Ajay Kumar at 16:03, 28 August 2023

2023-08-28T16:03:00Z

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{{About||the practice of filling a body of water to create new land|Land reclamation|other uses}}
{{Short description|Site for the disposal of waste materials}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Pollution sidebar|Solid waste|image=[[File:Wysypisko.jpg|250px|frameless]]|caption=A landfill in Poland}}

A '''landfill''' site, also known as a '''tip''', '''dump''', '''rubbish dump''', '''garbage dump''', or '''dumping ground''', is a site for the disposal of [[waste]] materials. Landfill is the oldest and most common form of [[waste disposal]], although the systematic burial of the waste with daily, intermediate and final covers only began in the 1940s. In the past, refuse was simply left in piles or thrown into pits; in archeology this is known as a [[midden]].

Some landfill sites are used for waste management purposes, such as temporary storage, consolidation and transfer, or for various stages of processing waste material, such as sorting, treatment, or recycling. Unless they are stabilized, landfills may undergo severe shaking or [[soil liquefaction]] of the ground during an [[earthquake]]. Once full, the area over a landfill site may be [[Landfill restoration|reclaimed]] for other uses.

==Operations==
[[File:Landfill.jpg|thumb|right|One of several landfills used by [[Dryden, Ontario]], Canada]]
[[File:Garbage dump in Karachi.jpg|thumb|right|Garbage dumped in the middle of a road in Karachi]]

Operators of well-run landfills for non-hazardous waste meet predefined specifications by applying techniques to:<ref>https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/dsd/dsd_aofw_ni/ni_pdfs/NationalReports/finland/WASTE.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>

# confine waste to as small an area as possible
# compact waste to reduce volume<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://www.co.cumberland.nc.us/departments/solid-waste-group/solid-waste-management/ann-street-landfill/how-a-landfill-operates|title=How a Landfill Operates|website=www.co.cumberland.nc.us|access-date=2020-02-22}}</ref>

They can also cover waste (usually daily) with layers of soil or other types of material such as woodchips and fine particles.

During landfill operations, a [[truck scale|scale]] or [[truck scale|weighbridge]] may weigh waste collection vehicles on arrival and personnel may inspect loads for wastes that do not accord with the landfill's waste-acceptance criteria.<ref name=":1" /> Afterward, the waste collection vehicles use the existing road network on their way to the tipping face or working front, where they unload their contents. After loads are deposited, [[compactor]]s or bulldozers can spread and [[Waste compaction|compact the waste]] on the working face. Before leaving the landfill boundaries, the waste collection vehicles may pass through a wheel-cleaning facility. If necessary, they return to the weighbridge for re-weighing without their load. The weighing process can assemble statistics on the daily incoming waste tonnage, which databases can retain for record keeping. In addition to trucks, some landfills may have equipment to handle railroad containers. The use of "rail-haul" permits landfills to be located at more remote sites, without the problems associated with many truck trips.

Typically, in the working face, the compacted waste is covered with soil or alternative materials daily. Alternative waste-cover materials include chipped wood or other "green waste",<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/lgcentral/basics/adcbasic.htm| title= Alternative Daily Cover (ADC)| access-date= September 14, 2012| archive-date= June 5, 2012| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120605044817/http://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/lgcentral/basics/adcbasic.htm| url-status= dead}}</ref> several sprayed-on foam products, chemically "fixed" bio-solids, and temporary blankets. Blankets can be lifted into place at night and then removed the following day prior to waste placement. The space that is occupied daily by the compacted waste and the cover material is called a daily cell. Waste compaction is critical to extending the life of the landfill. Factors such as waste compressibility, waste-layer thickness and the number of passes of the compactor over the waste affect the waste densities.

== Sanitary landfill life cycle==

[[File:LANDFILL.png|thumb|A Sanitary Landfill Diagram]]

The term ''landfill'' is usually shorthand for a municipal landfill or sanitary landfill. These facilities were first introduced early in the 20th century, but gained wide use in the 1960s and 1970s, in an effort to eliminate open dumps and other "unsanitary" waste disposal practices. The sanitary landfill is an engineered facility that separates and confines waste. Sanitary landfills are intended as biological reactors ([[bioreactors]]) in which microbes will break down complex organic waste into simpler, less toxic compounds over time. These reactors must be designed and operated according to regulatory standards and guidelines (See [[environmental engineering]]).

