Ajay Kumar at 18:07, 24 August 2023

2023-08-24T18:07:14Z

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{{Short description|Sal Tibeto-Burman language}}{{Distinguish|Jili language|Kachi language}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Jingpho
| altname = Kachin
| nativename = {{transl|kac|Jinghpaw}} {{lang|kac|ဈိာင်ဖေါစ်}}
| pronunciation = {{IPA|tɕiŋ˧˩pʰɔʔ˧˩}}
| states = [[Myanmar]], [[China]], [[India]]
| region = [[Kachin State]], [[Yingjiang County]]
| ethnicity = [[Jingpo people|Jingpho]]
| speakers = ca. {{sigfig|942,500|2}}
| date = 1999–2001
| ref = e18
| familycolor = Sino-Tibetan
| fam2 = [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]]
| fam3 = [[Sal languages|Sal]]
| fam4 = [[Jingpho–Luish languages|Jingpho–Luish]]
| script = [[Latin alphabet]] [[Burmese script]]
| dia1 = [[Singpho dialect|Singpho]]
| dia2 = Dzili (Jili)
| minority = {{flag|China}} {{flag|Myanmar}}
| iso2 = kac
| lc1 = kac
| ld1 = Jinghpaw
| lc2 = sgp
| ld2 = Singpho
| lc3 = tcl
| ld3 = [[Taman language (Myanmar)|Taman]]
| glotto = jing1260
| glottorefname = Jinghpaw
| notice = IPA
}}

'''Jingpho''' (''Jinghpaw'', ''Chingp'o'', ''Jìngphòʔ gà'' / ဈိာင်ဖေါစ်) or '''Kachin''' ({{lang-my|ကချင်ဘာသာ}}, {{IPA-my|kətɕɪ̀ɰ̃ bàðà|}}), is a [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman language]] of the [[Sal languages|Sal branch]] mainly spoken in [[Kachin State]], [[Myanmar]] and [[Yunnan]], [[China]]. There are many meanings for Jingpho. In the Jingpho language, Jingpho means people or Jinghpho tribe.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Chyauhpa Brang Li |date=2015 |title=Jinghpaw ngu ai kadai |trans-title=Who are the Jinghpo |volume=1 |page=37 |work=The Kachin Times |issue=4}}</ref> The term "Kachin" can refer either to the Jingpho language or to any of a group of languages spoken by various ethnic groups in the same region as [[Jingpo people|Jingpo]]: [[Lisu language|Lisu]], [[Lashi language|Lashi]], [[Rawang language|Rawang]], [[Zaiwa language|Zaiwa]], [[Lhao Vo language|Lhao Vo]], [[Achang language|Achang]] and Jingpho. These languages are from distinct branches of the highest level of the [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman family]]. The Jingpho alphabet is based on the [[Latin script]].

The ethnic Jingpho (or [[Kachin people|Kachin]]) are the primary speakers of Jingpho language, numbering approximately 900,000 speakers.<ref name="ethno">{{Cite web |title=ISO 639 Code: kac |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/14/show_iso639.asp?code=kac |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210032351/http://www.ethnologue.com/14/show_iso639.asp?code=kac |archive-date=2007-12-10 |access-date=2008-06-08 |website=Ethnologue |language=en}}</ref> The [[Turung people|Turung]] of [[Assam]] in [[India]] speak a Jingpho dialect with many [[Assamese language|Assamese]] loanwords, called ''[[Singpho dialect|Singpho]]'', which shares 50% [[lexical similarity]] with Jingpho.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016 |title=Myanmar |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/country/MM/languages |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010180533/http://www.ethnologue.com/country/MM/languages |archive-date=2016-10-10 |website=Ethnologue: Languages of the World}}</ref>

Jingpho syllable finals can consist of vowels, nasals or oral stops.

