Ajay Kumar at 20:40, 29 August 2023

2023-08-29T20:40:43Z

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{{Short description|Language}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Judeo-Persian
| nativename =
| states = [[Israel]] [[Iran]] [[Afghanistan]] [[Uzbekistan]] [[Tajikistan]] [[Azerbaijan]] [[Russia]] [[China]]
| region =
| speakers = {{sigfig|55,000|1}} in Israel
| date = 2018
| ref = e25
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
| fam3 = [[Iranian languages|Iranian]]
| fam4 = [[Western Iranian languages|Western]]
| fam5 = [[Southwestern Iranian languages|Southwestern]]
| fam6 = [[Persian language|Persian]]
| script = [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]]
| iso2 = jpr
| iso3 = jpr
| glotto = jude1257
| glottorefname = Judeo-Persian
}}
[[File:Illustrated manuscript from Judeo-Persian Fath-nameh (Book of Conquests).png|thumb|Seven Priests sounding horns at Wall of Jericho. From an illustrated manuscript of Emrani's ''Fath-nameh''.]]
'''Judeo-Persian''' refers to both a group of [[Jewish dialects]] spoken by the [[Persian Jews|Jews]] living in [[Iran]] and Judeo-Persian texts (written in [[Hebrew alphabet]]). As a collective term, Judeo-Persian refers to a number of [[Judeo-Iranian languages]] spoken by Jewish communities throughout the formerly extensive [[Persian Empire]], including the Mountain and Bukharan Jewish communities.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/judeo-persian-viii-judeo-persian-language|title=JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES viii. JUDEO-PERSIAN – Encyclopaedia Iranica|website=www.iranicaonline.org|access-date=2019-01-29}}</ref>

The speakers refer to their language as ''Fārsi''. Some non-Jews refer to it as "'''dzhidi'''" (also written as "'''zidi'''", "'''judi'''" or "'''jidi'''"), which means "Jewish" in a derogatory sense.<ref name=":0" />

==Literature==
There is an extensive Judeo-Persian poetic religious literature, closely modeled on classical Persian poetry. The most famous poet was [[Shahin Shirazi|Mowlānā Shāhin-i Shirāzi]] (14th century CE), who composed epic versifications of parts of the Bible, such as the ''Musā-nāmah'' (an epic poem recounting the story of Moses); later poets composed lyric poetry of a [[Sufi]] cast. Much of this literature was collected around the beginning of the twentieth century by the ּּBukharian rabbi [[Shimon Hakham]], who founded a printing press in Israel.
===Earliest Judeo-Persian writings===
The earliest evidence of Judeo-Persian writing dates back to the 8th century CE. These documents written in Hebrew script document the existence of Jewish communities writing in Judeo-Persian across historical Persia. Archaeologists working in the 20th century discovered Judeo-Persian writings in locations as far-spread as southern India, Xinjiang Province, Cairo, and present-day Iran and Afghanistan. They include court documents, trade documents, headstones, stone inscriptions, and works on religious matters. Linguists have studied these sources since they preserve certain archaic elements of Persian.<ref name= Garden>Moreen, Vera Basch (tr. and ed.), ''In Queen Esther's Garden: An Anthology of Judeo-Persian Literature'' (Yale Judaica): Yale 2000, {{ISBN|978-0-300-07905-0}}</ref>{{rp|22}}
===Biblical epics===
====[[Shahin Shirazi|Mowlānā Shāhin-i Shirāzi]]====
The most famous Judeo-Persian poet is the 14th century Shahin-i Shirazi who composed two versified Biblical epics: the first based on the Pentateuch and the second centered on the Book of Esther and the Book of Ezra. In his writing, Shahin uses a language typical of his era’s [[Classical Persian]] and does not employ the level of Hebrew words as other Judeo-Persian writers.<ref name="Garden"/>{{rp|27}}
=====Pentateuchal epic=====
Shahin's Pentateuchal epic cycle consists of 10,000 metered couplet (distich) versification of the Books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy written in 1327, and a 8,700 couplet length versification of Genesis composed in 1358. He focuses on narratives from the Pentateuch that are also prominent in Islamic literature such as the fall of [[Satan]], Joseph ([[Yusuf]]) and [[Zulaykha]], and Jacob’s mourning of the lost Joseph. Shahin fashions his biblical epics off of Ferdowsi’s [[Shahnameh]], the most renowned Persian epic. This includes styling Moses after heroes from Persian epic heroes, contributing to a glorification of Moses prevalent in Judeo-Persian literature.<ref name="Garden"/>{{rp|27}} Shahin omits certain elements of the Pentateuch such as the legal sections. In a short adaptation of the Book of Job appended to his versification of Genesis, Shahin leaves out the speeches from Job’s friends and God’s response while including the less-central insults from Job’s wife.<ref name="Garden"/>{{rp|28}}
=====''Ardarshir-nameh''=====
Shahin’s Ardashir-namah consists of 9,000 metered couplets that adapt narratives from the Books of Esther, Nehemiah, and Ezra. He also includes non-biblical storylines that parallel the Shahnameh and Nizami’s Khamsa.<ref name="Garden"/> {{rp|28-29}} It recounts the biblical narrative of [[Ahasuerus|Ardashir]] (Xerxes) and [[Esther]]; and a love story between Ardashir and a Chinese princess. The ''Ezra-nameh'' is shorter and often grouped with the ''Ardashir-nameh''.<ref name="Handbook"> {{cite book |last=Tobi |first=Yosef |date=2017 |editor-last=Ziolkowski |editor-first=Eric|title=A Handbook of Biblical Reception in Jewish, European Christian, and Islamic Folklores |publisher=DeGruyter |pages=50|chapter=Chapter 1: Jewish (Mizrahi) |isbn=9783110286724}} </ref>
[[File:Ark Judeo Persian BL.png|left|thumb|Joshua carrying Ark of the Covenant across the Jordan River in an illuminated manuscript of the Judeo-Persian Fath-nameh]]

