ChristineBabbidg at 08:17, 18 April 2026

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[[File:मल्लखांब.pdf|thumb|191x191px|[[Mallakhamba]], a traditional Indian form of [[yoga]] done on a pole.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chakravarthy |first=Kalyan |date=2023-09-29 |title=Dakshinapatha SPORT OF MALLAKHAMB : A TRADITIONAL GAME OF INDIAN CULTURE Arts and Literature |url=https://dakshinapatha.com/2023/09/29/sport-of-mallakhamb-a-traditional-game-of-indian-culture/ |access-date=2024-08-26 |language=en-US}}</ref>]]
'''Indian physical culture''' is the form of [[physical culture]] originating in [[ancient India]].

== History ==

=== Ancient era ===
{{See also|Traditional games of India#Ancient era}}
[[Physical fitness]] was prized in traditional [[Hindu philosophy|Hindu thought]], with cultivation of the body (''dehvada'') seen as one path to full self-realization.<ref>[https://www.sssutms.co.in/cms/Areas/Website/Files/Link/EContent/Foundation_physical_edcation.pdf HISTORY, PRINCIPLES AND FOUNDATION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION] [[Sri Satya Sai University of Technology & Medical Sciences]]</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=The story behind India's sporting history |url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/sports/the-story-behind-indias-sporting-history |work=Sportskeeda}}</ref> [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] universities such as [[Nalanda mahavihara|Nalanda]] taught various forms of physical culture, such as swimming and archery,<ref>{{Cite web |title=India has a sports history going back a thousand years |url=https://businessindia.co/csr/india-has-a-sports-history-going-back-a-thousand-years |access-date=2024-03-23 |website=businessindia.co |language=en}}</ref> with [[Buddha]] himself having been well-acquainted with martial activities prior to his enlightenment.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |title=CRITICAL REVIEW ON HISTORY OF SPORTS AND GAMES IN INDIAN CONTEXT WITH SPECIAL FOCUS TO WEST BENGAL |url=https://www.int-jecse.net/article/CRITICAL+REVIEW+ON+HISTORY+OF+SPORTS+AND+GAMES+IN+INDIAN+CONTEXT+WITH+SPECIAL+FOCUS+TO+WEST+BENGAL_5757/?download=true&format=pdf |journal=International Journal of Early Childhood Special Education}}</ref> [[Gurukula|Gurukulas]] focused significantly on physical education alongside academics, with [[Hindu epics]] such as the [[Ramayana]] often depicting kings marrying off their daughters to men who excelled in athletic events.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ijsrc |first=iJOURNALS PUBLICATIONS IJSHRE {{!}} |title=Historical Analysis of Physical Education |url=https://www.academia.edu/101154131 |journal=Academia}}</ref>

A variety of ball games and war-training activities were present in ancient India,<ref>{{Cite journal |title=A JOURNEY OF INDIAN SPORTS CULTURE |url=https://ijrssis.in/upload_papers/11072017060306141%20vishakha%20saoji%20168.pdf |journal=International Journal of Researches in Social Sciences and Information Studies}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Shephard |first=Roy J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sI6eBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 |title=An Illustrated History of Health and Fitness, from Pre-History to our Post-Modern World |date=2014-11-27 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-11671-6 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Journals |first=Best |title=ANCIENT INDIAN SPORTS A HISTORICAL ANALYSIS |url=https://www.academia.edu/21815198 |journal=Academia}}</ref> with both men and women participating.<ref name=":0" /> The traditional Indian physical culture generally used little to no equipment.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES AND SPORTS IN ANCIENT INDIA |url=https://pm.sdcollegeambala.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Vol12-2-22.pdf |journal=Purva Mimaansa}}</ref> [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic]] medical treatises such as the [[Charaka Samhita]] and the [[Sushruta Samhita]] emphasized exercise as a way of avoiding conditions such as diabetes, and prescribed exercise in accordance with the seasons.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Vyayama culture in ancient India |url=https://www.kheljournal.com/archives/2016/vol3issue6/PartF/3-6-35-541.pdf |journal=International Journal of Physical Education, Sports and Health}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mondal |first=Samiran |date=2013 |title=Science of exercise: ancient Indian origin |journal=The Journal of the Association of Physicians of India |volume=61 |issue=8 |pages=560–562 |issn=0004-5772 |pmid=24818341}}</ref> Some specialist communities were known for their [[Acrobatics|acrobatic]] performances, such as dancing on bamboo.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Development of gymnastics in ancient India |url=https://www.journalofsports.com/pdf/2019/vol4issue1/PartP/5-1-125-121.pdf |journal=International Journal of Physiology, Nutrition and Physical Education}}</ref>