==Dialects==
There are at least 16 Jingphoish (Kachinic) varieties (Kurabe 2014:59). The demographic and location information listed below is drawn from Kurabe (2014). Standard Jingpho and Nkhum are the best described varieties, whereas the Jingphoish varieties of India have been recently documented by Stephen Morey. Jingphoish varieties in northern [[Kachin State]] remain little described.

The ''[[Ethnologue]]'' lists '''Duleng''' (Dalaung, Dulong<ref>Not to be confused with "Dulong", the Mandarin transcription of [[Derung people]]. the Chinese transcription of Duleng is "杜连" Dulian</ref>), '''Dzili''' (Jili), '''Hkaku''' (Hka-Hku), and '''Kauri''' (Gauri, Guari, Hkauri). According to the Ethnologue, Dzili might be a separate language, whereas Hkaku and Kauri are only slightly different.

Other underdescribed Jingphoish varieties include '''Mungji''' and '''Zawbung'''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kurabe |first=Keita |title=Kurabe Keita |url=http://researchmap.jp/kur1/?lang=english |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925090141/http://researchmap.jp/kur1/?lang=english |archive-date=2015-09-25 |website=Researchmap |quote=Field research on the Mungji and Zawbung dialects of Jingpho in Burma}}</ref> '''Shanke''' is a recently described language closely related to Jingpho, although its speakers identify themselves as Naga.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shintani |first=Tadahiko |title=The Shanke Language |date=2015 |publisher=Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA) |series=Linguistic Survey of Tay Cultural Area (LSTCA), No. 104 |location=Tokyo |language=en}}</ref>