==== Emrani ====
Emrani was a 15th century Persian poet who like Shahin, wrote Persian in Hebrew script. Born in [[Isfahan]], he moved to [[Kashan]] in his twenties and lived there until his death. The 10,000-verse ''Fath-nameh'' adapts the Books of Joshua, Ruth, and Samuel 1 and 2. Like Shahin’s biblical epics, it displays a strong Shahnameh influence. His ''Hanuka-nameh'' is a shorter (1,800 verses) versification of the Maccabees’ rebellion against the Greeks. This work, authored in 1524, relies heavily on the apocryphal [[First Book of Maccabees]].<ref name="Garden"/>{{rp|159}} Emrani employs more Hebrew vocabulary than Shahin and relies more on narratives from the Bible and rabbinic literature.<ref name="Handbook"/>{{rp|50}}

==== '' Shoftim-nameh'' ====
Written in 1692 by Aaron ben Mashiah, this versification of the [[Book of Judges]] uses the same meter as Emrani’s ''Fath-nameh''.<ref name="Handbook"/>{{rp|50}}

==== ''Daniel-nameh'' ====
In 1606, Khajah of [[Bukhara]] versified narratives from the [[Book of Daniel]], apocrypha, and [[Midrashim]] (rabbinic commentaries).<ref name="Handbook"/>{{rp|51}}

===Mishnah and midrash===
====''Ganj-nameh''====
Emrani’s ''Ganj-nameh'' is a commentary on the Mishnaic ethical tractate [[Pirkei Avot|Avot]]. It numbers nearly 5,000 rhyming couplets and includes Sufi terminology. <ref name="Garden"/> {{rp|184-185}} There are many extant manuscripts of this work, indicating its widespread popularity among Persian-speaking Jews.<ref name="Treasures">{{cite book |last=Yeroushalmi |first=David |date=August 1, 1997 |title=The Judeo-Persian Poet 'Emrani and his "Book of Treasure" |publisher=Brill |isbn=9004103015}}</ref>{{rp|53}} It was completed in 1536 and was likely Emrani’s final work. It is an ethical and didactic work that deals with broader ethical themes compared to his previous writings in this genre.<ref name="Treasures"/> {{rp|43-45}} The ''Ganj-nameh'' consists of 88 sections that each elaborate a saying or two from the Abot, following the sequence of the Abot itself. The first five sections make up the introduction and follows the structure of many Persian introductions – praise and supplication of God and a history of the work’s composition. Instead of the typical Persian praise of the [[Prophet Muhammad]], Emrani substitutes praise of [[Moses]]. <ref name="Treasures"/> {{rp|59}} The rest of the ''Ganj-nameh'' belongs to the counsel genre prominent in Persian literature and combines the epic, midrashic, mystic and didactic techniques present in Emrani’s earlier works. <ref name="Treasures"/> {{rp|60-63}}

===Biblical commentaries===
[[File:11 or 12th century Judeo-Persian introduction to a commentary on the Book of Proverbs.png|thumb|11 or 12th century Judeo-Persian introduction to a commentary on the Book of Proverbs.]]

