध}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|न}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{IPA|t̪}}<br />
| {{IPA|t̪ʰ}}<br />
| {{IPA|d̪}}<br />
| {{IPA|d̪ʱ}}<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
|-<br />
! {{lang|hi|प}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|फ}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ब}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|भ}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|म}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{IPA|p}}<br />
| {{IPA|pʰ}}<br />
| {{IPA|b}}<br />
| {{IPA|bʱ}}<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
|-<br />
! {{lang|hi|य}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|र}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ल}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|व}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɾ}}<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʋ}}<br />
|-<br />
! {{lang|hi|श}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ष}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|स}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ह}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʂ}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɦ}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Modified consonants for non-native phonemes ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
! {{lang|hi|ख़}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ग़}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ज़}}<br />
! {{Lang|hi|झ़}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ड़}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|ढ़}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|फ़}}<br />
! {{lang|hi|क़}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{IPA|x}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɣ}}<br />
| {{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɽ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɽʱ}}<br />
| {{IPA|f}}<br />
| {{IPA|q}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Irregular ligatures:''' <br />
* क्ष (क and ष) ''kṣ'' is pronounced {{IPA|/kʂ/}} or {{IPA|/x/}} ([[wiktionary:क्ष]]) (Irregular shape, regular pronunciation)<br />
* त्र (त and र) ''tr'' is pronounced {{IPA|/t̪ɾ/}} ([[wiktionary:त्र]]) (Irregular shape, regular pronunciation)<br />
* ज्ञ (ज and ञ) ''jñ'' is pronounced {{IPA|/ɡj/}} ([[wiktionary:ज्ञ]]) (Irregular shape and pronunciation)<br />
<br />
===Schwa deletion===<br />
The schwa (अ or 'ə', sometimes written 'a') implicit in each consonant of the Devanagari script is "obligatorily deleted" in Hindi at the end of words and in certain other contexts.<ref name="hyman1988">{{Citation | title=Language, speech, and mind |author1=Larry M. Hyman |author2=Victoria Fromkin |author3=Charles N. Li | date=1988 |volume=1988, Part 2 | isbn=0-415-00311-3 | publisher=Taylor & Francis | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R6IOAAAAQAAJ | quote=... The implicit /a/ is not read when the symbol appears in word-final position or in certain other contexts where it is obligatorily deleted (via the so-called schwa-deletion rule which plays a crucial role in Hindi word phonology ...}}</ref> This phenomenon has been termed the "''schwa syncope rule''" or the "''schwa deletion rule''" of Hindi.<ref name="bhatia1987" /><ref name="hyman1988" /> One formalization of this rule has been summarized as ''ə -> ø | VC_CV''. In other words, when a vowel-preceded consonant is followed by a vowel-succeeded consonant, the schwa inherent in the first consonant is deleted.<ref name="bhatia1987" /><ref name="choudhury2004">{{Citation | title=A Diachronic Approach for Schwa Deletion in Indo Aryan Languages |author1=Monojit Choudhury |author2=Anupam Basu |author3=Sudeshna Sarkar |date = July 2004| journal=Proceedings of the Workshop of the ACL Special Interest Group on Computational Phonology | publisher=Association for Computations Linguistics | url=http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W/W04/W04-0103.pdf | quote=... schwa deletion is an important issue for grapheme-to-phoneme conversion of IAL, which in turn is required for a good Text-to-Speech synthesizer ...}}</ref> However, this formalization is inexact and incomplete (i.e. sometimes deletes a schwa when it shouldn't or, at other times, fails to delete it when it should), and can yield errors. Schwa deletion is computationally important because it is essential to building [[Speech synthesis|text-to-speech]] software for Hindi.<ref name="choudhury2004" /><ref name="tyson2009">{{Citation | title=Prosodic rules for schwa-deletion in Hindi text-to-speech synthesis |author1=Naim R. Tyson |author2=Ila Nagar | date=2009 |volume=12 |pages=15–25 | journal=International Journal of Speech Technology | quote=... Without the appropriate deletion of schwas, any speech output would sound unnatural. Since the orthographical representation of Devanagari gives little indication of deletion sites, modern TTS systems for Hindi implemented schwa deletion rules based on the segmental context where schwa appears ...|doi=10.1007/s10772-009-9040-x }}</ref><br />