Hunting for recreation was common through Indian history, and was partaken in by royals; it was done for a variety of reasons, such as proving manliness, for religious purposes, or simply for thrill-seeking purposes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-03 |title=The history of hunting, and its role in wildlife conservation |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/research/the-history-of-hunting-and-its-role-in-wildlife-conservation-8477809/ |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite news |last=Pattanaik |first=Devdutt |date=2020-12-11 |title=Of thrill seekers and deer hunters |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/of-thrill-seekers-and-deer-hunters/articleshow/79685126.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-10-08 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref name=":25">{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Upinder |date=2017-10-23 |title=Even in ancient India, the state was usually at war with the forest and its inhabitants |url=https://scroll.in/article/854483/even-in-ancient-india-the-state-was-usually-at-war-with-the-forest-and-its-inhabitants |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=Scroll.in |language=en-US}}</ref> The emphasis on hunting coincided with an overall view of the forest as being an area to be conquered and used by the state, which resulted in conflict between kingdoms and forest-dwellers.<ref name=":25" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=What Political Violence in Ancient India Tells Us About Our Past and Present |url=https://thewire.in/history/upinder-singh-interview-political-violence-ancient-india |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=The Wire}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sinha |first1=Kanad |title=Envisioning a No-Man's Land: Hermitage as a Site of Exemption in Ancient and Early Medieval Indian Literature |journal=Medieval Worlds |date=2017 |volume=6 |pages=20–39 |doi=10.1553/medievalworlds_no6_2017s20 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Though [[Hindu texts|Hindu scriptures]] warned against excessive hunting of animals,<ref name=":24" /> by the end of the colonial era, some animal species had been hunted to extinction, such as [[Cheetah reintroduction in India|cheetahs]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lodh |first1=Sayan |title=Portrayal of 'Hunting' in Environmental History of India |journal=ALTRALANG Journal |date=31 December 2020 |volume=2 |issue=02 |pages=190–206 |doi=10.52919/altralang.v2i02.84 |url=https://www.asjp.cerist.dz/en/article/139892 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Other exercises done with animals included provoking intoxicated elephants for the purpose of building strength by maneuvering around them and escaping their wrath.<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Indian Physical Culture: A Comprehensive Survey of the Physical Education in India, Profusely Illustrating Various Activities of Physical Culture, Games, Exercises, Etc., as Handed Over to Us from Our Fore-fathers and Practised in India |date=1950 |publisher=Good Companions |editor1-last=Mujumdar |editor1-first=Dattatraya Chintaman |pages=296 |oclc=14652803}}</ref>

=== Medieval era ===
Wrestling was common in [[Mughal India]], with even the loser of a wrestling bout being awarded some money in order to avoid discouragement.<ref>[https://www.progressiveconnexions.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Parul-Lau-Gaur-sportwebpaper.pdf Physical Culture as Site of Power Play in Mughal Court] Dr. Parul Lau Gaur</ref> [[Pehlwani]] emerged as a fusion of Persian and native Indian wrestling traditions during this time.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brownstok |first=Willem |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zuXNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT25 |title=Islam: de l'empire moghol au conflit arabo-israélien |publisher=Cambridge Stanford Books |language=fr}}</ref>

