Indo-Mesopotamia relations

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Template:Multiple image Indus–Mesopotamia relations are thought to have developed during the second half of the 3rd millennium BCE, until they came to a halt with the extinction of the Indus Valley Civilization after around 1900 BCE.[1][2][3] Mesopotamia had already been an intermediary in the trade of lapis lazuli between the Indus Valley and Egypt since at least about 3200 BCE, in the context of Egypt-Mesopotamia relations.[4][5]

Neolithic expansion (9000–6500 BCE)

Template:Main Template:Multiple image A first period of indirect contacts seems to have occurred as a consequence of the Neolithic Revolution and the diffusion of agriculture after 9000 BCE.Template:Efn The prehistoric agriculture of the Indian subcontinent is thought to have combined local resources, such as humped cattle, with agricultural resources from the Near East as a first step in the 8th–7th millennium BCE, to which were later added resources from Africa and East Asia from the 3rd millennium BCE.[6] Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in the subcontinent.[7][8]Template:Efn At Mehrgarh, around 7000 BCE, the full set of Near Eastern incipient agricultural products can be found: wheat, barley, as well as goats, sheep and cattle.[6] The rectangular houses of Mehrgarh as well as the female figurines are essentially identical with those of the Near East.[6]

The Near-Eastern origin of South Asian agriculture is generally accepted, and it has been the "virtual archaeological dogma for decades".[9] Gregory Possehl however argues for a more nuanced model, in which the early domestication of plant and animal species may have occurred in a wide area from the Mediterranean to the Indus, in which new technology and ideas circulated fast and were widely shared.[10] Today, the main objection to this model lies in the fact that wild wheat has never been found in South Asia, suggesting that either wheat was first domesticated in the Near-East from well-known domestic wild species and then brought to South Asia, or that wild wheat existed in the past in South Asia but somehow became extinct without leaving a trace.[10]

Jean-François Jarrige argues for an independent origin of Mehrgarh. Jarrige notes "the assumption that farming economy was introduced full-fledged from Near-East to South Asia",[11]Template:Efn and the similarities between Neolithic sites from eastern Mesopotamia and the western Indus valley, which are evidence of a "cultural continuum" between those sites. But given the originality of Mehrgarh, Jarrige concludes that Mehrgarh has an earlier local background, and is not a Template:"'backwater' of the Neolithic culture of the Near East".[11]

Land and maritime relations

File:Global sea levels and vegetation during the last Ice Age (South Asia).jpg
Global sea levels and vegetation during the Last Ice Age. The coastline was still roughly similar in about 10,000 BCE.[12]
File:Indus Valley Civilization, Mature Phase (2600-1900 BCE).png
The Indus Valley Civilization extended westward as far as the Harappan trading station of Sutkagan Dor.[13]

Sea levels have been rising about 100 meters over the last 15,000 years until modern times, with the effect that coast lines have been receding vastly. This is especially the case of the coast lines of the Indus and Mesopotamia, which were originally only separated by a distance of about 1000 kilometers, compared to 2000 kilometers today.[12] For the ancestors of the Sumerians, the distance between the coasts of the Mesopotamian area and the Indus area would have been much shorter than it is today.[12] In particular the Persian Gulf, which is only about 30 meters deep today, would have been at least partially dry, and would have formed an extension of the Mesopotamian basin.[12]

File:Disha Kaka Boat with Direction Finding Birds, model of Mohenjo-Daro seal, 3000 BCE.jpg
Boat with direction-finding birds to find land.[14]Template:Sfn Model of Mohenjo-daro tablet, 2500–1750 BCE.(National Museum, New Delhi).[15][16]

The westernmost Harappan city was located on the Makran coast at Sutkagan Dor, near the tip of the Arabian Peninsula, and is considered as an ancient maritime trading station, probably between modern day Pakistan and the Persian Gulf.[13]

Sea-going vessels were known in the Indus region, as shown by seals showing ships with land-finding birds (disha-kaka), dating to 2500–1750 BCE.[17] When a boat was lost at sea, with land beyond the horizon, birds released by the mariners would securely fly back to land, and therefore show the boats the way to safety.[17] Various stamp seals are known from the Indus and the Persian Gulf area, with depictions of large ships pertaining to different shipbuilding traditions.[18] Sargon of Akkad (c. 2334–2284 BCE) claimed in one of his inscriptions that "ships from Meluhha, Magan and Dilmun made fast at the docks of Akkad".[18]

