Ieagle123 at 16:44, 17 February 2026

2026-02-17T16:44:07Z

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{{short description|River in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2017}}
{{Infobox river
|name=Mandakini River
|mouth_location=[[Rudraprayag]], [[Uttarakhand]], [[India]]
|subdivision_name2=[[Uttarakhand]]
|map=Hydrological-model-set-up-of-the-Mandakini-River.png
|map_caption=Hydrological setup of the Mandakini showing its course through [[Kedarnath]]
|length={{Convert|81.3|km|mi|abbr=on}}
|mouth=[[Alaknanda River]]
|mouth_coordinates={{Coord|30|17|16|N|78|58|44|E|display=inline,title}}
|source1=Chorabari Glacier
|mouth_elevation={{convert|690|m|abbr=on}}
|source1_location=Kedarnath Summit, Kedarnath, [[India]]
|source1_elevation={{Convert|3895|m|ft|abbr=on}}
|source1_coordinates={{Coord|30|44|50|N|79|05|20|E|display=inline}}
|basin_size={{Convert|1646|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}
|native_name=
|map_size=320px
|subdivision_name1=[[India]]
|discharge1_avg={{convert|108.6|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
}}
The '''Mandakini River''' is a [[tributary]] of the [[Alaknanda River]] in the Indian state of [[Uttarakhand]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Rawat|first1=A|last2=Gulati|first2=G|last3=Maithani|first3=R|last4=Sathyakumar|first4=S|last5=Uniyal|first5=VP|date=2019-12-20|title=Bioassessment of Mandakini River with the help of aquatic macroinvertebrates in the vicinity of Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary|journal=Applied Water Science|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=36|doi=10.1007/s13201-019-1115-5|bibcode=2019ApWS...10...36R|issn=2190-5495|doi-access=free}}</ref> The river runs for approximately {{convert|81|km}} between the [[Rudraprayag]] and [[Sonprayag]] areas and emerges from the Chorabari Glacier.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Mandakini River - About Mandakini River of Uttarakhand- Kedarnath flash flood|url=https://www.euttaranchal.com/uttarakhand/mandakini-river|access-date=2020-10-06|website=eUttaranchal|date=18 December 2015|language=en-US|archive-date=9 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009032724/https://www.euttaranchal.com/uttarakhand/mandakini-river|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Mandakini merges with river Songanga at Sonprayag and flows past the Hindu temple [[Madhyamaheshwar]] at Ukhimath.<ref name=":1" /> At the end of its course it drains into the Alaknanda, which flows into the [[Ganges]].<ref name=":1" />

The Mandakini is considered by Hindus a sacred river within Uttarakhand as it runs past the [[Kedarnath]] and Madhyamaheshwar temples.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Kala|first=CP|date=2014-06-01 |title=Deluge, disaster and development in Uttarakhand Himalayan region of India: Challenges and lessons for disaster management |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212420914000235|journal=International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction|language=en|volume=8|pages=143–52 |doi=10.1016/j.ijdrr.2014.03.002|issn=2212-4209|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":7" /> For this reason, the Mandakini has been the site of pilgrimages and religious tourism, with treks passing significant sites of spirituality such as [[Tungnath]] and [[Deoria Tal]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=Bahl & Kapur|first=R&R|title=Kedarnath Flash Floods: Did Anything Change After Five Years?|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LGgZOLBclYY&ab_channel=TheQuint |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/LGgZOLBclYY |archive-date=2021-12-19 |url-status=live|website=Youtube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The Mandakini area also attracts millions of tourists annually for whitewater rafting, hiking, and religious tours around the winter [[Char Dham|Chardham]] being offered. In 2011, more than 25 million tourists visited the river (for comparison, the State of Uttarakhand has a population of about 10 million).<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":11" /> The health of the river and surrounding landforms have slowly been degraded, giving rise to environmental conservation projects such as the [[Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|last1=Kansal|first1=ML|last2=Shukla|first2=S|last3=Tyagi|first3=A|title=World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2014|date=2014-05-30|chapter=Probable Role of Anthropogenic Activities in 2013 Flood Disaster in Uttarakhand, India|chapter-url=https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/9780784413548.095|language=EN|pages=924–937|doi=10.1061/9780784413548.095|isbn=9780784413548}}</ref>

