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{{Short description|Historical inscriptions in India}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2017}}
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[[Bhoja]] was an Indian king from the [[Paramara dynasty]], whose kingdom was centered around the [[Malwa]] region in present-day [[Madhya Pradesh]]. By 2003, 12 inscriptions dated to Bhoja's region had been discovered at [[Banswara]], [[Betma]], [[Bhojpur, Madhya Pradesh|Bhojpur]], [[Depalpur, India|Depalpur]], [[Dhar]], [[Kalwan]], Mahaudi, Kokapur (in [[Modasa]] [[taluka]]), Piploda, Tilakwada and [[Ujjain]].{{sfn|Misra|2003|p=21}}{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|pp=27-61}}

Some of these inscriptions, including those issued by Bhoja himself, are described below. All the inscriptions issued by [[Bhoja]] are in [[Sanskrit]] language and [[Nagari script]], although some inscriptions feature a few [[Prakrit]] words. They are usually in form of [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper plates]] that record land grants. They begin with the auspicious Siddham symbol, and verses praising Shiva. They contain a brief genealogy, naming Bhoja's predecessors as [[Sindhuraja|Sindhuraja-deva]], [[Vakpati Munja|Vakpatiraja-deva]] and [[Siyaka|Siyaka-deva]]. Bhoja himself is mentioned as Bhoja-[[deva (Hinduism)|deva]], and his titles are given as ''Parama-bhattaraka'', ''[[Maharajadhiraja]]'' and ''[[Parameshwara (god)|Parameshvara]]''. All of Bhoja's own inscriptions feature the Paramara emblem of a flying [[Garuda]] (with a bird's head and a man's body). The Garuda is shown holding a [[cobra]] snake in its left hand, about to strike it with his right hand. The grant records are usually followed by [[benedictive]] and [[imprecatory prayer|imprecatory]] verses (the latter curse the person who does not honour the grants made in the inscriptions). Bhoja's own inscriptions end with his [[royal sign-manual]].{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|pp=27-61}}

== 1011 CE Modasa copper-plates ==

This inscription is in the form of two copper-plates.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=28}} It is dated 1067 [[Vikram Samvat|VS]]. The exact date corresponds to 6 May 1011 CE, assuming ''[[Karttikadi]]'' convention practiced in [[Gujarat]] (''[[Kartik (month)|Kartik]]'' is the first month of the year in this convention).{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=29}} In 1944, R. P. Soni found this inscription in possession of a [[bania (caste)|bania]] widow at Kokapur village of [[Modasa]] [[taluka]] in Gujarat. The widow could not remember when and how she got these plates.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=28}}

The two plates contain 16 and 5 lines respectively. The inscription begins with the Siddham symbol, followed by the date and the Paramara genealogy. It records the grant of agricultural land situated in the Sayanapataka (modern Shenvad) village of Mohadavasaka (modern Modasa) sub-division. The name of the donor and the donee is not clear from the surviving record. The land was either donated by Bhoja's subordinate Vatsaraja to a [[Brahmin]] named Deddaka; or it was donated by Deddaka to someone else, with Vatsaraja ratifying the grant. The charter then names the witnesses, and also names its writer as Chhadaka, son of Amnaka. The inscription ends with a sign-manual of Vatsaraja. Unlike the rest of the inscription (which is in Sanskrit), the sign-manual is in Prakrit language ("Vachchharajasya").{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=29}}

Vatsaraja is styled as ''Maharajaputra'' ("[[Maharaja]]'s son") in this inscription. Based on this, [[D. C. Sircar]] theorized that he was a son of Bhoja.{{sfn|Bhatia|1970|p=97}} However, other scholars believe that "Maharajaputra" was a feudatory title. H. V. Trivedi identifies Vatsaraja with a ruler of the [[Chalukyas of Lata|Chalukya house of Lata]]. This ruler was the son of Kirttiraja, and might have been a vassal of Bhoja.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=30}}

== 1018 CE Mahaudi copper-plates ==

This inscription is in form of two copper plates. It is dated 1074 [[Vikram Samvat|VS]]; the exact day corresponds to 30 July 1018 CE.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=33}} The plates were found in possession of one Ratansingh Saindhava of Mahaudi (Jivapur Mahodia) village near [[Ashta, Madhya Pradesh|Ashta]] in [[Sehore district]]. Saindhava refused to part away with the plates, but archaeologist [[V. S. Wakankar]] managed to prepare a [[rubbing (art)|rubbing]]. The actual copper plates are now reported as lost.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=32}}