===Southern===
*'''Standard Jingpho''' is the standard variety of Jingpho as used among the [[Kachin people]] in Myanmar, as well as by non-Kachin ethnic minorities in [[Kachin State]]. Most speakers live in [[Kachin State]], though some live in [[Shan State]] and [[Sagaing Division]]. It is spoken primarily in [[Myitkyina]], [[Bhamo]], and [[Kutkai]]. Younger generations tend to pronounce {{IPAslink|ts}} and {{IPAslink|dz}} as {{IPAblink|s}} and {{IPAblink|z}}, contrasting them with {{IPAslink|s}} ({{IPAblink|sʰ}}). Standard Jingpho as spoken in [[Shan State]] often has ''ʔə''- added to monosyllabic words, and also places the interrogative particle ''ʔi'' before verbs.
*'''Nkhum''' / '''Enkun 恩昆''' (''{{IPA|n̩˧˩kʰum˧ ka˧˩}}'') is spoken in [[Lianghe County|Lianghe]], [[Ruili]], [[Longchuan County, Yunnan|Longchuan]], and [[Luxi County, Yunnan|Luxi]] counties of Yunnan, China.<ref name="Liu1984" /> It is the most widely spoken Jingpho dialect in China. The Nkhum dialect displays tense-lax register contrast, whereas Shadan does not. Although the Shadan dialect frequently has -ŋ, Nkhum often does not. The ''Tongbiguan 铜壁关'' variety of Nkhum is used as the Jingpho standard variety in China. Small pockets of speakers are also found in [[Gengma County]].<ref name="Dai2010">{{Cite book |last=Dai |first=Qingxia 戴庆厦 |title=Gěngmǎ xiàn jǐngpǒzú yǔyán shǐyòng xiànzhuàng jíqí yǎnbiàn |date=2010 |publisher=Shangwu yinshuguan |isbn=978-7-100-07152-9 |location=Beijing |language=zh |script-title=zh:耿马县景颇族语言使用现状及其演变 |trans-title=The Status Quo and Evolution of Language Use of the Jingpo Nationality in Gengma}}</ref>
*'''Shadan''' / '''Shidan 石丹''' (''{{IPA|ʃă˩tan˧˩ ka˧˩}}''; ''{{IPA|ʃă˩tam˧˩ ka˧˩}}''<ref name="Yunnan1998">{{Cite book |title=Yúnnán shěngzhì, Juǎn wǔshíjiǔ: shǎoshù mínzú yǔyán wénzì zhì |date=1998 |publisher=Yunnan renmin chubanshe |editor-last=Yunnan sheng difangzhi bianzuan weiyuanhui |location=Kunming |page=391 |language=zh |script-title=zh:云南省志. 卷五十九, 少数民族语言文字志 |trans-title=Yunnan Provincial Gazetteer, Vol. 59: Minority Languages Orthographies Gazetteer}}</ref>) is spoken in Yunnan, China.<ref name="Liu1984">{{Cite book |last=Liu |first=Lu 刘璐 |title=Jǐngpǒzú yǔyán jiǎnzhì |date=1984 |publisher=Minzu chubanshe |location=Beijing |pages=121–122 |language=zh |script-title=zh:景颇族语言简志 |trans-title=A Brief Description of the Jingpo Language}}</ref> It is spoken in the townships of Kachang 卡昌 and Taiping 太平 (in Getong 格同 of Mengzhi 蒙支, Zhengtonghong 正通硔,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yíngjiāng Xiàn Tàipíng Zhèn Kǎyá Cūn Zhèngtōng Gǒng Zìráncūn |script-title=zh:盈江县太平镇卡牙村正通拱自然村 |trans-title=Zhengtong Gong Natural Village, Kaya Village, Taiping Town, Yingjiang County |url=http://www.ynszxc.gov.cn/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=150088 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925102450/http://www.ynszxc.gov.cn/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=150088 |archive-date=2015-09-25 |access-date=2015-09-24 |website=ynszxc.gov.cn |language=zh}}</ref> and Longpen 龙盆<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yíngjiāng Xiàn Tàipíng Zhèn Lóngpén Cūn |script-title=zh:盈江县太平镇龙盆村 |trans-title=Longpen Village, Taiping Town, Yingjiang County |url=http://www.ynszxc.gov.cn/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=150091 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925102446/http://www.ynszxc.gov.cn/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=150091 |archive-date=2015-09-25 |access-date=2015-09-24 |website=ynszxc.gov.cn |language=zh}}</ref>), located in [[Yingjiang County]] 盈江县.
*'''Gauri''' / '''Khauri''' (''{{IPA|kau˧ʒi˧˩ ka˧˩}}''<ref name="Yunnan1998" />) is spoken in the Gauri Hills, located to the east of [[Bhamo]]. Villages include Prang Hkudung, Man Dau, Hkarawm Kawng, Manda, Ka Daw, Lamai Bang, Bum Wa, Ma Htang, Jahkai, and Loi Ming. In China, Gauri is spoken by about 300 people in Hedao 贺岛 and Hongka 硔卡 villages of Longchuan County, and in Kachang 卡场镇 of Yingjiang County.
*'''Mengzhi 蒙支''' (''{{IPA|muŋ˧˩tʃi˧˩ ka˧˩}}'') is spoken by about 200 people in the two villages of Getong 格同 and Zhengtongyou 正通猶 in Mengzhi 蒙支, [[Yingjiang County]] 盈江县.<ref name="Yunnan1998" />
*'''Thingnai''' is spoken near [[Mohnyin]], southern Kachin State.

