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{{short description|Persian aspects integrated into or absorbed into the cultures of the Indian subcontinent}}
{{More citations needed|date=January 2012}}
[[Image:Taj Mahal in March 2004.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Taj Mahal]] in [[Agra]] unites [[Iran|Iranian]] and [[India|Indian]] cultural and architectural elements. It is the mausoleum of [[Mumtaz Mahal]], the [[Persians|Persian]] wife of [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperor [[Shah Jahan]].]]
'''Indo-Persian culture''' refers to a cultural synthesis present in the [[Indian subcontinent]], characterised by the absorption or integration of [[Culture of Iran|Persian aspects]] into the various cultures of [[Pakistan]], [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]]. The first large-scale introduction of Persian influence and culture to the Indian subcontinent was by [[Muslim South Asia|Muslim rulers]] of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] and [[Ethnic groups in Afghanistan|Afghan]] origin with [[Persianate society|Persianate societies]] and [[Persianization|Persianised cultures]]. This socio-cultural synthesis arose steadily through the [[Delhi Sultanate]] from the 13th to 16th centuries, and the [[Mughal Empire]] from then onwards until the 19th century.<ref>Sigfried J. de Laet. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=PvlthkbFU1UC&pg=PA734&dq=persian+language+in+anatolia&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAWoVChMIs-fO2_aRxgIVygYsCh2NJgBM#v=onepage&q=persian%20language%20in%20anatolia&f=false ''History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century''] UNESCO, 1994. {{ISBN|9231028138}} p 734</ref> Various [[Muslims|Muslim]] [[Turco-Persian tradition|Turko-Persian]] rulers, such as the 11th-century [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi]], rapidly pushed for the heavy Persianization of conquered territories in northwestern India (present-day Pakistan), where [[Islam|Islamic]] influence was also firmly established.

[[Persian language|Persian]] was the official language of most [[List of Muslim states and dynasties|Muslim dynasties]] in the Indian subcontinent, such as the [[Delhi Sultanate]], the [[Bengal Sultanate]], the [[Bahmani Sultanate]], the [[Mughal Empire]] and their successor states, and the [[Sikh Empire]]. It was also the dominant cultured language of poetry and literature. Many of the [[Sultan]]s and nobility in the Sultanate period were Persianised Turks from [[Central Asia]] who spoke [[Turkic languages]] as their [[First language|mother tongues]]. The Mughals were also culturally Persianised Central Asians (of [[Turco-Mongol tradition|Turko-Mongol]] origin on their paternal side), but spoke [[Chagatai language|Chagatai Turkic]] as their first language at the beginning, before eventually adopting Persian. Persian became the preferred language of the Muslim elite of northern India. [[Muzaffar Alam]], a noted scholar of Mughal and Indo-Persian history, suggests that Persian became the official ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the Mughal Empire under [[Akbar]] for various political and social factors due to its non-sectarian and fluid nature.<ref>Alam, Muzaffar. "The Pursuit of Persian: Language in Mughal Politics." In ''Modern Asian Studies'', vol. 32, no. 2. (May, 1998), pp. 317–349.</ref> The influence of these languages led to a [[vernacular]] called [[Hindustani_language|Hindustani]] that is the direct ancestor language of today's [[Urdu]] and [[Hindi]].

The Persianisation of the Indian subcontinent resulted in its incorporation into the cosmopolitan Persianate world of ''[[Ajam]]'', known today academically as [[Greater Iran]], which historically gave many inhabitants a secular, Persian identity.<ref>Alam, Muzaffar (2003). "The Culture and Politics of Persian in Precolonial Hindustan". In Pollock, Sheldon (ed.) ''Literary Cultures in History. Reconstructions from South Asia.'' University of California Press. pp.134 &188. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/0520228219|<bdi>0520228219</bdi>]]</ref>
==History==
{{Further|Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Muslim South Asia}}[[Image:Basawan - Alexander Visits the Sage Plato.jpg|thumb|''[[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] Visits the Sage [[Plato]]'', from ''Khamsa-e Nizami'' by the Indo-Persian poet [[Amir Khusro]].]]
With the presence of [[Muslim]] culture in the region in the [[Ghaznavids|Ghaznavid period]], [[Lahore]] and [[Uch]] were established as centres of [[Persian literature]]. [[Abu-al-Faraj Runi]] and [[Masud Sa'd Salman]] (d. 1121) were the two earliest major Indo-Persian poets based in Lahore. The earliest of the "great" Indo-Persian poets was [[Amir Khusrow]] (d. 1325) of [[Delhi]], who has since attained iconic status within the Urdu speakers of the Indian subcontinent as, among other things, the "father" of Urdu literature.