Commercial and cultural exchanges

Many archaeological finds suggest that maritime trade along the shores of Africa and Asia started several millennia ago.[19] Indus pottery and seals have been found along the sea routes between the Indus and Mesopotamia, as in Ras al-Jinz, at the tip of Arabia.[20][21]

Indus imports into Mesopotamia

File:British Museum Middle East 14022019 Gold and carnelian beads 2600-2300 BC Royal cemetery of Ur (composite).jpg
The etched carnelian beads in this necklace from the Royal Cemetery dating to the First Dynasty of Ur (2600–2500 BCE) were probably imported from the Indus Valley.[22]

Clove heads, thought to originate from the Moluccas in Maritime Southeast Asia were found in a 2nd millennium BCE site in Terqa.[19] Evidence for imports from the Indus to Ur can be found from around 2350 BCE.[19] Various objects made with shell species that are characteristic of the Indus coast, particularly Trubinella Pyrum and Fasciolaria Trapezium, have been found in the archaeological sites of Mesopotamia dating from around 2500–2000 BCE.[23][2] Carnelian beads from the Indus were found in Ur tombs dating to 2600–2450.[24] In particular, carnelian beads with an etched design in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley, and made according to a technique of acid-etching developed by the Harappans.[25][22][26] Lapis Lazuli was imported in great quantity by Egypt, and already used in many tombs of the Naqada II period (circa 3200 BCE). Lapis Lazuli probably originated in northern Afghanistan, as no other sources are known from that time, and had to be transported across the Iranian plateau to Mesopotamia, and then Egypt.[4][5]

Several Indus seals with Harappan script have also been found in Mesopotamia, particularly in Ur, Babylon and Kish.[27][28][29][30][31][32] The water buffalos that appear on Akkadian cylinder seals from the time of Naram-Sin (circa 2250 BCE) may have been imported to Mesopotamia from the Indus as a result of trade.[33][34][35]

Akkadian Empire records mention timber, carnelian and ivory as being imported from Meluhha by Meluhhan ships, Meluhha being generally considered as the Mesopotamian name for the Indus Valley.[24][2]

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After the collapse of the Akkadian Empire, Gudea, the ruler of Lagash, is recorded as having imported "translucent carnelian" from Meluhha.[24] Various inscriptions also mention the presence of Meluhha traders and interpreters in Mesopotamia.[24] About twenty seals have been found from the Akkadian and Ur III sites, that have connections with Harappa and often use Harappan symbols or writing.[24]

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Mesopotamian imports into the Indus

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Possible iconographical influences

Various authors have described possible iconographical influences from Mesopotamia to the Indus Valley.[59] Gregory Possehl notes "Mesopotamian themes in Indus iconography", particularly designs related to the Gilgamesh epic, suggesting that "some aspects of Mesopotamian religion and ideology would have been accepted at face value is a reasonable notion".[60] Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi also describes the presence of Gilgamesh on Indus seals.[61] In the archaeological sites of the Indus valley civilization, twenty-four stone haematite weights of the Mesopotamian barrel-shaped type were found at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.[62]

There are also many instances of influence the other way round, in which Indus Valley seals and designs have been found in Mesopotamia.Template:Citation needed

Indus Valley stamp seals

Some Indus seals seem to show possible Mesopotamian influence, as in the "Gilgamesh" motif of a man fighting two lions (2500–1500 BCE).[60][61][63]

Several Indus Valley seals show a fighting scene between a tiger-like beast and a man with horns, hooves and a tail, who has been compared to the Mesopotamian bull-man Enkidu, also a partner of Gilgamesh, and suggests a transmission of Mesopotamian mythology.[64][65][66]

Cylinder seals

A few rare cylinder seals have been found in Indus valley sites, which suggest Mesopotamian influence: they were probably made locally, but they use Mesopotamian motifs.[67] One such cylinder seal, the Kalibangan seal, shows a battle between men in the presence of centaurs.[68][69] Other seals show processions of animals.[69]

Others have suggested that the cylinder seals show the Indus valley's influence on Mesopotamia. These may have been due to overland trade between the two cultures.[70]

Indian genes in ancient Mesopotamia

It has long been suggested that the Sumerians, who ruled in Lower Mesopotamia from circa 4500 to 1900 BCE and who spoke a non-Indo-European and non-Semitic language, may have initially come from India.[78][79] This appeared to historian Henry Hall as the most probable conclusion, particularly based on the portrayal of Sumerians in their own art and "how very Indian the Sumerians were in type".[78] Recent genetic analysis of ancient Mesopotamian skeletal DNA tends to confirm a significant association.[80] The Sumerians progressively lost control to Semitic states from the northwest, starting with the Akkadian Empire, from circa 2300 BCE.