The Mandakini is subject to heavy rainfall, especially during monsoon season. The annual rainfall within the surrounding region is {{convert|1000–2000|mm}}, which is elevated almost 70% in monsoon season (late July–October).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Khare|first1=Deepak|last2=Mondal|first2=Arun|last3=Kundu|first3=Sananda|last4=Mishra|first4=Prabhash Kumar|date=September 2017|title=Climate change impact on soil erosion in the Mandakini River Basin, North India|journal=Applied Water Science|volume=7|issue=5|pages=2373–83|doi=10.1007/s13201-016-0419-y|bibcode=2017ApWS....7.2373K|issn=2190-5487|doi-access=free}}</ref> This heavy rainfall is often responsible for rising water levels and intense flash floods.<ref name=":2" /> In conjunction with the collapse of a segment of the dammed [[Chorabari Lake]] in 2013, an intense patch of heavy rainfall led to the historical devastation of rural villages and death of thousands of locals, pilgrims and tourists.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Bhambri|first1=R|last2=Mehta|first2=M |last3=Dobhal|first3=DP|last4=Gupta|first4=AK |last5=Pratap|first5=B|last6=Kesarwani|first6=K|last7=Verma|first7=A |date=2016-02-01|title=Devastation in the Kedarnath (Mandakini) Valley, Garhwal Himalaya, during 16–17 June 2013: a remote sensing and ground-based assessment|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-015-2033-y|journal=Natural Hazards|language=en|volume=80|issue=3|pages=1801–22|doi=10.1007/s11069-015-2033-y|s2cid=131701213|issn=1573-0840|url-access=subscription}}</ref> These are known as the 2013 Kedarnath flash floods.

== Etymology and names ==
In Hinduism, Mandākinī (मन्दाकिनी) signifies 'the river of the air or heaven'. As coined within the [[Vayu Purana|Vāyu Purāṇa]], this name correlates to the Mandakini's high elevation and its course through significant spiritual locations.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Deoras|first=V. R.|title=The Rivers and Mountains of Mahārāshṭra|date=1958|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44145192|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=21|pages=202–209|jstor=44145192|issn=2249-1937}}</ref><ref name=":9" />

Within [[Shilpa Shastras|Shilpa shastra]] (ancient Hindu texts referring to the arts and their standards within Indian culture), Mandākinī translates to 'slow' and refers to an illustration of Mandākinī-śruti, an ancient example of Indian religious iconography.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=www.wisdomlib.org|date=2009-04-12|title=Mandakini, Mandākinī: 19 definitions|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/mandakini|access-date=2020-10-08|website=www.wisdomlib.org}}</ref> Her shapely beauty and flowing scarf are often seen in relation to the natural flow of the river. The items being held, particularly the ''[[Veena|vīṇā]],'' are significant symbols within Hinduism.<ref name=":3" />

In [[Puranas|Purana]] and [[Itihasa]] (ancient Indian literature; commonly associated with legends and Indian lore), Mandākinī refers to the 'river which emerges from the holy mountain'.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=www.wisdomlib.org|date=2019-02-17|title=Varahapurana, Varāhapurāṇa, Varaha-purana, Vārāhapurāṇa: 6 definitions|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/varahapurana|access-date=2020-10-08|website=www.wisdomlib.org}}</ref> This is referring to ''Kulaparvata'' in Bhārata, a region south to the South of [[Hemadpant|Hemādri]].<ref name=":5" />

In [[Marathi language|Marathi]]-English, Mandākinī translates to 'the milky way' or 'the galaxy'.<ref name=":3" />

In [[Sanskrit]]-English the Mandakini is called ''mandāka'', which roughly translates to 'the Ganges of Heaven'.<ref name=":3" />

