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{{Short description|Dramatic tradition of classical India}}
{{History of literature5}}
{{History of literature by era}}

The term '''Indian classical drama''' refers to the tradition of dramatic literature and performance in ancient [[India]]. The roots of drama in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to the [[Rigveda]] (1200-1500 BCE), which contains a number of hymns in the form of dialogues, or even scenes, as well as hymns that make use of other literary forms such as animal fables<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Stoneman|first=Richard|url=https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691154039/the-greek-experience-of-india|title=The Greek Experience of India|date=2019-02-05|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-0-691-15403-9|pages=413|language=en}}</ref> However, Indian drama begins its classical stage in the [[Classical India|classical period]] with the composition of the [[Natya Shastra|Nātyaśāstra]] (''lit. The Science of Drama'').<ref name="History of Indian Theatre">{{Cite book|last1=Varadpande|first1=M. L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyxOHOCVcVkC|title=History of Indian Theatre|last2=Varadpande|first2=Manohar Laxman|date=1987|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-221-5|language=en}}</ref> Indian classical drama is regarded as the highest achievement of [[Sanskrit literature]].<ref name="Brandon 1981, xvii">Brandon (1981, xvii).</ref>

The [[Buddhist]] playwright, poet and philosopher [[Asvaghosa]], who composed the ''[[Buddhacarita]]'', is considered to have been one of the first Sanskrit dramatists along with [[Bhāsa]], who likely lived in the 2nd century BCE, and is famous for writing two of the only surviving tragedies in Sanskrit drama.

Despite its name, a classical Sanskrit drama uses both [[Sanskrit]] and [[Prakrit]] languages giving it a bilingual nature.<ref name="Baumer Brandon 1993">{{cite book|author1=Rachel Van M. Baumer|author2=James R. Brandon|title=Sanskrit Drama in Performance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ix-RShGgZUAC&pg=PA25|year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0772-3|pages=25–}}</ref> Sanskrit drama utilised [[stock character]]s, such as the hero (''nayaka''), heroine (''nayika''), or clown (''vidusaka''). Actors may have specialised in a particular type. [[Mahābhāṣya]] by [[Patañjali]] contains the earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of Sanskrit drama.<ref name="Richmond 1998, 517">Richmond (1998, 517).</ref> This treatise on [[grammar]] provides a feasible date for the beginnings of [[theatre in India]].<ref name="Richmond 1998, 517"/>

[[Kālidāsa]] in the 4th-5th century CE, was arguably one of ancient [[India]]'s greatest Sanskrit dramatists. Three famous romantic plays written by Kālidāsa are the ''[[Mālavikāgnimitram]]'' (''Mālavikā and Agnimitra''), ''[[Vikramōrvaśīyam]]'' (''Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi''), and ''[[The Recognition of Sakuntala|Abhijñānaśākuntalam]]'' (''The Recognition of Shakuntala''). The last was inspired by a story in the ''Mahabharata'' and is the most famous. It was the first to be translated into [[English language|English]] and [[German language|German]]. ''[[Abhijñānaśākuntalam|Śakuntalā]]'' (in English translation) influenced [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe's]] ''[[Goethe's Faust|Faust]]'' (1808–1832).<ref name="Brandon 1981, xvii"/> The next great Indian dramatist was [[Bhavabhuti]] (c. 7th century CE). He is said to have written the following three plays: ''Malati-Madhava'', ''Mahaviracharita'' and ''Uttararamacarita''. Among these three, the last two cover between them the entire epic of ''Ramayana''. The powerful Indian emperor [[Harsha]] (606–648) is credited with having written three plays: the comedy ''[[Ratnavali]]'', ''[[Priyadarsika]]'', and the [[Buddhist]] drama ''[[Nagananda]]''. Other famous [[Sanskrit]] [[drama]]tists include [[Śhudraka]], [[Bhasa]], and [[Asvaghosa]]. Though numerous plays written by these playwrights are still available, little is known about the authors themselves.