The two plates contain 15 and 14 lines respectively, and an image of the Garuda emblem.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=32}} The inscription begins with the Siddham symbol and two verses praising [[Shiva]], who is named ''Vyomakesha'' ("sky-haired") and ''Smararati'' ("enemy of the god of love"). It then lists the Paramara kings from Siyaka to Bhoja. Next, the inscription records Bhoja's donation of the Dugayi or Dugaryi village to one Markanda-sarman. The donee was a Brahmin of Vatsa [[gotra]] and Vajasaneya [[shakha]]; he hailed from Shravanabhadra town of Gauda country. Bhoja is described as a resident of [[Dhara (city)|Dhara]]. It is stated that he took a bath, performed his daily duties and then ordered the village's officials (including ''pattalika'') and residents to render their taxes and a share of the crop produce to the donee. The inscription states that the donation was made on the day of a [[lunar eclipse]], but there was no lunar eclipse on 30 July 1018. It appears that the donation had already been made, and the inscriptional record was created at a later date. The inscription also mentions another date corresponding to 17 September 1018 CE, when the record was formally handed over to the donee.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=33}}

Next, the inscription contains the traditional benedictive and imprecatory verses. It ends with the sign-manual of Bhoja and the name of Jatasa, who executed the grant.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=33}}

The identity of the donated village (Dugayi or Dugaryi) is not certain. On basis of similar-sounding names, H. V. Trivedi speculates that it might be the Dupadiya (or Dugariya) village located near [[Ashta, Madhya Pradesh|Ashta]].{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=34}} The identity of Shravanabhadra is also unclear. According to inscription, it was located in the Gauda country. The most famous territory by this name was the [[Gauḍa (region)|Gauda region]] in present-day [[West Bengal]]. Accordingly, Trivedi identifies Sravanabhdra as a place in that state.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=34}} K. N. Dikshit, while analyzing another inscription, identified Shravanabhadra as Sonbhadra near [[Kannauj]], [[Uttar Pradesh]].{{sfn|Datta|1989|p=28}} Swati Datta notes that Gauda might not necessarily refer to the region in Bengal: other territories in India were also known by this name. The name Gauda was also used as a collective name for the following five territories of north India: Sarasvata ([[Kuru Kingdom|Kurukshetra]]), [[Kanyakubja]] (Kannauj), Gauda (of Bengal), [[Mithila (ancient)|Mithila]] and [[Utkala Kingdom|Utkala]].{{sfn|Datta|1989|p=29}}

== 1020 CE Betma inscription ==

This inscription is in form of two copper plates. It is dated 1076 [[Vikram Samvat|VS]]; the exact date is not known, but assuming [[Karttikadi]] year, it can be dated to September 1020 CE.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=36}} The inscription was found by a farmer in [[Betma]], in the early 20th century.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=35}}

The two plates contain 13 and 14 lines respectively, and the second plate features the Garuda emblem.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=35}} Like the 1018 CE record, this inscription begins with an auspicious symbol, two verses praising Shiva and the Paramara genealogy. It then states that Bhoja granted the Nalatadaga village to Pandita Delha after performing the daily duties and worshipping Bhavani-pati. The village was located in the Nayapadra territory. D. B. Diskalkar, the first scholar to transcribe and translate the inscription, identified Nala-tadaga with Nar village in [[Kheda district]] and Nayapadra with Napad town (now part of [[Nadiad]]). Because these places are located nearly 300 km away from Betma, he assumed that the descendants of the donee may have migrated to Malwa. The donee Delha was the son of Bhatta Thatthasika of [[Kaushika]] [[gotra]] and [[Madhyandina Shakha|Madhyandini shakha]]. He was a migrant from Sthanvishvara (modern [[Thanesar]]), and his ancestors lived at Vishala-grama (unidentified).{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|pp=36-37}}

The donation was made on the occasion of ''Konkana-Grahana-Vijaya-Parvva'' ("Konkana Conquest Festival"), to mark Bhoja's conquest of [[Konkana]] region. Like the 1018 CE inscription, the record ends with imprecatory and dedicatory verses.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=36}}

== 1020 CE Banswara inscription ==

This inscription is in form of two copper plates. It is dated to year 1076 of an unspecified era. Assuming that the era is [[Vikrama Samvat]] and the year as ''[[Karttikadi]]'', the exact date corresponds to 3 January 1020 CE.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=40}} [[Gaurishankar Hirachand Ojha|G. H. Ojha]] found the plates in possession of the widow of a [[Thathera]] (coppersmith) at [[Banswara]]. The plates were later moved to the Rajputana Museum in [[Ajmer]].{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=39}}