Small pockets of Jingpho speakers are also scattered across [[Gengma County]] 耿马县, including the following villages (Dai Qingxia 2010).<ref name="Dai2010" /> Dai (2010) also includes 1,000-word vocabulary lists of the Yingjiang 盈江, Xinzhai 新寨, and Caoba 草坝 dialects.
*Jingpo Xinzhai 景颇新寨, Mangkang Village 芒抗村, Hepai Township 贺派乡<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gěngmǎ Dǎizú Wǎzú Zìzhìxiàn Hèpài Xiāng Mángkàng Cūnmín Wěiyuánhuì Jǐngpǒ Zìráncūn |script-title=zh:耿马傣族佤族自治县贺派乡芒抗村民委员会景颇自然村 |trans-title=Jingpo Natural Village, Mangkang Village Committee, Hepai Township, Gengma Dai and Wa Autonomous County |url=http://www.ynszxc.gov.cn/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=117803 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925110931/http://www.ynszxc.gov.cn/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=117803 |archive-date=2015-09-25 |access-date=2015-09-24 |website=ynszxc.gov.cn |language=zh}}</ref>
*Nalong 那拢组, Nongba Village 弄巴村, Gengma Town 耿马镇<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gěngmǎ Dǎizú Wǎzú Zìzhìxiàn Gěngmǎ Zhèn Nòngbā Cūnwěihuì Nòngbā Dàzhài (Nàlǒng) Zìráncūn |script-title=zh:耿马傣族佤族自治县耿马镇弄巴村委会弄巴大寨(那拢)自然村 |trans-title=Nongba Dazhai (Nalong) Natural Village, Nongba Village Committee, Gengma Town, Gengma Dai and Wa Autonomous County |url=http://www.ynszxc.gov.cn/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=80594 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925110923/http://www.ynszxc.gov.cn/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=80594 |archive-date=2015-09-25 |access-date=2015-09-24 |website=ynszxc.gov.cn |language=zh}}</ref>
*Hewen 贺稳组, Jingxin Village 景信村, Mengding Town 孟定镇<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gěngmǎ Dǎizú Wǎzú Zìzhìxiàn Mèngdìng Zhèn Jǐngxìn Cūnwěihuì Hèwěn Zìráncūn |script-title=zh:耿马傣族佤族自治县孟定镇景信村委会贺稳自然村 |trans-title=Hewen Natural Village, Jingxin Village Committee, Mengding Town, Gengma Dai and Wa Autonomous County |url=http://www.ynszxc.gov.cn/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=78065 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925105313/http://www.ynszxc.gov.cn/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=78065 |archive-date=2015-09-25 |access-date=2015-09-24 |website=ynszxc.gov.cn |language=zh}}</ref>
*Hebianzhai 河边寨, Qiushan Village 邱山村, Mengding Town 孟定镇<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gěngmǎ Dǎizú Wǎzú Zìzhìxiàn Mèngdìng Zhèn Qiūshān Cūnwěihuì Hébiānzhài Zìráncūn |script-title=zh:耿马傣族佤族自治县孟定镇邱山村委会河边寨自然村 |trans-title=Hebianzhai Natural Village, Qiushan Village Committee, Mengding Town, Gengma Dai and Wa Autonomous County |url=http://www.ynszxc.gov.cn/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=61347 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925110928/http://www.ynszxc.gov.cn/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=61347 |archive-date=2015-09-25 |access-date=2015-09-24 |website=ynszxc.gov.cn |language=zh}}</ref>
*Caobazhai 草坝寨, Mang'ai Village 芒艾村, Mengding Town 孟定镇<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gěngmǎ Dǎizú Wǎzú Zìzhìxiàn Mèngdìng Zhèn Mángài Cūnwěihuì |script-title=zh:耿马傣族佤族自治县孟定镇芒艾村委会 |trans-title=Mang'ai Village Committee, Mengding Town, Gengma Dai and Wa Autonomous County |url=http://www.ynszxc.gov.cn/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=61335 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925102757/http://www.ynszxc.gov.cn/villagePage/vIndex.aspx?departmentid=61335 |archive-date=2015-09-25 |access-date=2015-09-24 |website=ynszxc.gov.cn |language=zh}}</ref>

===Northeastern===
*'''Dingga''': a recently discovered Jingpho variety spoken near [[Putao Township|Putao]], Kachin State, in the villages of Ding Ga, Ding Ga Gabrim, Tsa Gung Ga, Layang Ga, Dai Mare, and Mărawt Ga. These villages are all located between the Shang Hka and Da Hka rivers in northern Kachin State. There are between 2,000 and 3,000 speakers.
*'''Duleng''' (''{{IPA|tu˧˩leŋ˧}}'') is spoken near [[Putao Township|Putao]], in [[Machanbaw]], and in the Nam Tisang valley of Kachin State. The only published description is that of Yue (2006).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yue |first=Ma La |date=2006 |title=Jingpo Dulianhua gaikuang |trans-title=An Overview of Duleng Jingpo |journal=Minzu yuwen |language=zh |volume=2006 |issue=4 |pages=68–81}}</ref>
*'''Dingphan''' is spoken near [[Putao Township|Putao]], Kachin State.
*'''Jilí''' / '''Dzili'''
*'''Khakhu''' is spoken near [[Putao District|Putao]], Kachin State.
*'''Shang''' is spoken near [[Putao District|Putao]], Kachin State.
*'''Tsasen''' is spoken in northwestern Kachin State.