Methodology

File:Indus Valley Civilization, Mature Phase (2600-1900 BCE).svg
Estimated population size of 5 million.[81]
File:N-Mesopotamia and Syria english.svg
Estimated population size of 290,000. [82]

A genetic analysis of the ancient DNA of Mesopotamian skeletons was made on the excavated remains of four individuals from ancient tombs in Tell Ashara (ancient Terqa) and Tell Masaikh (near Terqa, also known as ancient Kar-Assurnasirpal), both in the middle Euphrates valley in the east of modern Syria.[80] The two oldest skeletons were dated to 2,650–2,450 BCE and 2,200–1,900 BCE respectively, while the two younger skeletons were dated to circa 500 AD.[80] All the studied individuals carried mtDNA haplotypes corresponding to the M4b1, M49 and/or M61 haplogroups, which are believed to have arisen in the area of the Indian subcontinent during the Upper Paleolithic, and are absent in people living today in Syria.[80] These haplogroups are still present in people inhabiting today's Tibet, Himalayas (Ladakh), India and Pakistan, and are restricted today to the South, East and Southeast Asia regions.[80] The data suggests a genetic link of the region with the Indian subcontinent in the past that has not left traces in the modern population of Mesopotamia.[80]

Other studies have also shown connections between the populations of Mesopotamia and population groups now located in Southern India, such as the Tamils.[83][84]

Analysis

File:Head of Gudea.jpg
Sculpture of the head of Sumerian ruler Gudea, c. 2150 BC

The genetic analysis suggests that a continuity existed between Trans-Himalaya and Mesopotamia regions in ancient time, and that the studied individuals represent genetic associations with the Indian subcontinent.[80] It is likely that this genetic connection was broken as a result of population movements during more recent times.[80]

The fact that the studied individuals comprised both males and a female, each living in a different period and representing different haplotypes, suggests that the nature of their presence in Mesopotamia was long-lasting rather than incidental.[80] The close ancestors of the specimens could fall within the population founding Terqa, a historical site that was probably constructed during the early Bronze Age, at a time only slightly preceding the dating of the skeletons.[80]

The studied individuals could also have been the descendants of much earlier migration waves who brought these genes from the Indian subcontinent.[80] It cannot be excluded that among them were people involved in the founding of the Mesopotamian civilizations.[80] For instance, it is commonly accepted that the founders of Sumerian civilization may have come from outside the region, but their exact origin is still a matter of debate.[80] The migrants could have entered Mesopotamia earlier than 4,500 years ago, during the lifetime of the oldest studied individual.[80] Alternatively, the studied individuals may have belonged to groups of itinerant merchants moving along a trade route passing near or through the region.[80]

Scripts and languages

Template:Multiple image Template:See also Similarities between Proto-Elamite (circa 3000 BCE) and especially Linear Elamite (2300–2000 BCE) scripts with the Indus script have been noted, although it has not been possible to decipher any of them.[87][88] Elamite only starts to be readable from around 2300 BCE, when Elamite adopted the cuneiform system.[87] These Elamite scripts are said to be "technically similar" to the Indus script.[87] On comparing the Linear Elamite to the Indus script, a number of similar symbols have also been found.[88]

The Meluhhan language was not readily understandable at the Akkadian court, since interpretators of the Meluhhan language are known to have resided in Mesopotamia, particularly through an Akkadian seal with the inscription "Shu-ilishu, interpreter of the Meluhhan language".[89][90][91] Template:Clear

Chronology

File:Indus head statuette in red limestone imported to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE disovered in the Tel of the Acropolis at Susa LOUVRE Sb80.jpg
Indus-type statuette, found in Susa in the 2600–1700 BCE site of the Tel of the Acropolis at Susa. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 80.[92]