== Ecology ==
The Mandakini [[Basin and Range Province|basin]] ranges in elevation from {{convert|3,800|m}} [[above sea level]] to approximately {{convert|6,090|m}} at the head of the Chorabari Glacier.<ref name=":1" /> Climates are generally cooler than the Indian mainland with maximum temperatures ranging from {{cvt|30|-|60|C}} to a minimum of {{cvt|0|-|8|C}}. [[Humidity]] is relatively high, especially in the [[monsoon]] season (usually exceeding 70%).<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Khare, Mondal, Khundu & Mishra|date=2017|title=Climate change impact on soil erosion in the mandakini river basin, north india|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1930727854|journal=Applied Water Science|volume=7|issue=5|pages=2373–2383|doi=10.1007/s13201-016-0419-y|bibcode=2017ApWS....7.2373K|s2cid=131101564|id={{ProQuest|1930727854}}|doi-access=free}}</ref> The region houses very steep valleys and large slopes, which commonly result in great sediment movement and landslides.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":16" />

== Course ==
With a total length of approximately {{cvt|80|km}} between regions Kedarnath and Rudraprayag, the Mandakini stretches past many significant locations of Uttarakhand. It also acts as a means of direction for passage through that particular area of the [[Garhwa district|Garwhal]] [[Himalayas]].<ref name=":10" /> Due to great variety in weather and geographical conditions, such as the melting and reforming of the surrounding glaciers, [[Discharge (hydrology)|discharge]] of the Mandakini fluctuates greatly throughout the year.<ref name=":1" /> For these reasons, yearly discharge for the Mandakini has been split into two categories: average monsoonal discharge and average daily discharge. This also charts the temperature and sediment levels of the water.<ref name=":1" /> The highest discharge recorded (in 2018) was between {{cvt|6|and|12|m3/s}} observed from June to September with the average daily rainfall being {{cvt|120|-|150|mm}}.<ref name=":1" />

=== Sources ===
[[File:Satellite_image_of_Chorabari_glacier.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of Chorabari Glacier showing Mandakini flow]]
The Mandakini's single [[River source|source]] is the Chorabari Glacier. Chorabari is a medium-sized valley-type [[glacier]] that covers an area of approximately {{cvt|6.6|sqkm}} within the Mandakini basin.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Karakoti|first1=I|last2=Kesarwani|first2=K|last3=Mehta|first3=M|last4=Dobhal|first4=DP|date=2017-04-01|title=Modelling of Meteorological Parameters for the Chorabari Glacier Valley, Central Himalaya, India|journal=Current Science|volume=112|issue=7|pages=1553|doi=10.18520/cs/v112/i07/1553-1560|issn=0011-3891|doi-access=free}}</ref> It is also one of the many glaciers nestled in the Himalayan region, which many residents rely on for their water needs. The glacier is between the Kedarnath [[summit]] to the north and the town of Kedarnath to the south.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2008-03-14|title=Chorabari Glacier, India|url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/8564/chorabari-glacier-india|access-date=2020-10-25|website=earthobservatory.nasa.gov|language=en}}</ref> In recent years (from data received between 1962 and 2014), however, exposure to higher temperatures and increased human intervention has seen a reduction in landmass of the Chorabari glacier (a loss of 1% of its frontal area and approximately {{cvt|344|m|disp=sqbr}} of its length).<ref name=":11" /> As a result, the Mandakini river has seen steadily increasing water levels and potential for flash flooding. This also diminishes fresh water supplies for surrounding towns.<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last1=Kozma|first1=E|last2=Jayasekara|first2=PS |last3=Squarcialupi|first3=L|last4=Paoletta|first4=S|last5=Moro|first5=S|last6=Federico|first6=S|last7=Spalluto|first7=G|last8=Jacobson|first8=KA|date=2013-01-01|title=Fluorescent ligands for adenosine receptors|journal=Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters|volume=23|issue=1|pages=26–36|doi=10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.10.112|issn=1464-3405|pmc=3557833|pmid=23200243}}</ref><ref name=":1" />