===Northwestern===
'''[[Singpho dialect|Singpho]]''' (Northwestern Jingphoish) varieties of [[Assam]] and [[Arunachal Pradesh]], India include the following.
*'''Diyun''' is spoken in India.
*'''Numphuk''' is spoken by about 2,000 speakers in 20 villages, including Ingthong, Ketetong, Inthem, Kumsai, Bisa, Wagun 1, Wagun 2, Wagun 3, Wakhet Na, Kherem Bisa, Guju, and Giding. These villages are situated along the Burhi Dihing river in Assam, which is called the Numhpuk Hka river in Numphuk.
*'''Tieng''' is spoken in India.
*'''Turung''' is spoken by about 1,200 speakers mainly in the [[Titabor]] area (in the 3 villages of Pathargaon (Na Kthong), Tipomia, and Pahukatia) and the Dhonsiri river valley (in the villages of Balipathar, Rengmai, and Basapathar). There are many [[Tai languages|Tai]] loanwords in Turung. Some Turung speakers also self-identify as ethnic [[Tai peoples|Tai]].

===Internal classification===
Kurabe (2014) classifies seven Jingphoish dialects as follows.
*'''Proto-Jingpho'''
**Southern
***''Gauri'' (''Khauri'')
***''Standard Jingpho'', ''Nkhum'' (''Enkun'')
**Northern
***Northwestern
****''Numphuk''
****''Turung''
***Northeastern
****''Duleng''
****''Dingga''

The Southern branch is characterized the loss of Proto-Jingpho final stop *-k in some lexical items. The Northern branch is characterized by the following mergers of Proto-Jingpho phonemes (Kurabe 2014:60).
* *ts- and *c-
* *dz- and *j-
* *ʔy- and *∅- (before front vowels)
*merger of Proto-Jingpho plain and preglottalized sonorants

==Grammar==
Jingpho has verbal morphology that marks the subject and the direct object. Here is one example (the tonemes are not marked). The verb is 'to be' (rai).

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" |
! present
! past
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st person
! singular
| rai n ngai || rai sa ngai
|-
! plural
| rai ga ai || rai sa ga dai
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd person
! singular
| rai n dai || rai sin dai
|-
! plural
| rai ma dai || rai ma sin dai
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd person
! singular
| rai ai || rai sai
|-
! plural
| rai ma ai || rai ma sai
|}