Template:Multiple image Sargon of Akkad (circa 2300 or 2250 BCE), was the first Mesopotamian ruler to make an explicit reference to the region of Meluhha, which is generally understood as being the Baluchistan or the Indus area.[19] Sargon mentions the presence of Meluhha, Magan, and Dilmun ships at Akkad.[19]

These dates correspond roughly to the Mature Harappan phase, dated from around 2600 to 2000 BCE.[19] The dates for the main occupation of Mohenjo-Daro are from about 2350 to 2000/1900 BCE.[19]

It has been suggested that the early Mesopotamian Empire preceded the emergence of the Harappan civilization, and that trade and cultural exchanges may have facilitated the emergence of Harappan culture.[19] Alternatively, it is possible that the Harappan culture had already emerged by the time trade with Mesopotamia started.[19] Uncertainties in dating make it impossible to establish a clear order at this stage.[19]

Exchanges seem to have been most significant during the Akkadian Empire and Ur III periods, and to have waned afterwards together with the disappearance of the Indus valley civilization.[62]

Comparative sizes

The Indus Valley Civilization only flourished in its most developed form between 2500 and 1800 BCE until it became extinct, but at the time of these exchanges, it was a much larger entity than the Mesopotamian civilization, covering an area of 1.2 million square kilometres with thousands of settlements, compared to an area of only about 65,000 square kilometres for the occupied area of Mesopotamia, while the largest cities were comparable in size at about 30,000–40,000 inhabitants.[93]

There were altogether about 1,500 Indus valley cities, amounting to a population of perhaps 5 million at the maximum time of their florescence.[81] In contrast, the total urban population of Mesopotamia in 2,500 BCE was around 290,000.[94]

Large-scale exchanges recovered with the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley, circa 500 BCE.

Views of cultural diffusion

Many scholars have pointed towards exaggerated notions of cultural diffusions from Western Asia to the Indian subcontinent, such as when overlinking Vedic astronomy and mathematics to Sumerian origins.[95] Likewise scholars have questioned the supposed borrowings of Western Asian motifs without the evidence of any actual artifact and trade contacts.[96] Recent archaeogenetic research based on DNA samples collected from the Harappan site of Rakhigarhi suggests that Western Asian migration to northern India occurred as early as 12,000 years ago, but that the rise of agriculture in India was a later phenomenon, probably due to cultural exchanges around 2,000 years later, rather than direct migration.[97] According to Richard H. Meadow, evidence gathered from Mehrgarh points towards domestication of sheep, cattle and goats as a separate local phenomenon in the subcontinent around 7,000 BCE.[98][99]