=== Colonial era ===
{{Main|Sport in British India}}
[[File:Rama Murti Naidu 1930.png|thumb|226x226px|[[Kodi Rammurthy Naidu]] was a famous colonial-era strongman who helped counter British accusations of effeminacy among Indian men.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-02-26 |title=A Fine Specimen |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/art-and-culture/a-fine-specimen-4542126/ |access-date=2024-03-23 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>]]
During the colonial era, Indians felt emasculated by the British,<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Indigenous Physical Culture of Bengal During the British Regime |url=http://languageinindia.com/june2013/karphysicalbengal.pdf |journal=Language in India}}</ref> who had disarmed and demilitarized Indian society throughout the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=O'Hanlon |first=Rosalind |date=2007-01-01 |title=Military Sports and the History of the Martial Body in India |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/jesh/50/4/article-p490_5.xml |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |language=en |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=490–523 |doi=10.1163/156852007783245133 |issn=1568-5209|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521761291.015 |chapter=Hero, celebrity and icon: Sachin Tendulkar and Indian public culture |title=The Cambridge Companion to Cricket |date=2011 |last1=Kidambi |first1=Prashant |pages=187–202 |isbn=978-0-521-76129-1 }}</ref> The poverty and starvation of the era reduced Indians' ability to participate in physical exercise.<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Indian Physical Culture: A Comprehensive Survey of the Physical Education in India, Profusely Illustrating Various Activities of Physical Culture, Games, Exercises, Etc., as Handed Over to Us from Our Fore-fathers and Practised in India |date=1950 |publisher=Good Companions |editor1-last=Mujumdar |editor1-first=Dattatraya Chintaman |pages=22 |oclc=14652803}}</ref> Bengalis became particularly involved in seeking to combat British stereotypes of effeteness by pursuing physical culture and [[Indian martial arts|martial arts]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rosselli |first=John |date=1980 |title=The Self-Image of Effeteness: Physical Education and Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Bengal |journal=Past & Present |issue=86 |pages=121–148 |doi=10.1093/past/86.1.121 |jstor=650742 |pmid=11615074 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Topdar |first1=Sudipa |title=The Corporeal Empire: Physical Education and Politicising Children's Bodies in Late Colonial Bengal |journal=Gender & History |date=April 2017 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=176–197 |doi=10.1111/1468-0424.12259 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Manna |first=Agnidev |date=2023-03-09 |title=INDIGENOUS SPORTS AND PHYSICAL CULTURE IN THE FOLK DANCES OF COLONIAL BENGAL |url=https://agpegondwanajournal.co.in/index.php/agpe/article/view/234 |journal=Agpe the Royal Gondwana Research Journal of History, Science, Economic, Political and Social Science |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=14–21 }}</ref> with organizations such as the [[Hindu Mela]] contributing.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Chowdhury Sengupta |first1=Indira |title=Colonialism and cultural identity : The making of a Hindu discourse, Bengal 1867-1905 |date=1993 |doi=10.25501/SOAS.00028888 }}{{pn|date=March 2024}}</ref>

Influences from [[Western physical culture]] became prevalent in India, as mediated through influences from groups such as the [[YMCA]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fischer-Tiné |first1=Harald |title=Fitness for Modernity? The YMCA and physical-education schemes in late-colonial South Asia (circa 1900–40) |journal=Modern Asian Studies |date=March 2019 |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=512–559 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X17000300 }}</ref> as Indians sought to benefit from the scientific nature and European nationalistic vigor present in Western schools of thought surrounding physical culture at the time.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.4324/9780429431012-33 |chapter=Physical culture and the body in colonial India, c.1800–1947 |title=Routledge Handbook of the History of Colonialism in South Asia |date=2021 |last1=Watt |first1=Carey |pages=345–358 |isbn=978-0-429-43101-2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195395358.003.0005 |chapter=India and the International Physical Culture Movement |title=Yoga Body |date=2010 |last1=Singleton |first1=Mark |pages=81–94 |isbn=978-0-19-539535-8 }}</ref> The British sought to impose their standards of physical discipline onto Indians, while discouraging [[Traditional games of India|traditional Indian games]] and negatively depicting Indian physiques.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mills |first=James H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9OzzyZBZO-IC&pg=PA39 |title=Confronting the Body: The Politics of Physicality in Colonial and Post-Colonial India |date=2004 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-1-84331-365-6 |language=en}}</ref> The British also used hunting as a way to establish imperial dominance and protect Indians from attacks by wild animals.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1093/oso/9780199489381.003.0002 |chapter=Imperial Culture and Hunting in Colonial India |title=Shooting a Tiger |date=2018 |last1=Mandala |first1=Vijaya Ramadas |pages=38–78 |isbn=978-0-19-948938-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Mani |first1=Fiona |title=Guns and shikaris: The rise of the sahib's hunting ethos and the fall of the subaltern poacher in British India, 1750-1947 |date=May 2012 |doi=10.33915/etd.594 |doi-access=free }}{{pn|date=March 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mandala |first1=Vijaya Ramadas |title=Hunting as 'Sport' in Colonial India: Codes of Sportsmanship, Firearms, Race, and Class in Hunting |journal=Shooting a Tiger |date=13 December 2018 |pages=161–219 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780199489381.003.0004 }}</ref>

Indians used victory in sport as a method of proving themselves against the colonizer.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mukerji |first=Prof Sumit |title=SPORTS THE CATALYST OF NATIONALISM IN COLONIAL INDIA |url=https://www.academia.edu/1110497 |journal=Academia}}</ref> Indians also sought to standardize and revitalize their native physical culture during this time period, with institutions such as the [[Akhara|akharas]] and [[Vyayamshala|vyayamshalas]] playing a role.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singleton |first=Mark |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tUgBIrn5REwC&pg=PR81 |title=Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice |date=2010-02-10 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-974598-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ganneri |first1=Namrata R. |title=Notes on Vyayam: a vernacular sports journal in western India |journal=The Newsletter |publisher=The International Institute for Asian Studies |date=Autumn 2014 |volume=69 |page=8 |url=https://www.iias.asia/the-newsletter/article/notes-vyayam-vernacular-sports-journal-western-india }}</ref>

