Ajay Kumar at 08:04, 12 August 2023

2023-08-12T08:04:34Z

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{{main article|Housing in India}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
[[File:Wadala slums - Mumbai.jpg|thumb|[[Wadala]] slums. Over the years, [[slum]] development had started in Wadala adjacent to the railway tracks and a large colony began to form. In 2006, the [[Government of Maharashtra|state government]] took action and cleared the area of slums.<ref name='wadala slum dna'>{{cite news | author =Sharad Vyas | author2 =Surendra Gangan | title =Wadala slums seek help | date =4 April 2006 | url =https://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-wadala-slums-seek-divine-help-1021928 | work =DNA | access-date =25 June 2009 }}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>]]
'''Illegal housing in India''' consists of [[shanty town|huts or shanties]] built on land not owned by the residents (i.e., [[squatting]]) and [[illegal building]]s constructed on land not owned by the builders or developers. Although illegal buildings may afford some basic services, such as [[electricity]], in general, illegal housing does not provide services that afford for healthy, safe environments.

Collapses of illegal buildings made with inadequate building supplies and practices may result in the deaths of their occupants. A recent example is the [[2013 Thane building collapse|4 April 2013 collapse]] of an eight-story building in the [[Shil Phata, India|Shil Phata]] area of [[Mumbra]], in the greater [[Mumbai]] area; 72 people were killed in the collapse.

Strategies to curb or mitigate illegal housing include creating more [[affordable housing]] structures, redeveloping the safe illegal buildings, developing a plan of action for residents of shanties or illegal buildings, and policing the construction of illegal buildings or shanties.
[[File:Mumbai International Airport, India. (13906862097).jpg|thumb|An aerial view of the slums and shanties around Mumbai/Bombay Airport]]

==Definition==
Illegal housing is a [[black economy]] activity, where individuals either encroach upon property illegally or pay for housing that is illegal. In such cases, there are little or no public services or utilities. In some cases electricity or water is accessed illegally. Illness is an issue due to poor water supply and the unavailability of sewage and garbage services.<ref name="Kumar p. 160">{{cite book | title=Black Economy in India | publisher=Penguin Books India | author=Arun Kumar | year=2002 | pages=160–161 | isbn=0143028677}}</ref>

To ensure continued residency in the illegally occupied area, its inhabitants generally bribe corrupt officials, [[corruption in India|corruption being an everlasting problem]] in India. More often than not, relationships with municipal offices, police and local representatives are organised by a third party with interests in ensuring that the illegal housing is not demolished. Because illegal property is not taxed, there is no income stream to pay for health or other municipal services that are required for its inhabitants.<ref name="Kumar p. 160" />

==History and background==

===Legal environment===
Ineffective [[Land reform in India|land reform]] and [[rent control]] policies beginning in the 1950s and building height and [[Urban Land Ceiling Act (India)|land ceiling restrictions]] of the 1970s have "single-handedly exacerbated overcrowding and lack of urban space in India several times over," according to Vinayak Chatterjee, government and private sector [[infrastructure]] consultant. India had the world's lowest percentage of affordable housing by the 1980s.<ref name="Nilekani p. 225">{{cite book | title=Imagining India: The @idea of a Renewed Nation | publisher=Penguin | author=Nandan Nilekani | author-link=Nandan Nilekani | year=2009 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/imaginingindiaid00nile/page/225 225] | isbn=978-1594202049 | url=https://archive.org/details/imaginingindiaid00nile/page/225 }}</ref>

[[Nandan Nilekani]], author of ''Imagining India: The idea of a Renewed Nation'' commented:
<blockquote>A series of well-meaning but horribly counterproductive laws passed during this decade [1970s], which gave an immense leg up to interest groups in the city. The rent-control legislation and the [[Urban Land Ceiling Act (India)|Urban Land Ceiling Act]] had effects that, in the best of social tradition, were just the opposite of what they intended. The rent act, by stating minimal leasing periods and strict eviction limits, basically gave renters carte blanche to squat and quickly took unoccupied housing off the market, and the land ceiling act shifted large amounts of land into the illegal market.<ref name="Nilekani p. 205">{{cite book | title=Imagining India: The @idea of a Renewed Nation | publisher=Penguin | author=Nandan Nilekani | author-link=Nandan Nilekani | year=2009 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/imaginingindiaid00nile/page/205 205] | isbn=978-1594202049 | url=https://archive.org/details/imaginingindiaid00nile/page/205 }}</ref></blockquote>