The content at the start and the end of the inscription is exactly same as the 1020 CE Betma inscription, comprising verses and genealogy. The second plate features the Garuda emblem. The inscription records the donation of a piece of land in Vatapadraka village, which was located in Vyaghradora ''bhoga'' (district) of Sthali ''mandala'' (province). H. V. Trivedi identifies Vatapadraka with either [[Barodiya]] or Barliya village, and Vyaghradora with [[Bagidora]]. The Sthali province was probably same as the [[Vagada]] region, and might have been named after the present-day Thali village near [[Arthuna]].{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|pp=40-41}}

The land was donated by Bhoja to a Brahmin named Bhaila, the son of Vamana. The donee belonged to [[Vashistha]] gotra and Vajimadhyana [[shakha]]; his ancestors were natives of Chhinchchaha-sthana (modern [[Chhinch]]). Like the Betma grant, the donation was made on the occasion of ''Konkana-Vijaya-Parva'' ("Konkan Conquest Festival"; the word "''Grahana''" is missing from this particular inscription).{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=40}}

== 1021 CE Ujjain copper plates ==

This inscription is in form of two copper plates. It is dated to 1076 [[Vikram Samvat|VS]], and the exact date corresponds to 24 December 1021 CE. It was found by a farmer in an agricultural field near Ujjain.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=42}}

As with other inscriptions, it begins with the Siddham symbol, the verses praising Vyomkesha and Smararati (aspects of Shiva) and the Paramara genealogy.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=43}} The second plate features the Garuda emblem.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=42}}

The inscription records the donation of the Viranaka village, which was located in Nagaharda-''paschima-pathaka'' subdivision. The identity of the Viranaka village is not certain. H. V. Trivedi identifies Nagaharda-paschima-pathaka as a territory lying to the west of the Nagjhiri stream near Ujjain. The village was donated by Bhoja (who resided at [[Dhara (city)|Dhara]]) to a [[Kannada Brahmins|Karnataka Brahmana]] named Dhanapati-Bhatta. The donee was the son of Bhatta-Govinda, who belonged to [[Agastya|Agasti]] [[gotra]] and Asvalayana [[shakha]]. He was a migrant from Srivada in Velluvalla (unidentified).{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|pp=43-44}}

The inscription ends with five imprecatory verses, and the sign-manual of the king.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=43}}

== 1022–23 CE Depalpur copper-plates ==

This inscription is in form of two copper-plates. It is dated to 1079 [[Vikram Samvat|VS]], and the exact date corresponds to 19 March 1022 CE (assuming [[Chaitradi]] year). Alternatively, the inscription can be dated to 1023 CE (assuming [[Karttikadi]] year).{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=47}} In 1931, R. G. Ojha of [[Indore Museum]] purchased these plates from one Kishore Singh Kanungo of Depalpur. It is not known how and when did the plates came into possession of Kanungo.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=45}}

The inscription features the usual genealogy and the Garuda emblem. It then records the donation of some land in Kirikaika village (present-day Karki near Depalpur) located to the west of Ujjayani. The land was donated by Bhoja to a Brahmin named Vachchhala, who was the son of Soshvara, and belonged to the [[Atri|Atreya]] gotra.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=46}} The inscription ends with four imprecatory verses and sign-manual of the king.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=47}}

The inscription suggests that Vacchala had migrated from [[Manyakheta]], which was located in the [[Western Chalukya]] territory ruled by [[Jayasimha II (Western Chalukya dynasty)|Jayasimha II]]. Swati Datta theorizes that by this time, Jayasimha's kingdom was under attack from the [[Chola]]-[[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuri]]-Paramara confederacy. The Cholas had previously attacked the Chalukya kingdom during the reign of Jayasimha's ancestor [[Satyashraya]]. During this invasion, they are said to have killed the Brahmin men and married off Brahmin girls to the men from other castes. According to Datta, Vacchala might have feared a repeat of this episode in case of a Chalukya defeat. This might have motivated him to seek shelter with Bhoja, who was reputed as a patron of learned Brahmins. Jayasimha was able to repulse the invasion by 1024 CE.{{sfn|Datta|1989|p=99}}