==Beginnings==
The roots of Indian drama go back to the Rigveda, which contains a number of dialogues, acts and scenes, as well as literary devices such as animal fables and riddles. In many Vedic rituals, musical instruments like the flute and lyre are invariably used<ref name=":0" /><ref name="History of Indian Theatre"/> [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] (~800–700 BCE) has [[Shloka|verses]] in chapter 13.2 written in the form of a play between two actors.<ref name="var1">ML Varadpande (1990), History of Indian Theatre, Volume 1, Abhinav, {{ISBN|978-8170172789}}, page 48</ref> Early Buddhist literature provides the earliest evidence for the existence of Indian theatre. The Pali [[Sutta Pitaka|suttas]] (ranging in date from the 5th to 3rd centuries BCE) refer to the existence of troupes of actors (led by a chief actor), who performed dramas on a stage. It is indicated that these dramas incorporated dance, but were listed as a distinct form of performance, alongside dancing, singing, and story recitations.<ref>Rachel Van M. Baumer and James R. Brandon (ed.), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ix-RShGgZUAC&dq=actor+drama+pali&pg=PA11 ''Sanskrit Drama in Performance''] (University of Hawaii Press, 1981), pp.11</ref>{{efn|group=note|According to later Buddhist texts, King [[Bimbisara]] (a contemporary of [[Gautama Buddha]]) had a drama performed for another king. This would be as early as the 5th century BCE, but the event is only described in much later texts, from the 3rd-4th centuries CE.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ix-RShGgZUAC&dq=actor+drama+pali&pg=PA11 ''Sanskrit Drama in Performance''], p.11</ref>}}

A terracotta mask that was likely used in theatrical performances was excavated in Chirand, Bihar. Stratigraphical analysis dates the find to the 3rd or 4th century BCE, thus making it likely that theatre in India was fairly developed during this time. It is broad enough to have been worn comfortably on the nose, and the actor can easily see through the perforated nose. [[Bharata Muni|Bharatamuni]] mentions ''Pratishirsha'' in his Natyashastra, and these masks were likely full-headed masks with diadems and appropriate hair style appendages.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Varadpande|first=M. L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYuJWxLv-U0C&dq=Chirand+Bihar+theatre+mask&pg=PA111|title=Ancient Indian And Indo-Greek Theatre|date=1981|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-147-8|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Claus|first1=Peter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dg4HEAAAQBAJ&dq=Chirand+Bihar+theatre+mask&pg=PA388|title=South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia|last2=Diamond|first2=Sarah|last3=Mills|first3=Margaret|date=2020-10-28|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-000-10122-5|language=en}}</ref>

Some of the earliest-surviving fragments of Sanskrit drama date from c.200 BCE.<ref>{{cite book|title=Theatre in Your Life|page=218|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xeUbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA218|author=Robert Barton, Annie McGregor|publisher=CengageBrain|isbn=9781285463483|date=2014-01-03}}</ref><ref>Brandon (1981, xvii) and Richmond (1998, 516-517).</ref> The ''[[Mahābhāṣya]]'' by [[Patañjali]] contains the earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of classical Sanskrit drama.<ref name="Richmond 1998, 517"/> This treatise on [[grammar]] from the 2nd century BCE provides a feasible date for the beginnings of [[theatre in India]].<ref name="Richmond 1998, 517"/>

Since the time of [[Alexander the Great]], the Indian subcontinent came into direct contact with [[Greek culture]]. This has led to a scholarly debate about how much influence [[Theatre of ancient Greece|Ancient Greek drama]] had upon the development of Indian theatre.<ref>Arthur Berriedale Keith, [https://books.google.com/books?id=sfqRhylNBpwC&dq=greek+influence+sanskrit+drama&pg=PA57 ''The Sanskrit Drama in Its Origin, Development, Theory & Practice''] (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1992), p.57-68</ref>

==Theory==

=== Natya Shastra ===
{{main|Natya Shastra}}
A major source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre is ''[[Natyashastra|A Treatise on Theatre]]'' (''Nātyaśāstra''), a compendium whose date of composition is uncertain (estimates range from 200 BCE to 200 CE) and whose authorship is attributed to [[Bharata Muni]]. The ''Treatise'' is the most complete work of dramaturgy in the ancient world{{according to whom|date=August 2023}}. It addresses [[acting]], [[dance]], [[music]], [[Dramaturgy|dramatic construction]], architecture, [[Costume design|costuming]], [[Theatrical makeup|make-up]], [[Theatrical properties|props]], the organisation of companies, the audience, competitions, and offers a [[Hindu mythology|mythological]] account of the origin of theatre.<ref name="Richmond 1998, 517"/> In doing so, it provides indications about the nature of actual theatrical practices. Sanskrit theatre was performed on sacred ground by priests who had been trained in the necessary skills (dance, music, and recitation) in an hereditary process. Its aim was both to educate and to entertain.