The real estate development market in Indian can exhibit [[monopoly|monopolistic]] and [[oligopoly|oligopolistic]] tendencies. Since the 1990s all of [[Mumbai]]'s available private land has been controlled by a small group of development organisations where land is "released in small quantities when prices were high." Governmental agencies, like the [[Delhi Development Authority]] (DDA), control the [[Delhi]] real estate market place since the Delhi Development Act of 1957, which prevents private developers from entering the market.<ref name="Nilekani p. 205" />

The multiple initiative [[Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission]] was launched in 2005, but ineffective due to poor execution. Greater success could be found through improved, fair and effective regulation; stronger engagement of the private sector; and policies that allow for use of private capital.<ref>{{cite book | title=Imagining India: The @idea of a Renewed Nation | publisher=Penguin | author=Nandan Nilekani | author-link=Nandan Nilekani | year=2009 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/imaginingindiaid00nile/page/170 170–171, 493] | isbn=978-1594202049 | url=https://archive.org/details/imaginingindiaid00nile/page/170 }}</ref> Enabling city governments to become more effective urban managers, through coordination or delegation of duties performed at the state level and training, will also create an environment for more effective urban renewal projects.<ref>{{cite book | title=Imagining India: The @idea of a Renewed Nation | publisher=Penguin | author=Nandan Nilekani | author-link=Nandan Nilekani | year=2009 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/imaginingindiaid00nile/page/210 210] | isbn=978-1594202049 | url=https://archive.org/details/imaginingindiaid00nile/page/210 }}</ref>

The early years of the 21st century have seen a worsening of urban services, including housing, resulting in "informal, non-state solutions" such as local efforts to provide utility services to slums for a fee.<ref>{{cite book | title=Imagining India: The @idea of a Renewed Nation | publisher=Penguin | author=Nandan Nilekani | author-link=Nandan Nilekani | year=2009 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/imaginingindiaid00nile/page/207 207] | isbn=978-1594202049 | url=https://archive.org/details/imaginingindiaid00nile/page/207 }}</ref>

===Population growth and inadequate affordable housing===

The [[Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation (India)|Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation]] reported by 2013 that there are approximately 19 million families without affordable housing.<ref name=Reuters/>

A lack of housing coupled with high [[population growth]], and has resulted in individuals living in low-cost illegal buildings<ref name=Reuters>{{cite web|last=Prakash |first=Vivek |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-mumbai-collapse-idUSBRE93502220130406 |title=Death toll rises to 72 in Mumbai building collapse |publisher=Reuters |access-date=6 April 2013}}</ref><ref name=BBC>{{ cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-22036751 |title=India building collapse near Mumbai kills 45. | publisher=[[BBC News]] | date=5 April 2013 | access-date=5 April 2013}}</ref> or building [[shanty town|shanties]] or huts on illegal land.<ref name="Nilekani p. 205" /> For instance, many people have moved to the greater Mumbai area in search of jobs, and without affordable housing, thousands sleep in slums or on the streets.<ref name=Reuters/> As a result, there is a trend of increased illegal housing in municipalities within Mumbai Metropolitan Development Authority.<ref name="TOI Govt knew Thank district">{{ cite web | url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-04-06/mumbai/38326763_1_illegal-structures-illegal-construction-construction-cost | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130409081445/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-04-06/mumbai/38326763_1_illegal-structures-illegal-construction-construction-cost | url-status=dead | archive-date=9 April 2013 | title=Govt knew Thane district had 5 lakh illegal buildings, but did little. | date=6 April 2013 | work=[[The Times of India]] | access-date=7 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite news | author=HT Correspondent | url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/Mumbai/Illegal-Buildings-a-big-issue-in-Vasai-Virar/Article1-717403.aspx | title=Illegal Buildings a big issue in Vasai-Virar. | work=Hindustan Times| date=5 July 2011 | access-date=7 April 2013 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130305013729/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/Mumbai/Illegal-Buildings-a-big-issue-in-Vasai-Virar/Article1-717403.aspx | archive-date=5 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{ cite news | author=Pradeep Gupta | url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-10-26/mumbai/34749042_1_illegal-construction-pappu-kalani-corporator | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112022706/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-10-26/mumbai/34749042_1_illegal-construction-pappu-kalani-corporator | url-status=dead | archive-date=12 November 2013 | title=Ulhasnagar corporator accused of illegal construction on river bed | date=26 October 2012 | work=[[The Times of India]] | access-date=7 April 2013 }}</ref> In the Thane district alone, there were reported to be 500,000 illegal buildings by 2010.<ref name="TOI Govt knew Thank district" />