====[[Shimon Hakham]]: Commentary on [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] 3-4====
Shimon Hakham, a Bukharan rabbi who later emigrated to [[Jerusalem]], edited and published at least 29 works in Judeo-Persian, including a complete edition of Shahin’s Torah commentary. He included alongside this edition his own prose commentary on the [[Book of Exodus]].<ref name="Garden" />{{rp|198}}

===Historical texts===
====Bābāi b. Lutf: ''Kitab-i Anusi'' (The Book of a Forced Convert)====
Babai b. Lutf was a 16th century Jewish author and historian born in [[Kashan]]. His 5,000-couplet length Kitab-i Anusi recounts the persecution of Iranian Jews under the reigns of three Safavid shahs: [[Abbas the Great|‘Abbas I]], [[Safi of Persia|Safi I]], and [[Abbas II of Persia|‘Abbas II]] who collectively reigned from 1571 to 1666. It focuses on the forced conversions of Jews during this time.<ref name="Garden"/>{{rp|223-224}}
====Bābāi b. Farhād: ''Kitāb-i Sar guzasht-i Kāshān'' (The Book of Events in Kashan)====
Ibn Lutf’s grandson, Babai b. Farhad, composed a 1,300-couplet chronicle on the persecution faced by Jews in Kashan during the [[Afghan Invasion of Iran]] which occurred from 1722 to 1730. Ibn Farhad describes the voluntary conversion of Jews in Kashan to Islam and how they were allowed to return to their faith seven months later.<ref name="Garden"/>{{rp|232}}

===Liturgical Poems===
*''[https://www.nli.org.il/en/discover/manuscripts/hebrew-manuscripts/viewerpage?vid=MANUSCRIPTS&docid=PNX_MANUSCRIPTS990001995470205171-1 Haft Baradaran]'' (הפת בראדראן): An epic poem by [https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/emrani Emrani] read on the fast of [[Tisha B'Av|Tish'a BeAb]] based on the story of [[Woman with seven sons|Hannah and her seven sons]]<ref>Loeb, Laurence D. Outcaste: Jewish Life in Southern Iran. Vol. 31. Routledge, 2011.</ref>
* ''[[Sheshom Dar]]'' (ששום דר): A poem read on the festival of [[Shavuot]] detailing the commandments, based on the [[Azharot]] literature <ref>{{cite book| title= נצר, אמנון. "מוסיקה של קודש ושל חול בקרב יהודי פרס." פעמים: רבעון לחקר | pages= 163–181| year= 1984| language= he| publisher= קהילות ישראל במזרח }}</ref>
* ''[[Shira-ye Hatani]]'', or ''Shira'', often beginning with the words "''Shodi hātān mobarak bād''" (שדִי חתן מבארך באד): Verses sung at weddings and festive occasions. Originally composed for the groom during the [[Aufruf|''Shabbat Hatan'']] (the shabbat following the wedding) <ref>Chehabi, Houchang Esfandiar; Soroudi, Sorour Sarah. ''Persian literature and Judeo-Persian culture: collected writings of Sorour S. Soroudi.'' Harvard University Press, 2010.</ref>
* [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/amina-pen-name-takallos-of-benyamin-b Aminā]:
**''In Praise of Moses''<ref name= Garden />
**''A Ghazal on the Twelve Tribes''<ref name= Garden />

===Printing===
Beginning in the late 19th century, Jerusalem became a center for printing Judeo-Persian literature. Works from many genres were printed, as well as translations of non-Jewish works into Judeo-Persian. Some of the major figures in this movement included Jews from Central Asia such as Shimon Hakham. <ref name=":0"/> <ref name="EJ"> ''Judeo-Persian'', Encyclopedia Judaica, Second Edition, Volume 11, Brill </ref> In 1917, a “Society for the Promotion of the Hebrew Language” was established in Tehran alongside a Judeo-Persian and Hebrew printing press. This group also published a Judeo-Persian newspaper, ''Ha-Ge'ulah''. Two other Judeo-Persian newspapers were also published in [[Bukhara]] and [[Samarkand]].<ref name="EJ"/>