See also

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Notes

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References

  1. ↑ Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2016). ISBN 978-1-315-51116-0
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 A new approach to tracking connections between the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia: initial results of strontium isotope analyses from Harappa and Ur. Journal of Archaeological Science({Template:Year).
  3. ↑ "The wide distribution of lower Indus Valley seals and other artifacts from the Persian Gulf to Shortughaï in the Amu Darya/ Oxus River valley in Badakhshan (northeastern Afghanistan) demonstrates long-distance maritime and overland trade connections until ca. 1800 BCE." in Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange within and beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Brill(2011). ISBN 978-90-04-19458-8
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 The Mediterranean Context of Early Greek History{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. John Wiley & Sons(2011). ISBN 978-1-4443-4234-5
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Centre and Periphery in the Ancient World{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Cambridge University Press(1987). ISBN 978-0-521-25103-7
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Agriculture in World History{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2013). ISBN 978-1-136-94161-0
  7. ↑ UNESCO World Heritage. 2004. ". Archaeological Site of Mehrgarh
  8. ↑ Hirst, K. Kris. 2005. "Mehrgarh" Template:Webarchive. Guide to Archaeology
  9. ↑ "It has been virtual archaeological dogma for decades that Braidwood's constellation of potentially domesticable plants... were first domesticated in the Near East... early in the Holocene (c. 8,000 to 10,000 years ago). [...] The usual story is that domestic plants and animals, and the techniques of food production, then somehow 'diffused' to other parts of the Old World, including South Asia." in The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Rowman Altamira(2002). ISBN 978-0-7591-0172-2
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Rowman Altamira(2002). ISBN 978-0-7591-0172-2
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Jean-Francois Jarrige Mehrgarh Neolithic Template:Webarchive, Paper presented in the International Seminar on the "First Farmers in Global Perspective", Lucknow, India, 18–20 January 2006
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 The Indus-Mesopotamia relationship reconsidered (Gs Elisabeth During Caspers){{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Archaeopress(2008). ISBN 978-1-4073-0312-3
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. ABC-CLIO(2008). ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2
  14. ↑ The Ancient South Asian World{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(2005). ISBN 978-0-19-522243-2
  15. ↑ The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. ABC-CLIO(2008). ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2
  16. ↑ The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Cambridge University Press(29 July 1982). ISBN 978-0-521-28550-6
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Shipbuilding, Navigation and the Portuguese in Pre-modern India{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2017). ISBN 978-1-351-58833-1
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Cornell University Press(1997). ISBN 978-0-8014-3339-9
  19. ↑ 19.00 19.01 19.02 19.03 19.04 19.05 19.06 19.07 19.08 19.09 The Indus-Mesopotamia relationship reconsidered (Gs Elisabeth During Caspers){{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Archaeopress(2008). ISBN 978-1-4073-0312-3
  20. ↑ Drawings of Indus seals and inscriptions discovered in Ras al-Jinz, in Cachets inscrits de la fin du IIIe millénaire av. notre ère à Ra's al-Junays, sultanat d'Oman (note d'information). Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres({Template:Date).
  21. ↑ The Indus Civilization Trade with the Oman Peninsula. In the Shadow of the Ancestors. The Prehistoric Foundations of the Early Arabian Civilization in Oman – Second Expanded Edition (Cleuziou S. & M. Tosi)({Template:Date).
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 British Museum notice: "Gold and carnelians beads. The two beads etched with patterns in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley. They were made by a technique developed by the Harappan civilization". Photograph of the necklace in question.
  23. ↑ The Role of shell in Mesopotamia: evidence for trade exchange with Oman and the Indus Valley. Paléorient({Template:Date).
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. ABC-CLIO(2008). ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2
  25. ↑ For the etching technique, see Sumerian Connexions with Ancient India. The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland({Template:Date).
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. FeniXX réédition numérique(2016). ISBN 978-2-402-05246-7
  27. ↑ For a full list of discoveries of Indus seals in Mesopotamia, see Indian Ocean In Antiquity{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2013). ISBN 978-1-136-15531-4
  28. ↑ For another list of Mesopotamian finds of Indus seals: The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Rowman Altamira(2002). ISBN 978-0-7591-0172-2
  29. ↑ Indus stamp-seal found in Ur BM 122187. British Museum.
    Indus stamp-seal discovered in Ur BM 123208. British Museum.
    Indus stamp-seal discovered in Ur BM 120228. British Museum.