===Delhi sultanate and the Mughal era===
{{See also|Persians in the Mughal Empire}}
Indo-Persian culture and to varying degrees also Turkic culture flourished side-by-side during the period of the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526). The invasion of Babur in 1526, the end of the Delhi Sultanate, and the establishment of what would become the [[Mughal Empire]] would usher the golden age of Indo-Persian culture with particular reference to the art and architecture of the Mughal era.

During the Mughal era, [[Persian language|Persian]] persisted as the language of the Mughals up to and including the year 1707 which marked the death of the [[Aurangzeb|Emperor Aurangzeb]], generally considered the last of the "Great Mughals". Thereafter, with the decline of the Mughal empire, the 1739 invasion of Delhi by [[Nader Shah]] and the gradual growth initially of the [[Maratha Empire|Hindu Marathas]]<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=aqqBPS1TDUgC&pg=PA28 Delhi, the Capital of India By Anon, John Capper, p.28. "This source establishes the Maratha control of Delhi before the British"]</ref> and later the [[Europe]]an power within the Indian subcontinent, Persian or Persian culture commenced a period of decline although it nevertheless enjoyed patronage and may even have flourished within the many regional empires or kingdoms of the Indian subcontinent including that of the Sikh Maharaja [[Ranjit Singh]] (r. 1799–1837).

Persian as a language of governance and education was abolished in 1839 by the [[East India Company|British East India Company]] and the last Mughal emperor [[Bahadur Shah Zafar]], even if his rule was purely symbolic or ceremonial, was dethroned in 1857 by the British.

Further, C.E. Bosworth wrote about the Central Asian's Persian ([[Tājik people|Tajiks]]→[[Ghurids]]) influence on India:
''"...The sultans were generous patrons of the Persian literary traditions of Khorasan, and latterly fulfilled a valuable role as transmitters of this heritage to the newly conquered lands of northern India, laying the foundations for the essentially Persian culture which was to prevail in Muslim India until the 19th century..."''<ref>http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids Iranica: GHURIDS or Āl-e Šansab; a medieval Islamic dynasty of the eastern Iranian lands.</ref>

===Bengal===
[[File:Lottan Masjid, Gaur.jpg|thumb|The Lattan Mosque in [[Gauḍa (city)|Gaur]], which was the first capital of the Persianate [[Sultanate of Bengal]].]]
Bengal was the easternmost frontier of the Persian cultural sphere.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bengal|website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bengal}}</ref> For over 600 years (1204-1837), the Persian language was an official language in Bengal, including during the provincial period of the Delhi Sultanate; the independent period of the [[Bengal Sultanate]]; the dominion period of the [[Bengal Subah]] in the Mughal Empire; and the quasi-independent [[Nawabs of Bengal|Nawabi period]]. Bengal was the subcontinent's wealthiest region for centuries, where [[Persian people]], as well as [[Persianate Turks]], settled in the Ganges delta to work as teachers, lawyers, poets, administrators, soldiers and aristocrats.<ref>{{cite Banglapedia|article=Iranians, The}}</ref> The Bengali language continues to have a significant amount of Persian loanwords. A popular literary creole emerged mixing Persian and Bengali which came to be known as [[Dobhashi]]. Several Bengali cities were once centres of Persian prose and poetry. [[Hafez]], one of the masters of Persian poetry, kept a notable correspondence with Sultan [[Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah]] and they composed a poem together. The Mughal period saw the zenith of Persian cultural expression in Bengal. During the [[Bengali Renaissance]], Persian was studied by not only Muslim but even [[Hindus|Hindu]] scholars, including [[Raja Ram Mohan Roy]]. From the mid-eighteenth century towards the 19th century, five to six daily magazines were published in [[Calcutta]], most notably the Durbin and the Sultan al-Akhbar. The use of Persian as an official language was prohibited by Act no. XXIX of 1837 passed by the President of the [[Council of India]] in Council on 20 November 1837.<ref>{{cite Banglapedia|article=Persian|author=Abu Musa Mohammad Arif Billah}}</ref>