Usually, aerobic decomposition is the first stage by which wastes are broken down in a landfill. These are followed by four stages of anaerobic degradation. Usually, solid organic material in solid phase decays rapidly as larger organic molecules degrade into smaller molecules. These smaller organic molecules begin to dissolve and move to the liquid phase, followed by hydrolysis of these organic molecules, and the hydrolyzed compounds then undergo transformation and volatilization as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), with rest of the waste remaining in solid and liquid phases.

During the early phases, little material volume reaches the [[leachate]], as the biodegradable organic matter of the waste undergoes a rapid decrease in volume. Meanwhile, the leachate's [[chemical oxygen demand]] increases with increasing concentrations of the more recalcitrant compounds compared to the more reactive compounds in the leachate. Successful conversion and stabilization of the waste depend on how well microbial populations function in [[syntrophy]], i.e. an interaction of different populations to provide each other's nutritional needs.:<ref name="Vallero">{{cite book|title=Municipal Landfill, D. Vallero and G. Blight, pp. 235–249 in Waste: A Handbook for Management|date=2019|editor1-first=T.M.|editor1-last=Letcher|editor2-first=D.A.|editor2-last=Vallero|publisher=Elsevier Academic Press|location=Amsterdam, Netherlands and Boston MA, Print Book|isbn=9780128150603}} 804 pages.</ref>

The life cycle of a municipal landfill undergoes five distinct phases:<ref>U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Landfill bioreactor performance: second interim report: outer loop recycling & disposal facility - Louisville, Kentucky, EPA/600/R-07/060</ref><ref name="Vallero"/>

===Initial adjustment (Phase I)===

As the waste is placed in the landfill, the void spaces contain high volumes of molecular oxygen (O2). With added and compacted wastes, the O2 content of the landfill bioreactor strata gradually decreases. Microbial populations grow, density increases. Aerobic biodegradation dominates, i.e. the primary electron acceptor is O2.

===Transition (Phase II)===

The O2 is rapidly degraded by the existing microbial populations. The decreasing O2 leads to less aerobic and more anaerobic conditions in the layers. The primary electron acceptors during transition are nitrates and sulphates since O2 is rapidly displaced by CO2 in the effluent gas.

===Acid formation (Phase III)===

Hydrolysis of the biodegradable fraction of the solid waste begins in the acid formation phase, which leads to rapid accumulation of [[volatile fatty acids]] (VFAs) in the leachate. The increased organic acid content decreases the leachate [[pH]] from approximately 7.5 to 5.6. During this phase, the decomposition intermediate compounds like the VFAs contribute much [[chemical oxygen demand]] (COD). Long-chain volatile organic acids (VOAs) are converted to acetic acid (C2H4O2), CO2, and hydrogen gas (H2). High concentrations of VFAs increase both the [[biochemical oxygen demand]] (BOD) and VOA concentrations, which initiates H2 production by fermentative bacteria, which stimulates the growth of H2-oxidizing bacteria. The H2 generation phase is relatively short because it is complete by the end of the acid formation phase. The increase in the biomass of [[acidogenic]] bacteria increases the amount of degradation of the waste material and consuming nutrients. Metals, which are generally more water-soluble at lower pH, may become more mobile during this phase, leading to increasing metal concentrations in the leachate.

===Methane fermentation (Phase IV)===

The acid formation phase intermediary products (e.g., acetic, propionic, and butyric acids) are converted to CH4 and CO2 by methanogenic microorganisms. As VFAs are metabolized by the methanogens, the landfill water pH returns to neutrality. The leachate's organic strength, expressed as oxygen demand, decreases at a rapid rate with increases in CH4 and CO2 gas production. This is the longest decomposition phase.