  30. ↑ Seals of Ancient Indian style found at Ur{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}(1958)
  31. ↑ Brotherhood of Kings: How International Relations Shaped the Ancient Near East{{#if:Podany|, Podany}. Oxford University Press(2012). ISBN 978-0-19-971829-0
  32. ↑ Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Metropolitan Museum of Art(2003). ISBN 978-1-58839-043-1
  33. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named The Indus: Lost Civilizations
  34. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Cylinder Seal of Ibni-Sharrum
  35. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Walter de Gruyter
  36. ↑ Site officiel du musée du Louvre. cartelfr.louvre.fr.
  37. ↑ Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Asian Educational Services(1996). ISBN 978-81-206-1179-5
  38. ↑ Corpus by Asko Parpola. Mohenjodaro.
  39. ↑ Also, for another numbering scheme: The Indus Script. Text, Concordance And Tables Iravathan Mahadevan{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Archaeological Survey of India(1987)
  40. ↑ Sumerian Connexions with Ancient India. The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland({Template:Date).
  41. ↑ Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Asian Educational Services(1996). ISBN 978-81-206-1179-5
  42. ↑ Seals and Sealing in the Ancient World: Case Studies from the Near East, Egypt, the Aegean, and South Asia{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Cambridge University Press(2018). ISBN 978-1-108-17351-3
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 "Still the largest number of Indus or Indus-type finds is from Mesopotamia. Among the seals there are four indisputably Indus specimens: two from Kish (MacKay, 1925; Langdon, 1931) and one each from Lagash (Genouillac, 1930, p. 27) and Nippur (Gibson, 1977). The Nippur seal found in a 14th century ac Kassite context is in all probability a relic of an earlier period." in A Source-book of Indian Archaeology: Settlements, technology and trade{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Munshiram Manoharlal(1997). ISBN 978-81-215-0465-2
  44. ↑ Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Asian Educational Services(1996). ISBN 978-81-206-1179-5
  45. ↑ Sceaux de Tello et Sceaux de Harappa. Revue d'Assyriologie et d'Archéologie Orientale({Template:Date).
  46. ↑ A New Factor in the Problem of Sumerian Origins. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland({Template:Date).
  47. ↑ Site officiel du musée du Louvre. cartelfr.louvre.fr.
  48. ↑ Site officiel du musée du Louvre. cartelfr.louvre.fr.
  49. ↑ Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. FeniXX réédition numérique(2016). ISBN 978-2-402-05246-7
  50. ↑ Art of the first cities: the third millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus.{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}
  51. ↑ Decorated Carnelian Beads from the Indus Civilization Site of Dholavira (Great Rann of Kachchha, Gujarat){{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Archaeopress Publishing Ltd(2018-08-13). ISBN 978-1-78491-917-7
  52. ↑ Louvre Museum Official Website. cartelen.louvre.fr.
  53. ↑ Art of the first cities: the third millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus.{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}
  54. ↑ Indus carnelian bead found in Nippur Mesopotamia. www.metmuseum.org.
  55. ↑ Ur excavations{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Trustees of the Two Museums by the aid of a grant from the Carnegie Corporation of New York(1934)
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Metropolitan Museum of Art(2003). ISBN 978-1-58839-043-1
  57. ↑ Tomb 197 at Abydos, further evidence for long distance trade in the Middle Kingdom. Ägypten und Levante / Egypt and the Levant({Template:Date).
  58. ↑ Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology: Characters and Collections{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. UCL Press(2015). ISBN 978-1-910634-04-2
  59. ↑ "Possible influences from other cultures", citing Mesopotamian themes in Indus iconography Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology: Inca-Mercury{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Marshall Cavendish(2005). ISBN 978-0-7614-7565-1
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named GLP
  61. ↑ 62.0 62.1 The Indus-Mesopotamia relationship reconsidered (Gs Elisabeth During Caspers){{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Archaeopress(2008). ISBN 978-1-4073-0312-3
  62. ↑ Memoirs Of The Archeological Survey Of India No.86; Vol.1{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}(1987)
  63. ↑ Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Marshall Cavendish(2005). ISBN 978-0-7614-7565-1
  64. ↑ Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Asian Educational Services(1996). ISBN 978-81-206-1179-5
  65. ↑ The Pearson Indian History Manual for the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Pearson Education India. ISBN 978-81-317-1753-0
  66. ↑ The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Berghahn Books(2000). ISBN 978-1-57181-222-3
  67. ↑ Seals and Sealing in the Ancient World: Case Studies from the Near East, Egypt, the Aegean, and South Asia{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Cambridge University Press(2018). ISBN 978-1-108-16869-4
  68. ↑ 69.0 69.1 Art of the first cities: the third millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus.{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Metropolitan Museum of Art