== History ==

=== Pilgrimage ===
The Mandakini's rich pious significance dates back to its mention in the [[Bhagavad Gita|Srimad Bhagavad]].<ref name=":5" /> Its plethora of ancient Hindu temples, including the [[Jagdamba]] temple and [[Shiva]] temple, also contribute to its holy significance. Over 10,000 pilgrims travel the main {{cvt|16|km|adj=on}} Kedarnath trek along the Mandakini every year to reach the Kedarnath temple. The trek can be completed on foot or on a mule's back for a small fee.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":8" /> Longer treks along the basin are also offered for locals and experienced tourists. These extend to the shrine of [[Tungnath]] and retrace the footsteps of important Hindu sages such as [[Swami Rama]] and [[Bengali Bahá'ís|Bengali Baba]]. People have also been known to bathe in the river during various religious events such as baptisms.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Rani, Gupta & Shrivastava|first=R., B.K., & K.B.L|date=2004|title=Studies on enviro-ecological status of Mandakini river in Chitrakoot|url=http://repository.iitr.ac.in/handle/123456789/3025|journal=Pollution Research|volume=23|issue=4|pages=677–679|via=Institutional Repository}}</ref>

[[File:Mandakini-river-damaging-houses-in-kedarnath-valley.jpg|thumb|Kedarnath flash floods damaging houses along its banks]]

=== 2013 flash floods ===
On June 16–17, 2013, unprecedented rainfall and damage to dammed areas of the Chorabari glacier caused the Mandakini and its tributaries in the [[Garhwal Himalaya|Garwhal Himalaya]] to flood and subsequently devastate surrounding villages.<ref name=":6" /> The onslaught of water then caused large-scale landslides in the area. 137 separate incidents of 'flash-flood induced debris' were charted within the Kedarnath valley.<ref name=":7" /> Downstream settlements such as Kedarnath ({{cvt|3546|m|disp=sqbr}} {{abbr|a.s.l.|above sea level}}), Rambara ({{cvt|2740|m|disp=sqbr}} a.s.l.) and [[Gauri Kund|Gaurikund]] ({{cvt|1990|m|disp=sqbr}} a.s.l.) were the most heavily impacted due to an accumulated debris buildup from damaged villages upstream, creating a 'snowball effect' of devastation.<ref name=":7" /> During the floods, the main channel of the river increased approximately 406% with about 50% ({{cvt|7|km|disp=sqbr}}) of the single pedestrian route ({{cvt|14|km|disp=sqbr}}) between Gaurikund and Kedarnath being completely washed away. As a result, rescue operations were impeded, and evacuation was unable to be effectively completed. Over 1000 deaths of tourists, pilgrims and locals were recorded in the following months.<ref name=":6" /> Approximately 120 buildings were destroyed; 90 of these were surrounding the Kedarnath shrine and within Rambara, a small village downstream. While numerous homes and farms were destroyed in the floods, the majority of shrines and the Kedarnath temple were left intact. Locals were seen trekking to the temple and praying only days after the disaster.<ref name=":6" /> Pilgrims and locals reported "black clouds" and "black water" taking over the land and the skies on the day of the flooding.<ref name=":6" />

It is theorised that increased construction of hydropower projects, exponential growth in tourism and a steady increase in emission of [[greenhouse gas]]es all contributed to the disaster. Thus, members of the Kedarnath natural [[council]] have made efforts to recuperate areas of the land. Some methods include [[Nature conservation|conservation]] plans, wildlife sanctuaries and the strategic placement of concrete blocks to restore the original and favoured course of the river.<ref name=":17">{{Cite news|last=Kumar|first=Yogesh|title=Mandakini river's original course by Kedarnath restored|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/Mandakini-rivers-original-course-by-Kedarnath-restored/articleshow/36756417.cms|access-date=2020-10-09}}</ref><ref name=":7" />