=== Contemporary era ===
{{See also|Sport in India#Post-Independence}}
[[Cricket]], a British sport introduced into India during the colonial era,<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Love |first1=Adam |last2=Dzikus |first2=Lars |date=2020-02-26 |title=How India came to love cricket, favored sport of its colonial British rulers |url=http://theconversation.com/how-india-came-to-love-cricket-favored-sport-of-its-colonial-british-rulers-132302 |access-date=2024-03-24 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}</ref> has emerged as a major aspect of modern-day India, with success in [[Cricket World Cup|World Cups]] and the emergence of the [[Indian Premier League]] influencing society.<ref>{{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|1314798814}} |last1=Maddox |first1=Callie Elizabeth |date=2012 |title=Postcolonial play: Encounters with sport and physical culture in contemporary India }}{{pn|date=March 2024}}</ref>

In 2023, cricket star [[MS Dhoni]] invested in a company called Tagda Raho (transl. "stay strong"), which is seeking to revive traditional Indian workouts and which has received significant interest from different groups in the cricket world.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Dhoni Invests in Tagda Raho: Powering the Resurgence of Traditional Fitness |url=https://www.mykhel.com/cricket/dhoni-invests-in-tagda-raho-powering-the-resurgence-of-traditional-fitness-247719.html |work=myKhel}}</ref>

== Relationship with various movements ==

=== Hindu nationalism ===
{{See also|Muscular Hinduism|Kreeda Bharati}}

The [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] (RSS) has encouraged loyalty to India as a Hindu country in its followers through the practice of traditional Indian physical culture.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=Ian |title='PHYSIOLOGICAL PATRIOTS'?: The Politics of Physical Culture and Hindu Nationalism in India |journal=International Review for the Sociology of Sport |date=December 1999 |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=343–358 |doi=10.1177/101269099034004003 }}</ref>

=== Militancy ===
{{See also|Anushilan Samiti}}

In the colonial era, gyms and other physical culture institutions helped freedom fighters build their strength towards anti-colonial resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Armstrong |first=Jerome |date=2020-02-02 |title=For India's revolutionaries in freedom struggle, gyms, & akharas were a cover for political work |url=https://theprint.in/pageturner/excerpt/indias-revolutionaries-freedom-struggle-gyms-akharas-a-cover-for-politics/358219/ |access-date=2024-03-23 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US}}</ref> In the modern era, some [[Communal violence in India|communal violence]] has been linked to Hindu movements that use physical culture to become more organized and strong.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1057/9780230370630 |title=Militant Publics in India |date=2011 |last1=Valiani |first1=Arafaat A. |isbn=978-1-349-29455-8 }}{{pn|date=March 2024}}</ref>

== Influence on the world ==
{{See also|Traditional games of India#History|Indian martial arts#Influence}}[[File:Indian club swinging team, St Paul's Young Men's Club, Ipswich, 1890s.jpg|thumb|153x153px|An Indian club swinging team in 1890's England.]]
[[Yoga]] and [[Indian clubs]] are among the most globally widespread elements of physical culture originating from India.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Heffernan |first1=Conor |title=The History of Physical Culture |date=2022 |publisher=Common Ground Research Networks |isbn=978-1-957792-23-1 }}{{pn|date=March 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Heffernan |first1=Conor |title=Indian club swinging in nineteenth and twentieth-century India and England |date=5 July 2016 |publisher=Faculty of History, University of Cambridge |doi=10.17863/CAM.7166 }}{{pn|date=March 2024}}</ref>

== Combat sports ==

=== Archery ===
{{Excerpt|Dhanurveda|History|paragraphs=3}}

=== Wrestling ===
{{Excerpt|Wrestling in India#History}}

== Physical exercises ==

=== Dand ===
{{Excerpt|Hindu push-up}}

=== Baithak ===
{{Excerpt|Hindu squat}}
A baithak, also known as a Hindu squat or a deep knee bend on toes, is performed without additional weight and body weight placed on the forefeet and toes with the heels raised throughout; during the movement, the knees track far past the toes. The baithak was a staple exercise of ancient Indian wrestlers. It was also used by [[Bruce Lee]] in his training regime.<ref>Lee, Bruce, 'Preliminaries' in ''The Tao of Jeet Kune Do'', California: Ohara Publications, 1975, p.29</ref> It may also be performed with the hands resting on an upturned [[Indian club|club]] or the back of a chair.