===Final maturation and stabilization (Phase V)===

The rate of microbiological activity slows during the last phase of waste decomposition as the supply of nutrients limits the chemical reactions, e.g. as [[bioavailable]] phosphorus becomes increasingly scarce. CH4 production almost completely disappears, with O2 and oxidized species gradually reappearing in the gas wells as O2 permeates downwardly from the troposphere. This transforms the [[oxidation–reduction]] potential (ORP) in the leachate toward oxidative processes. The residual organic materials may incrementally be converted to the gas phase, and as organic matter is composted; i.e. the organic matter is converted to [[humic]]-like compounds.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Weitz|first1=Keith|last2=Barlaz|first2=Morton|last3=Ranjithan|first3=Ranji|last4=Brill|first4=Downey|last5=Thorneloe|first5=Susan|last6=Ham|first6=Robert|date=July 1999|title=Life Cycle Management of Municipal Solid Waste|journal=The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=195–201|doi=10.1007/BF02979496|s2cid=108698198|issn=0948-3349}}</ref>

==Social and environmental impact==
[[Image:Landfill Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Landfill operation in Hawaii. The area being filled is a single, well-defined "cell" and that a protective [[landfill liner]] is in place (exposed on the left) to prevent contamination by [[leachate]]s migrating downward through the underlying geological formation.]]

Landfills have the potential to cause a number of issues. [[Infrastructure]] disruption, such as damage to access roads by heavy vehicles, may occur. Pollution of local roads and watercourses from wheels on vehicles when they leave the landfill can be significant and can be mitigated by [[wheel washing system]]s. [[Pollution]] of the local [[natural environment|environment]], such as contamination of [[groundwater]] or [[aquifers]] or [[soil contamination]] may occur, as well.

=== Leachate ===
{{Main|Leachate}}
When precipitation falls on open landfills, water percolates through the garbage and becomes contaminated with suspended and dissolved material, forming leachate. If this is not contained it can contaminate groundwater. All modern landfill sites use a combination of impermeable liners several metres thick, geologically stable sites and collection systems to contain and capture this leachate. It can then be treated and evaporated. Once a landfill site is full, it is sealed off to prevent precipitation ingress and new leachate formation. However, liners must have a lifespan, be it several hundred years or more. Eventually, any landfill liner could leak,<ref>US EPA, "Solid Waste Disposal Facility Criteria; Proposed Rule", Federal Register 53(168):33314–33422, 40 CFR Parts 257 and 258, US EPA, Washington, D.C., August 30 (1988a).</ref> so the ground around landfills must be tested for leachate to prevent pollutants from contaminating groundwater.

=== Decomposition gases ===
{{Main|Landfill gas}}
Rotting food and other decaying organic waste create [[landfill gas|decomposition gases]], especially CO2 and CH4 from aerobic and anaerobic decomposition, respectively. Both processes occur simultaneously in different parts of a landfill. In addition to available O2, the fraction of gas constituents will vary, depending on the age of landfill, type of waste, moisture content and other factors. For example, the maximum amount of landfill gas produced can be illustrated a simplified net reaction of diethyl oxalate that accounts for these simultaneous reactions:<ref name="Themelis, Nickolas J. 2007">Themelis, Nickolas J., and Priscilla A. Ulloa. "Methane generation in landfills." Renewable Energy 32.7 (2007), 1243–1257</ref>

4 C6H10O4 + 6 H2O → 13 CH4 + 11 CO2

On average, about half of the volumetric concentration of landfill gas is CH4 and slightly less than half is CO2. The gas also contains about 5% molecular nitrogen (N2), less than 1% hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and a low concentration of non-methane organic compounds (NMOC), about 2700 [[ppmv]].<ref name="Themelis, Nickolas J. 2007"/>
[[File:Χωματερή Μαυροράχης (ΧΥΤΑ Μακεδονίας).jpg|thumb|Waste disposal in Athens, Greece]]
Landfill gases can seep out of the landfill and into the surrounding air and soil. [[Methane]] is a [[greenhouse gas]], and is flammable and potentially explosive at certain concentrations, which makes it perfect for burning to generate electricity cleanly. Since decomposing plant matter and food waste only release carbon that has been captured from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, no new carbon enters the [[carbon cycle]] and the atmospheric concentration of CO2 is not affected. Carbon dioxide traps heat in the atmosphere, contributing to [[climate change]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/climate-weather/stories/co2-101-why-is-carbon-dioxide-bad|title=CO2 101: Why is carbon dioxide bad?|newspaper=Mother Nature Network|access-date=November 30, 2016}}</ref> In properly managed landfills, gas is collected and [[Gas flare|flared]] or recovered for [[landfill gas utilization]].