== 1033–34 CE Dhar inscription ==
[[File:Goddess Ambika from Dhar.JPG|thumb|right|The Ambika statue at British Museum]]
This 4-line inscription appears on the [[pedestal]] of the [[Ambika Statue from Dhar]]. The statue was found in 1875 at the ruins of the palace at [[Dhar]]. Major General William Kincaid later gave it to the [[British Museum]] at [[London]].<ref name="BM_Ambika">{{cite web |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=182355&partId=1&searchText=Dhar&page=1 |title=Collection online: figure 1909,1224.1 |publisher=British Museum |access-date=30 June 2016 }}</ref> The record consists of a dedicatory verse in ''shardulavikridita'' [[Sanskrit metre|metre]]. It records the installation of the statue during the reign of Bhoja. The inscription is dated 1019 (presumably [[Vikrama Samvat]]), which corresponds to 1033–34 CE. The inscription was written by Shivadeva, and the sculptor was Manathala, who was the son of the mason Sahira.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=49}}

In 1924, art historian O. C. Gangoly and archaeologist K. N. Dikshit mistakenly identified the statue as that of [[Vagdevi]] (Sarasvati), based on an incomplete reading. They theorized that the statue was from a Sarasvati temple ([[Bhoj Shala]]) in Dhar. This mistake was corrected by the Sanskrit scholar [[Harivallabh Bhayani]] and Kirit Mankondi in a 1981 article.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aI05AAAAIAAJ |first=Kirit |last=Mankodi |title=A Paramāra Sculpture in the British Museum: Vāgdevī or Yakshī Ambikā? |journal=Sambodhi |volume=9 |year=1980 |pages=96–103}}</ref> The image is actually that of the Jain goddess [[Ambika (Jainism)|Ambika]]. The inscription states that [[Vararuchi]] commissioned a statue of Ambika after having commissioned statues of Vagdevi and three [[Jinas]]. It describes Vararuchi as Bhoja's religious superintendent (''Dharmmadhī'') of Chandranagari and Vidyadhari (branches of the Jainism). Vararuchi is identified with Dhanapala, a prominent Jain courtier of Bhoja.<ref name="BM_Ambika"/>

== 1046 CE Tilakwada inscription ==

This inscription was probably in form of 3 copper plates, out of which only the last two are now available.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=50}} It is dated 1103 [[Vikram Samvat|VS]], and the exact date corresponds to 17 November 1046 CE.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=51}} The two plates were discovered in May 1917 by swimmers and divers in the bed of the [[Narmada River]] at Tilakwada, Gujarat.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=50}}

The surviving portion of the inscription begins with a description of Bhoja's reign. Bhoja is said to have bravely slayed numerous enemy soldiers, and to have enjoyed a long reign. It is possible that the now-lost first plate mentioned Bhoja's genealogy. Next, the inscription describes Bhoja's feudatory and Suraditya, who was a migrant from [[Kanyakubja]], and belonged to the ''Shravana-bhadra'' lineage. Suraditya was made the feudal lord of ''Samgama-khetaka-mandala'' (present-day [[Sankheda]] area) for having killed Bhoja's enemies. The inscription names only one of the enemies defeated by Suraditya: Sahavahana, whose identity is not certain (see [[Military career of Bhoja#Sahavahana]]). Suraditya's father Jasoraja (I) had [[sannyasa|retired]] and was leading a religious life on the banks of Narmada. His son Jasoraja (II) inherited the feudal lordship.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|pp=51-52}}

Next, the inscription records the grant of the Viluhaja village (modern Velpur) and a plot of land in Ghantapalli village (modern [[Ghantoli]]). The land was donated by Suraditya's son Jasoraja (or Yashoraja) to Dinakara for worship of a deity called Ghanteshvara. The deity was locally known as Dakshina-Murti Maneshvara, and its temple was located at the confluence of Mana stream with Narmada River. When J.S. Kudalkar visited the village in 1919, he found the ruins of a temple known as Ghanteshvara there. The inscription describes Dinakara as a Shaivite ascetic, who was born in the ''Shravana-bhadra'' lineage, and was reputed as an incarnation of [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]].{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|pp=51-52}}

The inscription ends with six imprecatory verses and a brief description of Sohika, the composer. Sohika states that he wrote the content at the request of the King Bhoja, and asks for forgiveness for any composition mistakes. He is described as the son of Aiyala, a [[Kayastha]] of the Valabhya family.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|pp=51-52}}