Further complicating land development projects, groupings of huts or shanties on illegal land can stall projects until there is a plan and action taken to remove or relocate the squatters.<ref name="Nilekani p. 225" />

==Illegal housing==

===Illegal buildings===
[[File:NDRF Response at Bellary Building Collapse.jpg|thumb|23 dead bodies following the collapse of an illegal building in Bellary, [[Karnataka]] on 26 January 2010.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/building-collapse-death-toll-mounts-to-15/article96997.ece | title=Building collapse: Death toll mounts to 15 | work=The Hindu| date=29 January 2010 | access-date=7 April 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-22058457 | title=Mumbai building collapse: Indian police arrest nine | publisher=BBC | date=7 April 2013 | access-date=7 April 2013}}</ref>]]

To meet the demands of people moving to New Delhi, Mumbai and other large cities for jobs, and due to the unavailability of affordable housing, there are many buildings constructed illegally.<ref name=Reuters/><ref name=BBC/><ref name=WSJ>{{cite news | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324504704578408722755780256 | title=India Arrests 9 People in Fatal Building Collapse | publisher=[[The Wall Street Journal]]| date=7 April 2013 | access-date=8 April 2013}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|Legal building construction requires filing of blueprints to municipal agencies, receiving blueprint approval and obtaining permits to connect to electricity, water and sewage services.<ref name=WSJ/>|group="nb"}} The buildings are often created quickly. Some builders neither follow proper building practices and laws, nor execute proper safety measures. Poor construction materials are also to blame in these circumstances.<ref name=Reuters/><ref name=BBC/><ref name=WSJ/> Within the Mumbai region there are estimated to be hundreds of illegal structures that have been built. Sameer Hashmi, BBC reporter, reports that activists "allege that unscrupulous builders often pay hefty bribes to authorities who turn a blind eye to these illegal structures and do not take any action against the builders."<ref name=BBC/>

====Building collapses====
In the wake of the [[2013 Thane building collapse]] that killed 72 people, CNN reported that police had "registered a case of culpable homicide against the builder of the structure".<ref name="CNN 72">{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/04/06/world/asia/india-fatal-bulding-collapse/index.html?hpt=hp_t3 |title=Death toll rises to 72 in India building collapse |publisher=CNN |access-date=6 April 2013}}</ref>

In New Delhi in November 2010, there were 67 people or more killed from the collapse of an apartment building.<ref name=WSJ/>

===Illegal huts or shanties===
Huts or shanties built on illegal land are sometimes assembled with brick and concrete, but often made with [[cardboard (paper product)|cardboard]], [[tin]] and [[plastic]]. Hut communities, or [[slum]]s, may be managed by slum lords, which may have access to water, but rarely sewer facilities.<ref name="Nilekani p. 205,206, 225" /> The term "slum" does not in all cases mean that the community is an illegal one; some slums are legal housing communities.<ref>{{cite book | title=The Challenge of Slums: Global Report on Human Settlements 2003 | publisher=UN-HABITAT | author=United Nations human settlements programme| year=2003 | pages=92 | isbn=1844070379| edition=4th }}</ref>

As of 2009 there were about 170 million people living in slums. About 66% of Mumbai's residents live in shanties, including about 40% of the city's police force. Mumbai's largest [[mafia]] organisation, [[D-Company]], has leased access to public lands that they have gained through squatting.<ref name="Nilekani p. 205,206, 225">{{cite book | title=Imagining India: The @idea of a Renewed Nation | publisher=Penguin | author=Nandan Nilekani | author-link=Nandan Nilekani | year=2009 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/imaginingindiaid00nile/page/205 205–206, 225] | isbn=978-1594202049 | url=https://archive.org/details/imaginingindiaid00nile/page/205 }}</ref>