==Characteristics==
[[File:Judeo Persian document.jpg|left|thumb|Late 8th century Judeo-Persian document found at Dandan Uiliq]]
In the absence of a unified dialect of Persian spoken by Jews, Judeo-Persian refers to local dialects spoken by Jews. It is notable for its preservation of certain archaisms and incorporation of Hebrew words; however, this is less prominent than in other Jewish languages.<ref name=":0"/> Judeo-Median is often used to designate the group of dialects spoke by Jewish communities in Central Iran.<ref name="JM">{{cite journal |last=Borijan |first=Habib |date=2014 |title=What Is Judeo-Median—and How Does it Differ from Judeo-Persian |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/What-Is-Judeo-Median%E2%80%94and-How-Does-it-Differ-from-Borjian/1be773c43af9be4bc2c852a6d0c6c99041726b65 |journal=Journal of Jewish Languages |volume=2014 |issue=2 |pages=117-142 |doi=10.1163/22134638-12340026 |access-date=April 21, 2022}}</ref>{{rp|117}}
Early Judeo-Persian writings displays various orthographies that sometimes demonstrate pronunciation differences from New Persian. It also preserves a transitional stage in certain linguistic features. For example, Early Judeo-Persian uses a preposition ''p'' (meaning either ‘to’, ‘by’, or ‘in’) that marks a transition from the Middle Persian’s ''pad'' and New Persian’s ''be''. It also exhibits a variety of constructions for [[ezafe]] and for verbs in passive voice. In certain personal correspondence found in the [[Cairo Geniza]], Persian is written using Hebrew script while the Arabic phrases included in these letters are written using the Arabic alphabet. Furthermore, these letter writers include Hebrew blessings and expressions. Judeo-Persian versions of the Bible do not follow Persian syntax, instead glossing the Hebrew word-for-word.<ref name=":0"/>
===Contemporary Dialects===
Contemporary Dialects
Some of the primary Iranian cities with Jewish dialects are [[Kashan]], [[Isfahan]], [[Yazd]], [[Kerman]], [[Shiraz]], [[Borujerd]], and [[Hamadan]]. Vernaculars spoken by Jews in Persian-speaking Central Asia are often referred to as [[Bukharian|Judeo-Tajik]]. [[Judeo-Tat]] is spoken in the eastern Caucasus and is considered mutually unintelligible with standard Persian today.<ref name="JM"/>{{rp|119}} Many speakers of these Iranian dialects have left Iran and few native speakers remain. As a result, Judeo-Median languages are considered endangered according to the Endangered Language Alliance.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.elalliance.org/languages/judeo-isfahani |title= Judeo-Isfahani |author= |publisher=Endangered Language Alliance |access-date=April 21, 2022}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Judæo-Persian languages]]
* [[Judeo-Tat language]]
* [[Persian Jews]]
* [[Judeo-Urdu]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=589&letter=J&search=persian Judæo-Persian] (from the 1906 Public Domain Jewish Encyclopedia)
*Vera Basch Moreen (tr. and ed.), ''In Queen Esther's Garden: An Anthology of Judeo-Persian Literature'' (Yale Judaica): Yale 2000, {{ISBN|978-0-300-07905-0}}
* Moreen, Vera B. "The Legend of Adam in the Judeo-Persian Epic" Bereshit [Nāmah]"(14th Century)." Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research. American Academy of Jewish Research, 1990.

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last1=Moreen |first1=Vera B. |editor1-last=Schmidtke |editor1-first=Sabine |editor1-link=Sabine Schmidtke |title=Studying the Near and Middle East at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, 1935–2018 |date=2018 |publisher=Gorgias Press |location=Piscataway, NJ, USA |pages=479-483 |chapter=A brief history of Judeo-Persian literature}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/judeo-persian-ix-judeo-persian-literature Judeo-Persian Literature, Encyclopædia Iranica]
* [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/judeo-persian-viii-judeo-persian-language Judeo-Persian Language, Encyclopædia Iranica]
* [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/isfahan-xix-jewish-dialect Jewish dialect of Isfahan, Encyclopædia Iranica]
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=590&letter=J Judæo-Persian literature (from Jewish Encyclopedia)]
* [http://www.jewish-languages.org/judeo-persian.html Article from Jewish Languages site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530035731/http://www.jewish-languages.org/judeo-persian.html |date=2018-05-30 }}
* [https://aeon.co/opinions/a-major-find-from-the-world-of-afghanistan-s-medieval-jews A tantalising find from the Jews of medieval Afghanistan]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [http://www.ancientjewreview.com/articles/2015/8/19/on-judeo-persian-language-and-literature-with-four-text-samples On Judeo-Persian Language and Literature | Part One: State of the Field] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108112404/http://www.ancientjewreview.com/articles/2015/8/19/on-judeo-persian-language-and-literature-with-four-text-samples |date=2020-11-08 }}
* Video Archive of Authentic Dialects [http://www.7dorim.com/gooyesh/gooyesh_.asp 7dorim.com] ([[Persian language|Persian]])
{{Jews and Judaism|state=expanded}}
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{{Iranian languages}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Judaeo-Persian}}
[[Category:Judeo-Persian languages]]
[[Category:Persian dialects and varieties]]
[[Category:Endangered Iranian languages]]
[[Category:Endangered languages of Iran]]
[[Category:Languages of Israel]]
[[Category:Jews and Judaism in Persia and Iran]]
[[Category:Definitely endangered languages]]

Judeo-Persian - Revision history

Ajay Kumar at 20:40, 29 August 2023