Under the patronage of royal courts, performers belonged to professional companies that were directed by a stage manager (''sutradhara''), who may also have acted.<ref>Brandon (1981, xvii) and Richmond (1998, 517).</ref> This task was thought of as being analogous to that of a [[Puppetry|puppeteer]]—the literal meaning of "''sutradhara''" is "holder of the strings or threads".<ref name="Richmond 1998, 517"/> The performers were trained rigorously in vocal and physical technique.<ref>Richmond (1998, 518).</ref> There were no prohibitions against female performers; companies were all-male, all-female, and of mixed gender. Certain sentiments were considered inappropriate for men to enact, however, and were thought better suited to women. Some performers played characters their own age, while others played characters younger or older than themselves. Of all the elements of theatre, the ''Treatise'' gives most attention to acting (''abhinaya''), which consists of two styles: realistic (''lokadharmi'') and conventional (''natyadharmi''), though the major focus is on the latter.<ref>Richmond (1998, 518). The literal meaning of ''abhinaya'' is "to carry forwards".</ref>

==Plays==
{{further|List of Sanskrit plays in English translation}}

===''Mricchakatika'' (''The Little Clay Cart'')===

{{main|Mrichakatika}}
One of the earliest known Sanskrit plays, this play was composed by [[Śudraka]] in the 2nd century BC. Rife with romance, sex, royal intrigue and comedy, the juicy plot of the play has numerous twists and turns. The main story is about a young man named Charudatta, and his love for Vasantasena, a rich courtesan or [[nagarvadhu]]. The love affair is complicated by a royal courtier, who is also attracted to Vasantasena. The plot is further complicated by thieves and mistaken identities, and thus making it a greatly hilarious and entertaining play. It invited widespread admiration when staged in New York in 1924. The play was made into a 1984 [[Bollywood|Hindi]] movie ''[[Utsav]]'', directed by [[Girish Karnad]]. The Indian play depicted in the 2001 film ''[[Moulin Rouge!]]'' may have been based on ''The Little Clay Cart''.

===Bhāsa===
{{Main|Bhāsa}}
The plays written by Bhāsa were known to historians only through the references of later writers, as the manuscripts themselves were lost. Manuscripts of 13 plays written by him were discovered in an old library in Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum) in 1913 by the scholar [[T. Ganapati Sastri|Ganapati Sastri]]. A 14th play was later discovered and attributed to Bhāsa, but its authorship is disputed.

Bhāsa's most famous plays are ''Svapnavasavadattam (Swapnavāsadatta)'' ("Vasavadatta's dream"), ''Pancharātra'', and ''Pratijna Yaugandharayaanam'' ("The vows of Yaugandharayana"). Some other plays being ''Pratimanātaka, Abhishekanātaka, Bālacharita, Dūtavākya, Karnabhāra, Dūtaghatotkacha, Chārudatta, [[Madhyamavyayoga|Madhyamavyāyoga]]'' and ''[[Urubhanga|Ūrubhaṅga]]''.

''Karnabharam'' is a critically acclaimed play and it is being subjected to lot of experimentation by the modern theatre groups in [[India]].

Bhāsa is considered to be one of the best [[Sanskrit]] playwrights, second only to [[Kalidasa]]. He is earlier than Kalidasa and is dated to the 3rd or 4th century CE.<ref>Robert E. Goodwin (1998), [https://books.google.com/books?id=p_PKcu23-xoC&pg=PR18 ''The Playworld of Sanskrit Drama''], Introduction, pg. xviii</ref><ref>Moriz Winternitz, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ql0BmInD1c4C&pg=PA204 ''History of Indian Literature''], p.204-205</ref><ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sfqRhylNBpwC&pg=PA95 |title = The Sanskrit Drama in Its Origin, Development, Theory & Practice|isbn = 9788120809772|last1 = Keith|first1 = Arthur Berriedale|year = 1992| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ROvDtaUI9xMC&pg=PA419 | title=Configurations of Culture Growth| last1=Kroeber| first1=Alfred Louis| year=1969}}</ref>

===Kālidāsa===
[[File:Nirupama Rajendra Dance Theater musical Shakunthala.jpg|thumb|A performance of the play ''[[Shakuntala (play)|Shakunthala]]'']]
{{main|Kālidāsa}}

Kālidāsa (4th-5th century CE<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/310169 Kalidasa] at ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''</ref><ref>[[Sheldon Pollock]] (ed., 2003) [https://books.google.com/books?id=ak9csfpY2WoC&dq=kalidasa+fourth+century&pg=PA79 ''Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia''], p.79</ref>) is easily the greatest poet and playwright in Sanskrit, and occupies the same position in Sanskrit literature that [[Shakespeare]] occupies in [[English literature]]. He deals primarily with famous [[Hindu]] legends and themes; three famous plays by Kālidāsa are ''[[Vikramōrvaśīyam]]'' ("Vikrama and Urvashi"), ''[[Mālavikāgnimitram]]'' ("Malavika and Agnimitra"), and the play that he is most known for: ''[[Abhijñānaśākuntalam]]'' ("The Recognition of Shakuntala"). The last named play is considered to be greatest play in Sanskrit. More than a millennium later, it would so powerfully impress the famous German writer [[Goethe]] that he would write:

{{Poemquote|Wouldst thou the young year's blossoms and the fruits of its decline
And all by which the soul is charmed, enraptured, feasted, fed,
Wouldst thou the earth and heaven itself in one sole name combine?
I name thee, O Sakuntala! and all at once is said.
|source=translation by [[Edward Backhouse Eastwick]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/alka-pratap/hinduisms-influence-on-indian-poetry_b_9124050.html|title=Hinduism's Influence on Indian Poetry|first=Alka|last=Pratap|website=[[HuffPost]]|date=2 February 2016}}</ref>}}

Kālidāsa also wrote two large epic poems, ''[[Raghuvaṃśa]]'' ("The Genealogy of Raghu") and ''[[Kumārasambhava]]'' ("Birth of Kumara"), and two smaller epics, ''[[Ṛitusaṃhāra]]'' ("Medley of Seasons") and ''[[Meghadūta]]'' ''(The Cloud Messenger)'', another 'perfect' work.

Kālidāsa's writing is characterized by the usage of simple but beautiful Sanskrit, and by his extensive use of [[simile]]s. His similes have earned him the saying, ''Upama Kalidasasya'' (Kālidāsa ''owns'' simile).
The full śloka reads: ''upamā Kālidāsasya, Bhāraver artha gauravam | Daṇḍinah padalālityam, Māghe shanti trayoguṇah ||''

===''Mudrarakshasa''===
Amongst Sanskrit plays, the historical play ''[[Mudrarakshasa]]'' by [[Vishakhadatta]] is unique because it contains political intrigue and is full of life, action and sustained interest. The time period of composition is prior to 800 C.E. In the play, [[Chandragupta Maurya]] is ruling from Pataliputra, having deposed the last of the Nanda kings. ''Rakshasa'' the minister of Nanda, attempts to avenge his late master. [[Chanakya]], the minister of Chandragupta succeeds in winning over Rakshasa to his master's side.<ref>Macdonell A.A. A history of Sanskrit plays(1913 p 365)</ref>

===Other major plays and playwrights===
Other great plays include ''[[Ratnavali]]'', ''[[Nagananda]]'' and ''[[Priyadarsika]]'' by Sri [[Harsha]] (7th century CE), Mahendra Vikram Varman ''[[Mattavilasa Prahasana]]'', Shakti Bhadra's ''Āścaryacūḍāmaṇi'', Kulasekhara's ''Subhadra Dhananjaya'' and ''Tapatisamvarana'', Neelakanta's ''Kalyana Saugandhika'' and ''Sri Krishna Charita''.

[[Bhavabhuti]] (8th century) is one of the great playwrights after Kalidasa.<ref>Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987). ''A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature,'' p. 109. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</ref> Other major Sanskrit playwrights include [[Vishakhadatta|Visakhadatta]], [[Bhatta Narayana|Bhaṭṭa Nārāyaṇa]], Murari, [[Rajashekhara (Sanskrit poet)|Rajasekhara]], Kshemisvara, Damodaramishra, and Krishnamishra.<ref>Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987). ''A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature,'' pp. 111-119. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</ref>

==Performances==
[[File:Mani Damodara Chakyar as Nayaka.jpg|thumb|A [[Koodiyattam]] performance of [[Bhasa]]'s ''Swapnavasavadattam'']]

Sanskrit plays were very popular and were staged in ancient times all over India. Now the only surviving ancient Sanskrit drama theatre is [[Koodiyattam]], which is preserved in [[Kerala]] by the [[Chakyar]] community. This form of Sanskrit drama is thought to be at least 2000 years old and is one of the oldest living theatrical traditions in the world. All major Sanskrit plays such as that of Bhasa, Sri Harsha, Shakti Bhadra etc. are performed in Koodiyattam. Guru ''Nātyāchārya Vidūshakaratnam [[Padma Shri]]'' [[Mani Madhava Chakyar|Māni Mādhava Chākyār]] choreographed and directed plays like Kalidasa's ''[[Abhijñānaśākuntala]]'', ''[[Vikramorvaśīya]]'' and ''[[Mālavikāgnimitra]]''; Bhasa's ''Swapnavāsadatta'' and ''Pancharātra'' for the first time in the history of Koodiyattam. He popularised Koodiyattam and rejuvenated the only surviving Sanskrit drama theatre in India.