== Phonology ==
The following is in Standard Jingpho:{{cn|date=July 2023}}

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |[[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" |[[Dental consonant|Dental]]/ [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Alveolo-palatal consonant|(Alveolo-) palatal]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
! colspan="3" |[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!plain
![[Palatalization (phonetics)|pal.]]
![[Secondary articulation|fric.]]
!plain
![[Palatalization (phonetics)|pal.]]
!plain
![[Palatalization (phonetics)|pal.]]
![[Secondary articulation|fric.]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
![[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]
|{{IPA link|m}}
|{{IPA link|mʲ}}
|
|{{IPA link|n}}
|{{IPA link|nʲ}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|ŋ}}
|
|
|
|-
![[Glottalization|glottalized]]
|{{IPA link|ˀm}}
|{{IPA link|ˀmʲ}}
|
|{{IPA link|ˀn}}
|{{IPA link|ˀnʲ}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|ˀŋ}}
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Stop consonant|Plosive]]
![[Voicelessness|voiceless]]
|{{IPA link|p}}
|{{IPA link|pʲ}}
|{{IPA link|p|pᶼ}}
|{{IPA link|t}}
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|k}}
|{{IPA link|kʲ}}
|{{IPA link|k|kᶼ}}
|{{IPA link|ʔ}}
|-
![[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]
|{{IPA link|pʰ}}
|{{IPA link|pʰʲ}}
|{{IPA link|pʰᶼ}}
|{{IPA link|tʰ}}
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|kʰ}}
|{{IPA link|kʰʲ}}
|{{IPA link|kʰᶼ}}
|
|-
![[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]
|{{IPA link|b}}
|{{IPA link|bʲ}}
|{{IPA link|b|bᶼ}}
|{{IPA link|d}}
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|ɡ}}
|{{IPA link|ɡʲ}}
|{{IPA link|ɡ|ɡᶼ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
![[Voicelessness|voiceless]]
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|ts}}
|
|{{IPA link|tɕ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|-
![[Voice (phonetics)|]][[Aspirated consonant|voiced]]
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|dz}}
|
|{{IPA link|dʑ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|s}}
|
|{{IPA link|ɕ}}
|
|
|
|
|({{IPA link|h}})
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
![[Approximant consonant|central]]
|{{IPA link|w}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|l}}
|
|{{IPA link|j}}
|{{IPA link|ɻ}}
|
|
|
|
|-
![[Glottalization|glottalized]]
|{{IPA link|ˀw}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|ˀl}}
|
|{{IPA link|ˀj}}
|{{IPA link|ˀɻ}}
|
|
|
|
|}

*{{IPA|/h/}} is only marginal and often appears in loanwords.
*{{IPA|/ɻ/}} can also be heard as a fricative {{IPA|[ʐ]}}.

=== Vowels ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!
![[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
![[High vowel|High]]
| align="center" |{{IPA link|i}}
|
|{{IPA link|u}}
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|{{IPA link|e}}
|{{IPA link|ə}}
|{{IPA link|o}}
|-
![[Low vowel|Low]]
|
|{{IPA link|a}}
|
|}

=== Tones ===
Jingpho has four tones in open syllables, and two tones in closed syllables (high and low).<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Kurabe |first=Keita |date=2014 |title=Phonological Inventories of Seven Jingphoish Languages and Dialects |journal=Kyōtodaigaku gengogaku kenkyū / Kyoto University Linguistic Research |language=en |volume=33 |pages=57–88 |doi=10.14989/196278 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=2433/196278}}</ref> Tones are not usually marked in writing, although they can be transcribed using diacritics as follows:<ref name=":1" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Tone
!Orthography
|-
|High
|á
|-
|Mid
|a
|-
|Low
|à
|-
|Falling
|â
|}

== Vocabulary ==
The Jingpho lexicon contains a large number of words of both [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] and non-Tibeto-Burman stock, including [[Burmese language|Burmese]] and [[Shan language|Shan]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Kurabe |first=Keita |date=2016 |title=Phonology of Burmese Loanwords in Jinghpaw |journal=Kyōtodaigaku gengogaku kenkyū / Kyoto University Linguistic Research |language=en |volume=35 |pages=91–128 |doi=10.14989/219015 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=2433/219015}}</ref> Burmese loan words reflect two stratas, an older stratum reflecting the phonology of conservative written Burmese, and a newer stratum reflecting words drawn from modern Burmese phonology.<ref name=":0" /> The older strata consist of vocabulary borrowed from Burmese via Shan, which also exhibits the pre-modern phonology of Burmese vocabulary.<ref name=":0" /> Jingpho has also borrowed a large number of lexical items from Shan, with which it has been in close ethnolinguistic contact for several centuries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kurabe |first=Keita |date=2017 |title=A Classified Lexicon of Shan Loanwords in Jinghpaw |journal=Asian and African Languages and Linguistics |language=en |volume=2017 |issue=11 |pages=129–166 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10108/89212}}</ref> Jingpho, as the lingua franca in the northern highlands of Myanmar, has in turn been the source language of vocabulary into other regional languages like [[Rawang language|Rawang]] and [[Zaiwa language|Zaiwa]].<ref name=":0" />