===Deccan===
[[File:Complete view of Mahumad Gawan.JPG|thumb|right|Ruins of a [[Mahmud Gawan Madrasa|madrassa]] built by [[Mahmud Gawan]], the Bahmani minister.]]The Deccan region's integration into the Indo-Persian culture of the north began in the early 14th century, when the Delhi Sultanate made political movements towards the south. In the era of the [[Khalji dynasty]], the Sultanate turned regional kings of the Deccan into tributaries, casting Delhi's shadow in the region for the first time. This resulted in the assimilation of certain Persianate regal practices into the courts of these kings. The Deccan was then brought into the Delhi Sultanate under the conquests of the [[Tughluq dynasty]]. This led to a more formal introduction of Persianate culture in the Deccan, extending beyond the realm of the court. Population movements from the north to the south greatly contributed to the diffusion of this culture, notable of which is the brief shifting of the Sultanate's capital from Delhi to [[Devagiri]] under [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] in 1327.{{Sfn|Eaton|2008|p=22-24}}[[File:GolGumbaz2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Gol Gumbaz]], the mausoleum of Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur.]]
In the middle of the 14th century, the Delhi Sultanate's hold over the Deccan broke from revolts, but the Indo-Persian culture it had brought lived on. The breakaway [[Bahmani Sultanate]] was established in 1347, and its rulers were greatly influenced by Persian culture. They were well-versed in the language and its literature, and promoted Persian language education throughout their empire. The architecture cultivated by them had significant Iranian influences, even more than that of the Muslims in the north.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Ansari|first=N. H.|title=Bahmanid Dynasty|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahmanid-dynasty-a-dynasty-founded-in-748-1347-in-the-deccan-sanskrit-daksia-lit|url-status=live|website=Encyclopaedia Iranica}}</ref> The Bahmani Sultans actively recruited Persian or Persianised men in their administration, and such foreigners were in fact favoured over Indians.{{Sfn|Eaton|2008|p=67-68}} Sultan [[Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah|Firuz Shah]] (1397-1422) sent ships from his ports in [[Goa]] and [[Chaul]] to the [[Persian Gulf]] to bring back talented men of letters, administrators, jurists, soldiers and artisans.{{Sfn|Eaton|2008|p=51-52}} This included the high-born Iranian [[Mahmud Gawan]] (1411-1481) who rose to become a powerful minister of that state during the reign of another Bahmani Sultan.{{Sfn|Eaton|2009|p=59-72}} The Persianised nature of the court is reflected in the fact that the Bahmanis celebrated festivals like [[Nowruz]].<ref name=":2" />

According to Richard Eaton, even the Hindu [[Vijayanagara]] empire from the same period was highly Persianised in its culture. The royal quarters of the capital had many Persian architectural elements such as domes and vaulted arches.{{Sfn|Eaton|2008|p=99-101}}

The Bahmani Sultanate disintegrated into five [[Deccan sultanates|Deccan Sultanates]], similar in culture. [[Hyderabad]], built by the [[Golconda Sultanate]] in the 16th century, was inspired by [[Isfahan]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Persianate-culture-forms-intrinsic-part-of-Hyderabad/articleshow/11369711.cms|title='Persianate culture forms intrinsic part of Hyderabad' - Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2018-11-14}}</ref> The use of Persian as a court language in Hyderabad continued under the [[Nizam of Hyderabad|Nizams of Hyderabad]], and was only replaced by Urdu in 1886.<ref name=":0" />