One of the hypotheses (as yet without consensus) of the origins of the "Trivandrum plays" of Bhasa is that these 13 plays were adapted from their original sources and brought to Kerala for choreography in the Koodiyattam tradition.

==Modern Sanskrit plays==
[[Manmohan Acharya]], a modern Sanskrit playwright has written many plays and dance dramas. Some worth-mentioning plays are ''Arjuna-Pratijnaa, Shrita-kamalam, Pada-pallavam, Divya-Jayadevam, Pingalaa, Mrtyuh, Sthitaprajnah, Tantra-mahasaktih, Purva-sakuntalam, Uttara-sakuntalam'' and ''Raavanah''.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.narthaki.com/info/rev11/rev1092.html | title=Report - the 17th edition of Guru Kelucharan Mohapatra Award Festival - Lalitha Venkat }}</ref>

[[Vidyadhar Shastri#Plays in Sanskrit|Vidyadhar Shastri]] wrote three Sanskrit plays viz. [[Vidyadhar Shastri#Purnanandanam|''Purnanandam'']], ''Kalidainyam'' and ''Durbala Balam''.

Prafulla Kumar Mishra has written the plays ''Chitrangada'' and ''Karuna''.

==See also==
*[[Classical Indian musical theatre]]
*''[[Urubhanga]]''
*[[Malayalam drama]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
* Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. ''The Cambridge Guide to Theatre.'' Cambridge: Cambridge UP. {{ISBN|0-521-43437-8}}.
* Brandon, James R. 1981. Introduction. In Baumer and Brandon (1981, xvii-xx).
* ---, ed. 1997. ''The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre.''' 2nd, rev. ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. {{ISBN|978-0-521-58822-5}}.
* Brockett, Oscar G. and Franklin J. Hildy. 2003. ''History of the Theatre''. Ninth edition, International edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. {{ISBN|0-205-41050-2}}.
* Baumer, Rachel Van M., and James R. Brandon, eds. 1981. ''Sanskrit Theatre in Performance.'' Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1993. {{ISBN|978-81-208-0772-3}}.
* {{cite book| title=A History of Sanskrit Literature |author=Arthur Anthony Macdonell |year=1900 |location=New York |publisher=D. Appleton and company |chapter=[[s:A History of Sanskrit Literature/Chapter 13|The drama]]|author-link=Arthur Anthony Macdonell }}
* Richmond, Farley. 1998. "India." In Banham (1998, 516–525).
* Richmond, Farley P., Darius L. Swann, and Phillip B. Zarrilli, eds. 1993. ''Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance.'' U of Hawaii P. {{ISBN|978-0-8248-1322-2}}.
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|last=Wilson |first=Horace Hayman |author-link=Horace Hayman Wilson|title=Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus|url=https://archive.org/stream/selectspecimenso01wils#page/n5/mode/2up|year=1827|publisher= V.Holcroft at The Asiatic Press, Calcutta}}
*{{cite book|last=Dhanamjaya |translator=George C.O. Haas |title=The Dasarupa or Treatise on Ten Forms of Drama - A Treatise on Hindu Dramaturgy|url=https://archive.org/stream/dasarupatreatise00dhanrich#page/n5/mode/2up|year=1912|publisher=Columbia University}}
*{{cite book|last=Nandikeśvara |author-link=Nandikeshvara |translator=[[Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy]] |translator2=Gopala Kristnayya Duggirala |title=The Mirror of Gesture - Being the Abhinaya Darpana of Nandikeśvara. |url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924012568535#page/n5/mode/2up|year=1917|publisher=Harvard University Press }}
*{{cite book|last=Schuyler Jr |first=Montgomery |title=A bibliography of the Sanskrit drama, with an introductory sketch of the dramatic literature of India|url=https://archive.org/stream/bibliographyofsa00schu#page/n5/mode/2up|year=1965|publisher=AMS Press Inc., New York}}
* {{cite book|last= Baumer|first=Rachel Van M.|author2=James R. Brandon |title=Sanskrit drama in performance|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ|year=1993|volume=2|chapter=A Sanskrit Play In Performance by Shanta Gandhi|isbn=81-208-0772-3|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ix-RShGgZUAC&q=Shanta+Gandhi&pg=PA110|pages=110–140}}

==External links==
* {{wikisource-inline|Portal:Sanskrit drama|Indian classical drama}}

{{Sanskrit language topics}}

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[[Category:Sanskrit literature|Drama]]
[[Category:Indian plays]]
[[Category:Theatre of India]]
[[Category:Classical theatre of india]]

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Indian classical drama - Revision history

SheldonCruce at 16:42, 16 February 2026