  69. ↑ The external trade of Indus civilization{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers(1990)
  70. ↑ Report on the excavation of the "A" cemetery at Kish, Mesopotamia{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Chicago : Field Museum of Natural History(1925)
  71. ↑ Report on the excavation of the "A" cemetery at Kish, Mesopotamia{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Chicago : Field Museum of Natural History(1925)
  72. ↑ Brotherhood of Kings: How International Relations Shaped the Ancient Near East{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(2010). ISBN 978-0-19-979875-9
  73. ↑ "An anthropomorphic figure has knelt in front of a fig tree, with hands raised in respectful salutation, prayer or worship. This reverence suggests the divinity of its object, another anthropomorphic figure standing inside the fig tree. In the ancient Near East, the gods and goddesses, as well as their earthly representatives, the divine kings and queens functioning as high priests and priestesses, were distinguished by a horned crown. A similar crown is worn by the two anthropomorphic figures in the fig deity seal. Among various tribal people of India, horned head-dresses are worn by priests on sacrificial occasions." in South Asian Archaeology, 1989: Papers from the Tenth International Conference of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe, Musée National Des Arts Asiatiques-Guimet, Paris, France, 3–7 July 1989{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Prehistory Press(1992). ISBN 978-1-881094-03-6
  74. ↑ Image of the seal with horned deity. www.columbia.edu.
  75. ↑ Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Metropolitan Museum of Art(2003). ISBN 978-1-58839-043-1
  76. ↑ The Indus Script. Text, Concordance And Tables Iravathan Mahadevan{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}
  77. ↑ 78.0 78.1 The ancient history of the Near East, from the earliest times to the battle of Salamis{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Methuen & Co.(1913)
  78. ↑ A Brief History of India{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Simon and Schuster(2003). ISBN 978-1-59477-794-3
  79. ↑ 80.00 80.01 80.02 80.03 80.04 80.05 80.06 80.07 80.08 80.09 80.10 80.11 80.12 80.13 80.14 File:CC-BY icon.svg Material was adapted from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License: mtDNA from the Early Bronze Age to the Roman Period Suggests a Genetic Link between the Indian Subcontinent and Mesopotamian Cradle of Civilization. PLOS ONE({Template:Date).
  80. ↑ 81.0 81.1 "The 1,500 Harappan cities and towns contained a total population of perhaps 5 million people at their zenith" in Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Cengage Learning(2014). ISBN 978-1-285-78312-3
  81. ↑ "The total urban population of Mesopotamia at 2500 B.C. had reached 290,000" The Recurring Dark Ages: Ecological Stress, Climate Changes, and System Transformation{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Rowman Altamira(2007). ISBN 978-0-7591-0452-5
  82. ↑ The Routledge Atlas of South Asian Affairs{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2015). ISBN 978-1-317-40511-5
  83. ↑ Tamil Merchant in Ancient Mesopotamia. PLOS ONE({Template:Date).
  84. ↑ The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Cambridge University Press(1999). ISBN 978-0-521-56496-0
  85. ↑ The Two Steles of Sargon: Iconology and Visual Propaganda at the Beginning of Royal Akkadian Relief. Iraq({Template:Date).
  86. ↑ 87.0 87.1 87.2 "The so-called Proto-Elamite script from sites such as Susa in the lowlands of eastern Mesopotamia, dating from around 3000 BCE, is undeciphered and technically similar to the Harappan script." The Global Prehistory of Human Migration{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. John Wiley & Sons(2014). ISBN 978-1-118-97058-4
  87. ↑ 88.0 88.1 The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Rowman Altamira(2002). ISBN 978-0-7591-0172-2
  88. ↑ The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(2015). ISBN 978-0-19-022693-0
  89. ↑ Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. ABC-CLIO(2005). ISBN 978-1-57607-965-2
  90. ↑ The Indus: Lost Civilizations{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Reaktion Books(2015). ISBN 978-1-78023-541-7
  91. ↑ Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. FeniXX réédition numérique(2016). ISBN 978-2-402-05246-7
  92. ↑ Asia: A Concise History{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. John Wiley & Sons(2011). ISBN 978-0-470-82959-2
  93. ↑ "However, the total urban population of Mesopotamia at 2500 B.C. had reached 290,000" The Recurring Dark Ages: Ecological Stress, Climate Changes, and System Transformation{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Rowman Altamira(2007). ISBN 978-0-7591-0452-5
  94. ↑ Vedicancient Mesopotamian Interconnections and the Dating of the Indian Tradition. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute({Template:Date).
  95. ↑ The Master of Animals in Old World Iconography: Master of Animals and Animal Masters in the Iconography of the Indus Tradition{{#if:Kenoyer|, Kenoyer}(2010). ISBN 978-963-9911-14-7
  96. ↑ Genome of nearly 5000-year-old woman links modern Indians to ancient civilization, Price, Michael. Science. AAAS(2019-09-05). Retrieved 2020-08-02.
  97. ↑ Palaeoenvironment and the Development of Early Settlements{{#if:Franke|, Franke}(January 2016). ISBN 978-3-86757-395-5
  98. ↑ Harappa Excavations 1986–1990 A Multidisciplinary Approach to Third Millennium Urbanism{{#if:Meadow|, Meadow}. Prehistory Press(1991)

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