=== Vectors ===
Poorly run landfills may become nuisances because of [[Vector (epidemiology)|vectors]] such as rats and flies which can spread [[Infection|infectious diseases]]. The occurrence of such vectors can be mitigated through the use of [[daily cover]].

=== Other nuisances ===
[[File:A herd of 40 wild elephants at Ampara in east Sri Lanka is totally dependent on garbage from tractors DSC8792.jpg|thumb|A group of wild elephants interacting with a trash dump in Sri Lanka]]
Other potential issues include [[wildlife]] disruption due to occupation of habitat<ref>{{cite web|url=https://myzerowaste.com/2009/01/how-does-landfill-and-litter-affect-our-wildlife/|title=How does landfill and litter affect our wildlife?|date=2009-01-30|website=MY ZERO WASTE|language=en-US|access-date=2020-02-22}}</ref> and animal health disruption caused by consuming waste from landfills,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdenviro.com/news/2017/october/landfills-are-ruining-lives|title=Landfills are Ruining Lives|website=www.cdenviro.com|access-date=2020-02-22}}</ref> dust, odor, [[noise pollution]], and reduced local property values.

==Landfill gas==
{{Main|Landfill gas}}
Gases are produced in landfills due to the [[anaerobic digestion]] by microbes. In a properly managed landfill this gas is collected and used. Its uses range from simple [[Gas flare|flaring]] to the [[landfill gas utilization]] and [[Natural gas#Power generation|generation of electricity]]. Landfill gas monitoring alerts workers to the presence of a build-up of gases to a harmful level. In some countries, landfill gas recovery is extensive; in the United States, for example, more than 850 landfills have active landfill gas recovery systems.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Powell|first1=Jon T.|last2=Townsend|first2=Timothy G.|last3=Zimmerman|first3=Julie B.|title=Estimates of solid waste disposal rates and reduction targets for landfill gas emissions|journal=Nature Climate Change|date=September 21, 2015|volume=6|issue=2|pages=162–165|doi=10.1038/nclimate2804}}</ref> [[File:Gas flare from a landfill in Ohio.jpg|thumb|A gas flare produced by a landfill in [[Lake County, Ohio]]]]

==Regional practice==
[[File:Landfill face.JPG|thumb|right|A landfill in Perth, Western Australia]]
[[File:South East New Territories Landfill 2.jpg|thumb|right|South East New Territories Landfill, [[Hong Kong]]]]

===Canada===
Landfills in Canada are regulated by provincial environmental agencies and environmental protection legislation.<ref>[http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/environment/en/monitoring_and_reporting/limo/STDPROD_077977.html Landfill Inventory Management Ontario – How Ontario regulates Landfills – Ministry of the Environment]</ref>
Older facilities tend to fall under current standards and are monitored for [[leachate|leaching]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ecoissues.ca/index.php/Aging_Landfills:_Ontario%E2%80%99s_Forgotten_Polluters|title=Aging Landfills: Ontario's Forgotten Polluterswork=Eco Issues|date=September 28, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100928022645/http://www.ecoissues.ca/index.php/Aging_Landfills:_Ontario%E2%80%99s_Forgotten_Polluters|archive-date=September 28, 2010}}</ref> Some former locations have been converted to parkland.

===European Union===
In the European Union, individual states are obliged to enact legislation to comply with the requirements and obligations of the European [[Landfill Directive]].

The majority of EU member states have laws banning or severely restricting the disposal of household trash via landfills.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cewep.eu/landfill-taxes-and-restrictions/|title=CEWEP - The Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy Plants}}</ref>

=== India ===
Landfilling is currently the major method of municipal waste disposal in India. India also has Asia's largest dumping ground in Deonar, Mumbai.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/year-ender-2018-waste-management-landfill-how-indian-cities-dealt-with-landfill-crisis-29247/|title=Fighting Mountains Of Garbage: Here Is How Indian Cities Dealt With Landfill Crisis In 2018 {{!}} Swachh Year Ender|date=2018-12-31|website=NDTV|language=en-US|access-date=2020-02-21}}</ref> However issues frequently arise due alarming growth rate of landfills and poor management by authorities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencealert.com/a-growing-mountain-of-rubbish-in-india-will-soon-require-aircraft-warning-lights|title=India's 'Mount Everest' of Trash Is Growing So Fast, It Needs Aircraft Warning Lights|last=Cassella|first=Carly|website=ScienceAlert|date=June 5, 2019 |language=en-gb|access-date=2020-02-21}}</ref> On and under surface fires have been commonly seen in the Indian landfills over the last few years.<ref name="autogenerated1"/>