<br />
As a result of schwa syncope, the correct Hindi pronunciation of many words differs from that expected from a literal rendering of Devanagari. For instance, राम is ''Rām'' (incorrect: ''Rāma''), रचना is ''Rachnā'' (incorrect: ''Rachanā''), वेद is ''Véd'' (incorrect: ''Véda'') and नमकीन is ''Namkeen'' (incorrect ''Namakeena'').<ref name="choudhury2004" /><ref name="tyson2009" /><br />
<br />
==Persian script==<br />
{{Main|Urdu alphabet}}<br />
{{See also|Nastaʿlīq script}}<br />
The Urdu alphabet is based on the [[Persian alphabet|Persian]], which is an [[Arabic script|Arabic alphabet]]. Urdu is written from right to left, and most letters link together. This leads to variations in the form of a letter depending on its position in a word. Most [[vowel]]s are omitted in generic texts, although they may be written for disambiguation or for pedagogical purposes. Urdu is primarily written in a [[calligraphy|calligraphic]] style of the script called [[Nasta'liq]].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Letter !!Nasta‘liq!! Name of letter !! Transcription !! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ا}} || {{Nastaliq| ا }} || ''alif'' || a, i, u || {{IPA|/ə/}}, {{IPA|/ɪ/}}, {{IPA|/ʊ/}} <br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|آ}} || {{Nastaliq| آ }} || ''alif madda'' || ā || /ɑː/<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ب}} || {{Nastaliq| ب }} || ''be'' || b || {{IPA|/b/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|پ}} || {{Nastaliq| پ }} || ''pe'' || p || {{IPA|/p/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ت}} || {{Nastaliq| ت }} || ''te'' || t || {{IPA|/t̪/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ٹ}} || {{Nastaliq| ٹ }} || ''ṭe'' || ṭ || {{IPA|/ʈ/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ث}} || {{Nastaliq| ث }} || ''se'' || s || {{IPA|/s/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ج}} || {{Nastaliq| ج }} || ''jīm'' || j || {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|چ}} || {{Nastaliq| چ }} || ''che'' || ch || {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ح}} || {{Nastaliq| ح }} || ''baṛī he'' || h || {{IPA|/h/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|خ}} || {{Nastaliq| خ }} || ''khe'' || kh || {{IPA|/x/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|د}} || {{Nastaliq| د }} || ''dāl'' || d || {{IPA|/d̪/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ڈ}} || {{Nastaliq| ڈ }} || ''ḍāl'' || ḍ || {{IPA|/ɖ/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ذ}} || {{Nastaliq| ذ }} || ''zāl'' || dh || {{IPA|/z/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ر}} || {{Nastaliq| ر }} || ''re'' || r || {{IPA|/r/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ڑ}} || {{Nastaliq| ڑ }} || ''ṛe'' || ṛ || {{IPA|/ɽ/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ز}} || {{Nastaliq| ز }} || ''ze'' || z || {{IPA|/z/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ژ}} || {{Nastaliq| ژ }} || ''zhe'' || zh || {{IPA|/ʒ/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|س}} || {{Nastaliq| س }} || ''sīn'' || s || {{IPA|/s/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ش}} || {{Nastaliq| ش }} || ''shīn'' || sh || {{IPA|/ʃ/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ص}} || {{Nastaliq| ص }} || ''su'ād'' || ṣ || {{IPA|/s/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ض}} || {{Nastaliq| ض }} || ''zu'ād'' || z̤ || {{IPA|/z/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ط}} || {{Nastaliq| ط }} || ''to'e'' || t || {{IPA|/t/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ظ}} || {{Nastaliq| ظ }} || ''zo'e'' || ẓ || {{IPA|/z/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ع}} || {{Nastaliq| ع }} || ''‘ain'' || ' || {{IPA|/ʔ/}} <ref>{{cite web |title=Urdu Phonetic Inventory |url=http://www.cle.org.pk/Downloads/ling_resources/phoneticinventory/UrduPhoneticInventory.pdf |website=www.cle.org.pk |publisher=Center for Language Engineering |access-date=19 May 2020}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|غ}} || {{Nastaliq| غ }} || ''ghain'' || gh || {{IPA|/ɣ/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ف}} || {{Nastaliq| ف }} || ''fe'' || f || {{IPA|/f/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ق}} || {{Nastaliq| ق }} || ''qāf'' || q || {{IPA|/q/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ک}} || {{Nastaliq| ک }} || ''kāf'' || k || {{IPA|/k/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|گ}} || {{Nastaliq| گ }} || ''gāf'' || g || {{IPA|/ɡ/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ل}} || {{Nastaliq| ل }} || ''lām'' || l || {{IPA|/l/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|م}} || {{Nastaliq| م }} || ''mīm'' || m || {{IPA|/m/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ن}} || {{Nastaliq| ن }} || ''nūn'' || n || {{IPA|/n/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ں}} || {{Nastaliq| ں }} || ''nūn ghunna'' || n || {{IPA|/~/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|و}} || {{Nastaliq| و }} || ''vā'o'' || v, o, or ū || {{IPA|/ʋ/}}, {{IPA|/oː/}}, {{IPA|/ɔ/}} or {{IPA|/uː/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ہ}}|| {{Nastaliq| ہ }} || ''choṭī he'' || h || {{IPA|/h/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ھ}} || {{Nastaliq| ھ }} || ''do chashmī he'' || h || {{IPA|/ʰ/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ء}} || {{Nastaliq|ئ, ۓ, ؤ}}|| ''hamza'' || ' || {{IPA|/ʔ/}} {{Citation needed|reason= this is the IPA for Hamza in Arabic, i think it might be more complicated in Urdu, usually attached to other letters ئ ؤ ۓ ۂ |date=February 2020}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ی}} || {{Nastaliq| ی }} || ''ye'' || y, i || {{IPA|/j/}} or {{IPA|/iː/}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{lang|ur|ے}} || {{Nastaliq| ے }} || ''barī ye'' || ai or e || {{IPA|/ɛː/}}, or {{IPA|/eː/}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Latin script ==<br />
{{main|Roman Urdu|Devanagari transliteration}}<br />
<br />
The [[Latin script]] has been used to write Hindustani for technological or internationalization reasons. [[Devanagari transliteration|Roman Hindi]] and [[Roman Urdu]] uses the [[ISO basic Latin alphabet|basic Latin alphabet]]. It is most commonly used by young native speakers for technological applications, such as [[online chat|chat]], [[email]]s and [[Short Message Service|SMS]].<br />
<br />
[[ITRANS]], [[ISCII]], [[IAST]] (and the near-identical [[ISO 15919]]), and [[Harvard-Kyoto]] romanization schemes have been employed primarily for usage by non-native speakers who are more familiar with the Latin alphabet.<br />
<br />
== Transliteration ==<br />
<br />
Transliteration between the three scripts can be complicated, particularly when transliterating between Devanagari and Persian scripts.<ref name="Beyond Simple Transliteration">{{cite journal |last1=Jawaid |first1=Bushra |last2=Ahmed |first2=Tafseer |title=Hindi to Urdu Conversion: Beyond Simple Transliteration |journal=Proceedings of the Conference on Language & Technology 2009 |date=2009 |url=http://www.cle.org.pk/clt09/download/Papers/Paper4.pdf |access-date=19 May 2020}}</ref> One obstacle to this is that multiple different letters in one script often all correspond to the same letter in the other script.<ref name="Beyond Simple Transliteration"/> So, simple substitution often does not produce the correct spellings.<br />
<br />
=== Urdu letters with similar sounds ===<br />
Some sets of Urdu letters have matching sounds.<ref name="Beyond Simple Transliteration"/><ref name="Colloquial Urdu Textbook">{{cite web |last1=Bhatia |first1=Tej K. |last2=Khoul |first2=Ashok |last3=Koul |first3=Ashok |title=Colloquial Urdu: The Complete Course for Beginners |url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=VsVzCgAAQBAJ&hl=en&pg=GBS.PT34.w.6.0.2 |publisher=Routledge |access-date=19 May 2020 |language=en |date=27 August 2015}}</ref> <br />
* 4 letters {{lang|ur| ز ذ ض ظ }} are all ≈ Z <ref name="Beyond Simple Transliteration"/><ref name="Colloquial Urdu Textbook"/> <br />
* 3 letters {{lang|ur| س ص ث }} are all ≈ S <ref name="Beyond Simple Transliteration"/><ref name="Colloquial Urdu Textbook"/> <br />
* 2 letters {{lang|ur| ت ط }} are both ≈ T <ref name="Beyond Simple Transliteration"/><ref name="Colloquial Urdu Textbook"/> (a third letter {{lang|ur| ٹ }} is also often shown as English T, but is different to the other two Urdu letters, see [[#retroflex consonants]] below.)<br />
* 2 letters {{lang|ur| ہ ح }} are both ≈ H <ref name="Colloquial Urdu Textbook"/> but are sometimes regarded as distinct.<br />
<br />
==Braille script==<br />
{{main|Hindi Braille|Urdu Braille}}<br />
<br />
Three braille alphabets are used: [[Hindi Braille|Hindi]] and [[Urdu Braille|Urdu]] braille in India, based on [[Bharati braille]] conventions, and [[Urdu Braille]] in Pakistan, based on [[Persian Braille]] conventions. Hindi Braille is an alphabet with ''a'' not written in some environments, while for Urdu Braille in Pakistan, it seems that vowels may be optional as they are in print.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Uddin and Begum Hindustani Romanisation]]<br />
* [[Hindi–Urdu transliteration]]<br />
* [[Hindustani etymology]]<br />
* [[Hindustani phonology]]<br />
* [[Hindustani grammar]]<br />
* [[Nukta]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hindustani Orthography}}<br />
[[Category:Hindustani orthography| ]]<br />
[[Category:Hindustani language]]<br />
[[Category:Hindi]]<br />
[[Category:Urdu]]<br />
<br />
[[es:Alfabeto hindi]]</div>Garrydum