== Kalwan inscription ==

This inscription comprises three copper plates. It was found in possession of a [[Bhil people|Bhil]] at [[Kalwan]] (or Kalvan) in [[Nashik district]], and later acquired by the [[Prince of Wales museum]].{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=54}} The inscription does not mention a year: it only states that it was issued on the occasion of a [[solar eclipse]], on an [[amavasya]] (dark moon day) in the [[Chaitra]] month. In ''List of Inscriptions of North India'' edited by [[D. R. Bhandarkar]], the inscription is dated to 17 March 1048 CE, but the text is silent on how this date was assigned.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=55}} According to H. V. Trivedi, its [[Devanagari]] characters resemble those of the 1020 CE Banswara and Betma plates, and therefore, the inscription is probably from the same period.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=54}}

The inscription begins with a ''svasti'' (blessing), followed by a genealogy of Paramara kings from [[Siyaka]] to Bhoja. It describes Siyaka's son [[Vakpati Munja|Vakpati]] as a highly ranked poet. It states that Bhoja had defeated the rulers of [[Western Chalukyas|Karnata]], [[Lata (region)|Lata]], [[Gurjaradesa|Gurjjara]], [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Chedi]] and [[Shilahara|Konkana]].{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=55}}

Next, the record describes Bhoja's feudatory Yashovarman, who controlled half of the Selluka (probably modern Satane) town and 1500 villages. The inscription records a donation, which was probably made in Yashovarman's territory.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=57}} The donation, of several properties, was made by one Ranaka Amma to a Jain monk Suvrata-deva. The properties include plots of land, oil mills, shops and 14 ''dramma''s (gold coins). The donee Suvrata-deva is named as a [[tirthankara]] [[Jain muni|Muni]] of the Kalakeshvara [[tirtha (Jainism)|tirtha]]. The donor Ranaka Amma is described as a ''[[samanta]]'' of the Ganga family. At the time of the donation, he resided in the Muktapalli village (possibly modern [[Mohadi]]) in Audrahadi ''[[vishaya]]'' (province). He had become a Jain after listening to the teachings of the [[Śvetāmbara]] monk Ammadevacharya. His wife Chachchai was born in the Chalukya family. She poured water from a ''[[kamandalu]]'', with which Ranaka Amma washed the feet of the Jain monk before making the donation.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|pp=55-57}}

== Bhojpur inscription ==
[[File:JainTempleIdols.jpg|thumb|The tirthankara statue at Bhojpur Jain temple]]
This two-line undated, fragmentary inscription is engraved on the pedestal of the large [[tirthankara]] statue at the [[Jainism|Jain]] temple of [[Bhojpur, Madhya Pradesh|Bhojpur]].{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=60}}

The first verse in the inscription is in ''Vasantatilaka'' [[Sanskrit metre|metre]]. It eulogies Chandrardha-mauli and Bhoja, who is titled ''[Rajadhi]raja Parameshvara''. The second verse is in ''Upajati'' metre. It records the installation of the tirthankara image by Sagaranandin, and mentions that the learned Jain monk Nemichandra performed the installation ceremony.{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=61}}

H. V. Trivedi identifies Chandrardha-mauli as [[Shiva]], and believes that Sagaranandin was devoted to both Jainism and [[Shaivism]].{{sfn|Trivedi|1991|p=61}}

== References ==

{{reflist|2}}

=== Bibliography ===

{{ref begin}}

* {{cite book |first=Pratipal |last=Bhatia |title=The Paramāras, c. 800-1305 A.D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a5gcAAAAMAAJ |year=1970 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal }}
* {{cite book |first=Swati |last=Datta |title=Migrant Brāhmaṇas in Northern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pKAb9DPUCCcC&pg=PA28 |year=1989 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0067-0 }}
* {{cite book |first=Om Prakash |last=Misra |title=Archaeological Excavations in Central India: Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o0ISjDDWJwQC&pg=PA12 |year=2003 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-874-7 }}
* {{cite book |author=Harihar Vitthal Trivedi |title=Inscriptions of the Paramāras (Part 2) |series=Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Volume VII: Inscriptions of the Paramāras, Chandēllas, Kachchapaghātas, and two minor dynasties |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8B4LAQAAMAAJ |year=1991 |publisher=[[Archaeological Survey of India]] |ref={{harvid|Trivedi|1991}} }}
{{ref end}}

[[Category:Bhoja]]
[[Category:Sanskrit inscriptions in India]]
[[Category:11th-century inscriptions]]

Inscriptions of Bhoja - Revision history

KandacePolding at 06:25, 31 October 2024