=== Yoga ===
{{Excerpt|Yoga|paragraphs=1}}

== Exercise equipment ==

=== Gada ===
{{Excerpt|Gada (mace)#Exercise equipment|paragraphs=1|files=0}}

=== Indian club ===
{{Excerpt|Indian club}}

== See also ==

* [[Sport in South Asia]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist|refs=

{{efn|name="traditional_modern_yoga"|{{harvtxt|King|1999|p=67}}: "Many westerners see yoga as a variation on the modern concern for health and fitness and a means of overcoming the stresses and strains of modern day living. Most of what passes for yoga in this context, however, bears little relation to traditional practices, institutionalised as they were within established traditions or lienages (''sampradaya'') of teacher (''guru'') and pupil (''śiṣya''), structured according to hierarchical and initiatory stages of development and bound up with an ascetic lifestyle and world-view very different from the concerns of the modern western urbanite."}}

{{efn|name="two_definitions"|A classical definition comes from Patanjali's ''Yoga sutras''({{harvnb|Feuerstein|1998|pp=4–5}}, {{harvnb|White|2011|p=3}}, {{harvnb|Olsson|2023|p=2}}), which defines yoga as aiming to control (yoke) and still the mind (''[[samadhi]]''), recognizing (''[[jnana]]'') or isolating (''[[kaivalya]]'') the ''[[Purusha]]'', the primordial [[Sakshi (witness)|witness-consciousness]], from ''[[Prakriti]]'', matter and mind ({{harvnb|Feuerstein|1998|pp=4–5}}, {{harvnb|Olsson|2023|p=2}}). Another classical definition ({{harvnb|Feuerstein|1998|pp=4–5}}, {{harvnb|White|2011|p=3}}, {{harvnb|Olsson|2023|p=2}}), informed by the [[Bhagavad Gita]] {{harv|Olsson|2023|p=2}} and [[Vedanta]] {{harv|Feuerstein|1998|pp=4–5}}, describes the purpose of yoga as the union of the individual self (''jivatman'') with the higher Self (''paramatman''), [[Brahman]], or God (Shiva).}}
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==

* {{cite book | last =Bowker | first =John | year =2000 | title =The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions | publisher =Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite book | last1 =Carmody | first1 =Denise Lardner | last2 =Carmody | first2 =John | year =1996 | title =Serene Compassion | publisher =Oxford University Press US}}
* {{cite book |last=Feuerstein |first=Georg |year=1998 |author-link=Georg Feuerstein |title=The Yoga Tradition: Its History, Literature, Philosophy and Practice |publisher=Hohm Press |isbn=0-934252-88-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/yogatraditionits00feue/page/n5/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book | last =Johnson | first =W.J. | year =2009 | title =A Dictionary of Hinduism | publisher =Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite book | last =Keown | first =Damien | year =2004 | title =A Dictionary of Buddhism | publisher =Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite book |last=King |first=Richard |year=1999 |title=Indian Philosophy. An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought |publisher=Georgetown University Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Olsson |first=Tova |year=2023 |title=Yoga and Tantra: History, Philosophy & Mythology |publisher=Motilall Banarsidass}}
* {{cite book | last =Sarbacker | first =Stuart Ray | year =2005 | title =Samādhi: The Numinous and Cessative in Indo-Tibetan Yoga | publisher =SUNY Press}}
* {{cite book |last=White |first=David Gordon |author-link=David Gordon White |chapter=Yoga, Brief History of an Idea |title=Yoga in Practice |chapter-url=http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i9565.pdf |year=2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=1–23}}
* {{cite web | title =yoga| website =[[Oxford English Dictionary|OED Online]] | url =http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/232036 | publisher =Oxford University Press |access-date=9 September 2015|date=September 2015 | ref={{sfnref|OED|0000}}}}

== Further reading ==

* {{cite book |last1=Alter |first1=Joseph S. |title=The Wrestler's Body: Identity and Ideology in North India |date=1992 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-91217-5 }}
* [https://combatsportsedupl.publisherspanel.com/api/files/view/10545.pdf Kalaripayatt, kushti and the Indian warfare]
{{South Asian topics}}{{India topics}}{{Physical culture}}
[[Category:Indian physical culture|*]]

Indian physical culture - Revision history

ChristineBabbidg at 08:17, 18 April 2026