The court language during the Deccan sultanate period was Persian or Arabic, however, [[Marathi language|Marathi]] was widely used during the period especially by the [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Adil Shahis]] of Bijapur and the [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate]].<ref>Gordon, Stewart (1993). Cambridge History of India: The Marathas 1600-1818. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University press. p. 16. {{ISBN|978-0-521-26883-7}}.</ref><ref>Malik Mohamed, The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India, 2007, p. 249, p. 434</ref> Although the rulers were Muslims, the local feudal landlords and the revenue collectors were Hindus and so was the majority of the population. Political expediency made it important for the sultans to make use of Marathi. Nevertheless, Marathi in official documents from the era is totally [[Persian language in the Indian subcontinent|Persian]]ised in its vocabulary.<ref>{{cite journal|date=1992|title=DECCAN (MAHARASHTRA) UNDER THE MUSLIM RULERS FROM KHALJIS TO SHIVAJI : A STUDY IN INTERACTION, PROFESSOR S.M KATRE Felicitation|jstor=42930434|journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute|volume=51/52|pages=501–510|last1=Kulkarni|first1=G.T.}}</ref> The Persian influence continues to this day with many Persian derived words used in every day speech such as bāg (Garden), kārkhānā (factory), shahar (city), bāzār (market), dukān (shop), hushār (clever), kāgad (paper), khurchi (chair), zamīn (land), zāhirāt (advertisement), and hazār (thousand).<ref>Abdul Karim, Influence of Persian on Marathi Language, Indo-Iran society, 1974, pp.163–174 </ref>

== During the British colonial era ==

Given that the Mughals had historically symbolised Indo-Persian culture to one degree or another, the dethroning of Bahadur Shah Zafar and the institution of the [[British Raj|direct control of the British Crown]] in 1858 may be considered as marking the end of the Indo-Persian era, even if, after the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Indian Rebellion]], Persian would still retain an audience and even produce commendable literature such as the philosophical poetry of [[Muhammad Iqbal]] (d. 1938). The British would absorb elements of the culture's architectural style into the buildings of the Raj, producing [[Indo-Saracenic architecture]].

== Language ==
{{Main|Persian language in the Indian subcontinent}}

== Cuisine ==
{{Main|Mughlai cuisine}}
The Indo-Persian synthesis led to the development of cuisine that combined indigenous foods and ingredients, with the tastes and methods of the Turko-Persians. This was especially under the Mughals, who invited cooks (''bawarchis)'' from various parts of the Islamic world. This resultant cuisine is referred to as [[Mughlai cuisine]], and has left a great impact on the regional eating habits of South Asia. It was further developed in the kitchens of regional Islamic powers, leading to distinctive styles such as the [[Awadhi cuisine|Awadhi]] and [[Hyderabadi cuisine|Hyderabadi]] cuisines.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Laudan|first=Rachel|title=Cuisine and Empire: Cooking in World History|publisher=University of California Press|year=2013|isbn=0520266455|pages=161-164}}</ref>

Due to this synthesis, the Indian subcontinent shares with Central and West Asia foods such as ''[[naan]]'' and ''[[kebab]]'', but has also become home to unique dishes such as ''[[biryani]].''

== Architecture ==
{{Main|Indo-Islamic architecture}}
The Indian subcontinent's Islamic period produced architecture that drew stylistically from Persianate culture, using features such as domes, [[Iwan|iwans]], [[Minaret|minars]], and [[Persian gardens|baghs]]. Early Islamic rulers tended to use [[spolia]] from Hindu, [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], and [[Jainism|Jain]] buildings, resulting in an Indianised style which would be refined by later kingdoms. Hence monuments came to feature uniquely Indian architectural elements, such as [[Corbel arch|corbelled arches]] and [[jali]]. The main buildings produced were mosques, forts, and tombs. These still stand today and are well-represented in the architecture of cities such as [[Architecture of Lahore|Lahore]], [[Architecture of Delhi|Delhi]], and [[Architecture of Hyderabad|Hyderabad]], to name a few.