==Political dynamics==
Actions and reactions to illegal housing run the gamut from entitlement to eviction. In a 1991 project called "Operation Eviction" from [[A R Antulay|A. R. Antulay]]'s government, thousands of people from [[Maharashtra]] slums were transported great distances away from their homes. In the previous decade [[Arjun Singh (politician, born 1930)|Arjun Singh]], the [[Madhya Pradesh]] Chief Minister, handed out land rights, called {{lang|sa|pattas}}, to illegal communities.<ref name="Nilekani p. 225" />

[[Slum Dwellers International]] is a global movement of the urban poor. SDI aims to ensure that the needs of its members are integrated and not marginalised by city administrations.<ref>{{cite book |last1=OECD |title=Poverty Reduction and Pro-Poor Growth |date=2012 |publisher=OECD |location=Paris |isbn=9789264168350 |doi=10.1787/9789264168350-en }}</ref> The current chairperson is [[Sheela Patel]].

==Strategies==
Strategies for curbing and managing illegal structures include:
;Affordable Housing
* Construction of affordable housing, perhaps replicating the [[residential cluster development|cluster development]] model used in Mumbai<ref name="90% of Mumbra">{{cite web | url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-04-06/mumbai/38327076_1_prithviraj-chavan-mumbra-illegal-structures | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411233157/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-04-06/mumbai/38327076_1_prithviraj-chavan-mumbra-illegal-structures | url-status=dead | archive-date=11 April 2013 | title=90% Mumbra buildings illegal or irregular: CM | date=6 April 2013 | work=[[The Times of India]] | access-date=7 April 2013}}</ref>
;Identify and take action on illegal buildings
* Increased policing to curb illegal building construction<ref name="90% of Mumbra" />
* Establish call centres to field complaints and track actions taken<ref name="Illegal structures abound" />
* Use [[remote sensing]] technology to identify illegal buildings<ref name="Illegal structures abound">{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/illegal-structures-abound-in-thane/article4588979.ece | title=Illegal structures abound in Thane (photo of builders) | date=7 April 2013 | work=The Hindu| access-date=9 April 2013 | author=Alok Deshpande, Meena Menon | location=Mumbai}}</ref>
;Development schemes
* Redevelopment of existing, structurally sound illegal buildings<ref name="90% of Mumbra" />
* [[Brownfield land|Brownfield]] town planning for illegal, dangerous buildings<ref name="90% of Mumbra" />

==See also==
* [[Indian states ranking by families owning house]]
* [[Corruption in India]]
* [[Housing in India]]
* [[Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation (India)]]
* [[Pavement dwellers]]
* [[Shanty town]]
* [[Squatting]]
* [[List of slums in India|Slums in India]]
* [[Street children in India]]
* [[Urbanisation in India]]
;Sanitation
* [[Manual scavenging]]
* [[Water supply and sanitation in India]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group="nb"}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Commons category|Slums in India}}
;Books
* {{cite book | title=Housing in the Third World: Analyses and Solutions | author= Leslie Kilmartin, Harjinder Singh | year =1992 | publisher =Concept Publishing Company | isbn=8170222842 }}
* {{cite book | title=The Challenge of Slums: Global Report on Human Settlements 2003 | publisher=UN-HABITAT | author=United Nations human settlements programme | year=2003 | pages=92 | isbn=1844070379| edition=4th }}
;Newspaper articles
* {{ cite news | title=Affordable housing for masses is the only solution to illegal construction: Experts | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/thane/Affordable-housing-for-masses-is-the-only-solution-to-illegal-construction-Experts/articleshow/19436663.cms | author = Nitin Yeshwantrao, TNN |work= [[The Times of India]]| date= 8 April 2013 | access-date=8 April 2013 }}
* {{ cite news | title=LDA's invitation to illegal societies | publisher=Hindustan Times | location=New Delhi, India | date=18 September 2007 }}

{{Social issues in India}}
{{Squatting}}

[[Category:Corruption in India]]
[[Category:Housing in India]]
[[Category:Slums in India]]
[[Category:Poverty in India|housing]]
[[Category:Illegal housing]]
[[Category:Squatting in India]]

Illegal housing in India - Revision history

Ajay Kumar at 08:04, 12 August 2023