==Orthography==
The Jingpho writing system is a [[Latin alphabet|Latin]]-based alphabet consisting of 23 letters, and very little use of diacritical marks, originally created by [[Baptists in the United States|American Baptist]] [[Missionary|missionaries]] in the late 19th century.
[[Ola Hanson]], one of the people who created the alphabet, arrived in Myanmar in 1890, learnt the language and wrote the first Kachin–English dictionary. In 1965, the alphabet was reformed to distinguish further consonants.{{cn|date=July 2023}}

===Initials<ref>[https://kachinportal.aa-ken.jp/en/languages/#lacid]</ref>===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Ortho-
graphy
! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] !! Ortho-
graphy
! IPA !! Ortho-
graphy
! IPA
|-
| p ||{{IPAlink|p}}|| t ||{{IPAlink|t}}|| chy ||{{IPAlink|tɕ}}
|-
| b || {{IPAlink|b}}|| d ||{{IPAlink|d}}|| j ||{{IPAlink|dʑ}}
|-
| hp ||{{IPAlink|pʰ}}|| ht ||{{IPAlink|tʰ}}|| y ||{{IPAlink|j}}
|-
| m ||{{IPAlink|m}}|| n ||{{IPAlink|n}}|| k ||{{IPAlink|k}}
|-
| w ||{{IPAlink|w}}
| ts || {{IPAlink|ts}}|| g ||{{IPAlink|ɡ}}
|-
| || || z ||{{IPAlink|dz}}|| hk ||{{IPAlink|kʰ}}
|-
| || || s ||{{IPAlink|s}}|| ng ||{{IPAlink|k|kᶼ}}
|-
| ||
| sh ||{{IPAlink|ɕ}}|| ||
|-
| || || r ||{{IPAlink|ɻ}}|| ||
|-
| || || l ||{{IPAlink|l}}|| ||
|}

*
===Finals===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Ortho-
graphy
! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]!! Ortho-
graphy
! IPA !! Ortho-
graphy
! IPA!! Ortho-
graphy
! IPA

|-
| i || {{IPAlink|i}}|| ip || {{IPA|ip}}|| en || {{IPA|en}}|| awk || {{IPA|ok}}
|-
| e || {{IPAlink|e}}|| it || {{IPA|it}}|| eng || {{IPA|eŋ}}|| awm || {{IPA|om}}
|-
| a || {{IPAlink|a}}|| ik || {{IPA|ik}}|| ap || {{IPA|ap}}||awn || {{IPA|on}}
|-
| aw || {{IPAlink|o}} || im || {{IPA|im}}|| at || {{IPA|at}}|| awng || {{IPA|oŋ}}
|-
| u || {{IPAlink|u}} || in || {{IPA|in}}|| ak || {{IPA|ak}}|| up || {{IPA|up}}
|-
| ai || {{IPA|ai}}|| ing || {{IPA|iŋ}}|| am || {{IPA|am}}|| ut || {{IPA|ut}}
|-
| au || {{IPA|au}}|| ep || {{IPA|ep}}|| an || {{IPA|an}}|| uk || {{IPA|uk}}
|-
| oi || {{IPA|oi}}|| et || {{IPA|et}}|| ang || {{IPA|aŋ}} || um || {{IPA|um}}
|-
| wi || {{IPA|ui}}|| ek || {{IPA|ek}}|| awp || {{IPA|op}}||un || {{IPA|un}}
|-
| ă || ə|| em || {{IPA|em}}|| awt || {{IPA|ot}}
|ung
|{{IPA|uŋ}}
|}