Indo-Persian architecture was not exclusive to Islamic power, as the members and rulers of other religions incorporated it in their monuments. [[Sikh architecture]] is a notable example of this. The Hindu [[Vijayanagara Empire]] used Indo-Persian architecture in courtly monuments.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|last1=Eaton|first1=Richard M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cGd2huLXEVYC&q=+persian+culture&pg=PR12|title=The new Cambridge history of India.|date=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521254847|edition=1. publ.|location=Cambridge|pages=99–101}}</ref>

== Music ==
{{Main|Hindustani classical music}}
[[File:Barbed rubab (lute), 1660-1670 CE, Golkonda.png|thumb |[[Golkonda]] 1660-1670. Musician plays a form of [[Rubab (instrument)|rubab]]. Related instruments include the medieval Iranian rubab, the rubab of Afghanistan, Pakistan and Northern India, the Indian [[sarod]], [[sursingar]] and [[:de:kamaica|kamaica]], the Nepali-Tibetan-Bhutanese [[tungana]], the [[Pamiri rubab]] and the Uyghur [[rawap]]. The family of instruments blended Persian and Indian cultures, and has been played by Hindus, Buddhists and Muslims.]]

Prior to Islamic conquest, the Indian subcontinent had a history of musical practice that drew from Sanskritic culture. The subsequent Indo-Persian synthesis resulted in an influx of Iranian musical elements, leading to further developments in the region's musical culture through the patronage of new Persianate rulers. This appears to have been the impetus for divergence in indigenous music, leading to [[Hindustani classical music]]. Some of the main instruments used in this style, such as the [[sitar]] and [[sarod]], are thought to have close historical ties with Persian instruments (for an example, see [[setar]]). Musical genres such as ''[[khyal]]'' and ''[[tarana]]'', and the musical performance of [[Ghazal|''ghazals'']], are examples of the Indo-Persian musical confluence. Notably, the [[Sufism|Sufi]] devotional music of ''[[qawwali]]'' bears evident impact from Persian influence, such as the frequent usage of Persian poems.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Indo-Persian Musical Confluence|url=https://southasia.stanford.edu/news/call-papers-indo-persian-musical-confluence|url-status=live|website=Stanford Center for South Asia}}</ref>

The creation of many of these practices is credited to 13th-century poet, scholar, and musician [[Amir Khusrau]].

== See also ==
*[[Persianate society]]
*[[Turco-Persian tradition|Turco-Persian culture]]
*[[Turco-Mongol tradition|Turco-Mongol culture]]
*[[Greater Persia]]
*[[Persian language in the Indian subcontinent]]
*[[Indo-Islamic architecture]]
*[[Ancient India and Central Asia]]
*[[Mughal architecture]]
*[[Mughal clothing]]
*[[Persian inscriptions on Indian monuments]]
*[[Urdu]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* {{Citation|last=Eaton|first=Richard|title=A Social History of the Deccan, 1300-1761|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139053907}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia= [[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |year= 2004 |author=Multiple authors |contribution=India | contribution-url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/india}} (series of entries that cover Indian history and its relations with Iran)
* Chopra, R.M. ''Indo-Iranian Cultural Relations Through The Ages''. Iran Society, 2005.
* Chopra, R. M.,"The Rise Growth And Decline of Indo-Persian Literature", Iran Culture House, New Delhi, 2012. 2nd revised edition published in 2013.
* [[Juan Cole|Cole, Juan R.I.]] "Iranian Culture and South Asia, 1500–1900". in: [[Nikki R. Keddie|Keddie, Nikki]]; Matthee, Rudolph P. (ed.). (2002). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=SLlcCgAAQBAJ Iran and the Surrounding World: Interactions in Culture and Cultural Politics]''. University of Washington Press. {{ISBN|0-295-98206-3}}. pp. 15–35.
* Eaton, Richard M., ''India in the Persianate Age'' (Allen Lane, 2019)
* Islam, Riazul, "Indo-Persian Relations". Iranian Culture Foundation, Tehran, 1970.
* Kirmani, Waris. ''Dreams Forgotten: An Anthology of Indo-Persian Poetry.'' (Aligarh, 1984)
* Nabi Hadi. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qjJmzdJFOHwC Dictionary of Indo-Persian Literature].'' (New Delhi, 1995)
{{commonscat|Mughal art}}
{{Mughal Empire}}

[[Category:Persian culture]]
[[Category:Indian culture]]
[[Category:Pakistani culture]]
[[Category:Mughal Empire]]

Indo-Persian culture - Revision history

>Tubesleveret15 at 19:40, 24 May 2021