=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|Landfills in the United Kingdom}}

Landfilling practices in the UK have had to change in recent years to meet the challenges of the European [[Landfill Directive]]. The UK now imposes landfill tax upon [[biodegradable waste]] which is put into landfills. In addition to this the [[Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme]] has been established for local authorities to trade landfill quotas in England. A different system operates in [[Wales]] where authorities cannot 'trade' amongst themselves, but have allowances known as the Landfill Allowance Scheme.

===United States===
{{Main|Landfills in the United States}}
U.S. landfills are regulated by each state's environmental agency, which establishes minimum guidelines; however, none of these standards may fall below those set by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA).<ref>Horinko, Marianne, Cathryn Courtin. [http://www.epaalumni.org/hcp/rcra.pdf "Waste Management: A Half Century of Progress."] EPA Alumni Association. March 2016.</ref>

Permitting a landfill generally takes between five and seven years, costs millions of dollars and requires rigorous siting, engineering and environmental studies and demonstrations to ensure local environmental and safety concerns are satisfied.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://beginwiththebin.org/innovation/modern-landfills|title=Modern landfills|access-date=February 21, 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222005007/http://beginwiththebin.org/innovation/modern-landfills|archive-date=February 22, 2015}}</ref>

== Types ==
* [[Municipal solid waste]]: takes in household waste and nonhazardous material. Included in this type of landfill is a [[Bioreactor landfill|Bioreactor Landfill]] that specifically degrades organic material.
* [[Industrial waste]]: for commercial and industrial waste. Other related landfills include Construction and Demolition Debris Landfills and Coal Combustion Residual Landfills.
* [[Hazardous waste site|Hazardous waste]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/landfills/basic-information-about-landfills#whattypes|title=Basic Information about Landfills|last=EPA, OSWER, ORCR|first=US|website=www.epa.gov|date=March 24, 2016|access-date=March 14, 2017}}</ref> or [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCB waste]]:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/pcbs/disposal-and-storage-polychlorinated-biphenyl-pcb-waste|title=Disposal and Storage of Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Waste|date=August 19, 2015|publisher=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]|access-date=May 10, 2017}}</ref> Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) landfills that are monitored in the United States by the [[Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976]] (TSCA).

==Microbial topics==
The status of a landfill's microbial community may determine its digestive efficiency.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gomez|first1=A.M.|last2=Yannarell|first2=A.C.|last3=Sims|first3=G.K.|last4=Cadavid-Resterpoa|first4=G.|last5=Herrera|first5=C.X.M.|title=Characterization of bacterial diversity at different depths in the Moravia Hill Landfill site at Medellín, Colombia|journal=Soil Biology and Biochemistry|year=2011|volume=43|pages=1275–1284|doi=10.1016/j.soilbio.2011.02.018|issue=6}}</ref>

Bacteria that digest plastic have been found in landfills.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110328/full/news.2011.191.html|title=Marine microbes digest plastic|author=Gwyneth Dickey Zaikab|journal=Nature|date=March 2011|doi=10.1038/news.2011.191|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Reclaiming materials==
{{Main|Landfill mining}}

One can treat landfills as a viable and abundant source of materials and [[Waste-to-energy|energy]]. In the developing world, [[waste picker]]s often scavenge for still-usable materials. In [[commerce|commercial]] contexts, companies have also discovered landfill sites, and many{{quantify|date=August 2019}} have begun harvesting materials and energy.<ref>[http://www.chinalize.nl/2008/node/15 Multiple Purpose industries using landfills for energy] {{webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091208021902/http://www.chinalize.nl/2008/node/15 |date= December 8, 2009 }}</ref> Well-known examples include gas-recovery facilities.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.treehugger.com/files/2008/05/landfill-gas-energy-biogas.php |title=Commercial exploitation of gas from landfills |access-date=November 28, 2009 |archive-date=October 24, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111024211038/http://www.treehugger.com/files/2008/05/landfill-gas-energy-biogas.php |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Other commercial facilities include waste [[incinerator]]s which have built-in material recovery. This material recovery is possible through the use of [[filtration|filters]] ([[Electrofiltration|electro filter]], [[Activated carbon|active-carbon]] and potassium filter, quench, HCl-washer, SO2-washer, [[bottom ash]]-grating, etc.).