=== Burmese orthography ===
Jingpho is also written in the Burmese alphabet.<ref name="Omniglot">{{Cite web |title=Jingpho (Jìngphòʔ gà / ဈိာင်ေဖါစ်) |url=https://www.omniglot.com/writing/jingpho.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207093648/https://www.omniglot.com/writing/jingpho.htm |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=8 February 2021 |website=Omniglot}}</ref>

====Consonants====
* ဗ – b – [b]
* ပ – p – [p]
* ဖ – hp – [pʰ]
* မ – m – [m]
* ဝ – w – [w]
* ဒ – d – [d]
* တ – t – [t]
* ထ – ht – [tʰ]
* န – n – [n]
* ည – ny – [nʲ]
* စ – s – [s~sʰ]
* ၡ – sh – [ɕ]
* ရ – r – [ɻ~ʒ]
* လ – l – [l]
* ယ – y – [j]
* ဇ – z – [t͡s]
* ဆ – ts – [t͡sʰ]
* ချ – ch – [t͡ɕ]
* ဂျ – j – [d͡ʑ]
* ဂ – g – [g]
* က – k – [k]
* ခ – hk – [kʰ]
* င – ng – [ŋ]
* ဟ – h – [h]
* အ – ' – [ʔ]

* ပ် – pf – [pf~ʰp]]
* ဖွ – f – [f]
* ွ – -w- – [-ʷ-]
* ြ – -r- – [-ᶼ-]
* ျ – -y- – [-ʲ-]

====Vowels====
[-a] is the inherent vowel in every syllable.
* ိ – i – [i]
* ု – u – [u]
* ေ – e – [e]
* ေါ – o – [o]

* ဝ် – -u – [-u]
* ယ် – -i – [-i]

====Other diacritics====
* ာ – tone
* ် – marks final consonant by silencing [-a]<ref name="Omniglot" />

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* 景颇语-汉语词典 ''Jingpoyu – Hanyu cidian'' / Jingpho–Chinese dictionary, 戴庆夏 Dai Qingxia et al.
* 景颇语语法 ''Jingpoyu yufa'' / Jingpho Grammar, 戴庆夏 Dai Qingxia et al.
* ''Structures élémentaires de la parenté'', de [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], devotes a chapter to the study of parenthood in the Jingpho ethnicity.
* Inglish, Douglas. 2005. [https://www.academia.edu/7152888/A_preliminary_Ngochang_-_Kachin-_English_Lexicon A Preliminary Ngochang – Kachin – English Lexicon]. Payap University, Graduate School, Linguistics Department.
* Kurabe, Keita. 2014. "Phonological inventories of seven Jingphoish languages and dialects." In ''Kyoto University Linguistic Research'' 33: 57–88, Dec 2014.
* Kurabe, Keita. 2013. Kachin folktales told in Jinghpaw. Collection KK1 at catalog.paradisec.org.au [Open Access]. https://dx.doi.org/10.4225/72/59888e8ab2122
* Kurabe, Keita. 2017. Kachin culture and history told in Jinghpaw. Collection KK2 at catalog.paradisec.org.au [Open Access]. https://dx.doi.org/10.26278/5fa1707c5e77c

== External links ==
{{Incubator|code= kac}}
*Glottolog | Jingpho [http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/jing1260]
*Ethnologue | Jingpho [https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kac]
*OLAC resources | Kachin [http://www.language-archives.org/language/kac]
*PARADISEC | Kachin folktales told in Jinghpaw [http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/KK1]
*PARADISEC | Kachin culture and history told in Jinghpaw [https://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/KK2]
*[http://mammana.org/bcp/jinghpaw1958/ Akyu Hpyi Laika: Jinghpaw Service Book] (Portions of the [[Book of Common Prayer]] in Jinghpaw, 1957) digitized by Richard Mammana
{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Languages of Burma}}
{{Languages of China}}
{{Sal languages}}

[[Category:Sal languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Yunnan]]
[[Category:Languages of Myanmar]]
[[Category:Jingpo people]]

Jingpho language - Revision history

Ajay Kumar at 18:07, 24 August 2023