== Environmental impacts ==

=== Geography ===
[[File:Collapsed_bridge.jpg|thumb|Image of collapsed bridge over Mandakini due to erosion of soil]]
Because of the altitudinal variation of the Mandakini (altitude ranging from {{cvt|210|to|7187|m|disp=sqbr}} a.s.l), climate conditions vary throughout the region.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}} A general increase in temperatures, which scientists from the Department of Water Resources Development and Management, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India, attribute to [[climate change]], has been recorded in the area. As a result, soil [[erosion]] has increased, and soil productivity has decreased. This has caused more frequent large-scale landslides and the inability for new crops to grow and be harvested. Increased levels of rainfall have also been attributed to climate change, with researchers predicting larger numbers of soil loss occurring over coming years.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":17" /> Studies show that [[moraine-dammed lake]]s, which are attributed to the melting of snowcaps and increased rainfall, are also giving rise to lake outbursts and subsequent flash flooding.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}

The Mandakini region is [[Seismology|seismically]] and ecologically fragile due to its position along a [[collision zone]]. Well exposed [[crystal]]line rock groups in the Higher Himalayas and surrounding Kedarnath form the oldest crystalline base in the Himalayan region. This rock is highly susceptible to displacement and is also therefore one of the biggest triggering agents to the many landslides in the region.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}

Constant flooding, particularly following the flash floods of 2013, has seen the decline in forest density along the Mandakini. Data indicate that the area of forest pastures diminished from {{cvt|1240.98|to|1207.80|ha}} between 2012 and 2013.<ref name=":10" /> Hence, soil fertility and diversity in flora and fauna have been in steady decline since 2013. The [[Habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]] of forest area has also resulted in a loss in land for usage in [[Animal husbandry|husbandry]], [[agriculture]], and tourism.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last=Sikarwar|first=R.L.S|title=Aquatic Biodiversity of the River Mandakini of Chitrakoot|publisher=Uttar Pradesh State Biodiversity Board|year=2013|pages=70–74}}</ref>

The river ecology is also significantly affected by forest fire activity.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}

=== Human intervention ===
The Mandakini has become a prime location for investigating the impact of waste dumping and tourism on the quality of water.<ref name=":9" /> Due to its cultural and religious significance, the Mandakini and neighbouring villages attract thousands of tourists and pilgrims each year. Increased traffic of people, mules and cars has led to an exponential degradation of roads along the river. Many towns are along the banks of the Mandakini and use the river as a dumping source.<ref name=":10" /> Populations of these towns are witnessing explosive growth, and many of these inhabitants are below the poverty line. A number of drains carrying wastewater from towns join the river at various points, increasing the pollution load of the river and altering its water quality. Chitrakoot, for example, possesses gutter and sewer lines that are directly connected to the river.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}

Researchers from the Department School of Environmental Biology A.P.S. University, Rewa, observed high levels of [[alkalinity]] (Minimum [[pH]] value was 7.23 in Sphatikshila ghat, and maximum pH value was 7.80 in Arogyadham ghat) within the water. The following activities were observed by these same researchers during sampling of the Mandakini at various locations; religious, tourism, bathing, washing, [[open defecation]], cultivation, sand, stone and gravel recovery, stone crushing, road [[construction]], [[mining]], [[cremation]]; [[fishing]], surface drainage, [[irrigation]], drinking water, rafting, and interacting with wildlife habitats.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}} Garbage from religious practice such as ''[[Yajna|Hawan]]'' is also thrown into the river. The towns of Chitrakoot, Rambara and Kedarnath have also been known to cover river banks in concrete for the construction of [[Fishery|fisheries]] and [[Dock (maritime)|docks]]. This has disturbed the natural flow of the river and caused further soil erosion.<ref name=":13" />

==See also==
*[[Badrinath]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
*[https://www.cultureunplugged.com/play/274/River-Goddess Documentary by Mandakini Mathur]
*[https://archive.today/20130117173317/http://search.barnesandnoble.com/The-River-Goddess/Vijay-Singh/e/9780886828257 The River Goddess by Vijay Singh]

{{Hydrography of Uttarakhand}}

[[Category:Rivers of Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Tributaries of the Ganges]]
[[Category:Rudraprayag district]]
[[Category:Rivers in Buddhism]]

Mandakini River - Revision history

Ieagle123 at 16:44, 17 February 2026