==Alternatives==
{{See also|List of solid waste treatment technologies}}

In addition to [[waste reduction]] and [[recycling]] strategies, there are various alternatives to landfills, including [[waste-to-energy]] incineration, [[anaerobic digestion]], [[composting]], [[mechanical biological treatment]], [[pyrolysis]] and [[plasma arc gasification]]. Depending on local economics and incentives, these can be made more financially attractive than landfills.

==Restrictions==

Countries including [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Sweden]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rkrattsbaser.gov.se/sfst?bet=2001:512|title=Regeringskansliets rättsdatabaser|website=rkrattsbaser.gov.se|access-date=2019-05-09|language=sv}}</ref> [[Denmark]], [[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[Switzerland]], have banned the disposal of untreated waste in landfills.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} In these countries, only certain hazardous wastes, [[fly ash]]es from [[incineration]] or the stabilized output of [[mechanical biological treatment]] plants may still be deposited.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Bioreactor landfill]]
* [[Daily cover]]
* [[Fly-tipping]]
* [[Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance]] (HELP) model
* [[Land reclamation]]
* [[Landfarming]]
* [[Landfill diversion]]
* [[Landfill restoration]]
* [[Landfill tax]]
* [[List of solid waste treatment technologies]]
* [[Marine debris]]
* [[Mechanical biological treatment]]
* [[Midden]]
* [[Milorganite]]
* [[National Waste & Recycling Association]]
* [[NIMBY]]
* [[Open dump]]
* [[Recycling rates by country]]
* [[Sludge]]
* [[Solid Waste Association of North America]]
* [[Waste management]]{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite web | title= Modern landfills | url= http://beginwiththebin.org/innovation/modern-landfills | access-date= February 21, 2015 | url-status= dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150222005007/http://beginwiththebin.org/innovation/modern-landfills | archive-date= February 22, 2015 | df= mdy-all }}
* {{cite web | title= Council Directive 1999/31/EC of 26 April 1999, on the landfill of waste | url= http://eur-lex.europa.eu/pri/en/oj/dat/1999/l_182/l_18219990716en00010019.pdf | access-date= August 29, 2005 | archive-date= July 5, 2010 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100705130150/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/pri/en/oj/dat/1999/l_182/l_18219990716en00010019.pdf | url-status= dead | df= mdy-all }}
* {{cite web | title=The Landfill Operation Management Advisor Web Based Expert System | url=http://loma.civil.duth.gr | access-date=August 29, 2005 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051030021240/http://loma.civil.duth.gr/ | archive-date=October 30, 2005 | df=mdy-all }}
* {{cite web | author= H. Lanier Hickman Jr. and Richard W. Eldredge | title= Part 3: The Sanitary Landfill | work= A Brief History of Solid Waste Management in the US During the Last 50 Years | url= http://www.forester.net/msw_0001_history.html | access-date= August 29, 2005 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20051123103812/http://www.forester.net/msw_0001_history.html | archive-date= November 23, 2005 | url-status= dead }}
* Daniel A. Vallero, ''Environmental Biotechnology: A Biosystems Approach''. 2nd Edition. Academic Press, Amsterdam, Netherlands and Boston MA, Print Book {{ISBN|9780124077768}}; eBook {{ISBN|9780124078970}}. 2015.

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wiktionary|landfill}}
{{Commons category|Landfills}}
* [http://www.wasterecycling.org US National Waste & Recycling Association]
* [http://www.swana.org Solid Waste Association of North America]
* [https://waste-management-world.com/a/a-compact-guide-to-landfill-operation-machinery-management-and-misconceptions A Compact Guide to Landfill Operation: Machinery, Management and Misconceptions]

{{Waste}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Landfill| ]]
[[Category:Waste management]]

Landfill - Revision history

Ajay Kumar at 16:03, 28 August 2023