Big tent

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A big-tent party, or catch-all party, is a political party having members covering a broad spectrum of beliefs.[1] This is in contrast to other kinds of parties, which defend a determined ideology, seek voters who adhere to that ideology, and attempt to convince people towards it.

Examples

Armenia

Following the 2018 Armenian parliamentary election, the My Step Alliance rose to power on an anti-corruption and pro-democracy platform. The alliance has been described as maintaining a big tent ideology, as the alliance did not support any one particular political position. Instead, it focused on strengthening Armenia's civil society and economic development.[2]

Australia

The Liberal Party of Australia and its predecessors originated as an alliance of liberals and conservatives in opposition to the Australian Labor Party, beginning with the Commonwealth Liberal Party in 1909. This ideological distinction has endured to the present day, with the modern Liberal Party frequently described as a "broad church", a term popularised by former leader and Prime Minister John Howard. In this context, "broad church" is largely synonymous with "big tent". In the 21st century, the party is often characterised as having a "small-l liberal" wing and a conservative wing, which frequently come into conflict with each other. The party has historically found strong support primarily from the middle-class, though it has in recent decades appealed to socially conservative working-class voters.[3][4]

Argentina

From its foundation the Justicialist Party has been a Peronist catch-all party, which focuses on the figure of Juan Perón and his wife Eva. Since Nestor Kirchner took the presidency in 2003, the party is considered as part of center-left coalition. It has divided into left-wing and right-wing factions, with left-wing populist Kirchnerists now dominating the party. Despite this, the right-wing faction still exists.

Juntos por el Cambio is an Argentine big tent political coalition. It was created in 2015 as Cambiemos. It is composed of Republican Proposal (centre-right), Civic Coalition ARI (centre) and Radical Civic Union (centre), with common goals to oppose Peronist parties. It is considered as part of center-right coalition.

Bangladesh

In Bangladesh Awami League's Grand Alliance (Bangladesh) and BNP's 20 Party Alliance forms coalition with a wide range of parties, thus being catch all parties.[5]

Brazil

In Brazil, the Centrão (Template:Literal translation) is a term for a large bloc of political parties that do not have a specific or consistent ideological orientation, and focus on negotiating support for the government in exchange for positions, resources, and political influence. These parties tend to form the parliamentary base of different administrations, shifting positions as needed, and play a decisive role in forming majorities in the National Congress.[6] The Brazilian Democratic Movement (MDB) is one of the oldest and most notable "Centrão" and Big Tent parties in Brazil; despite being Brazil's largest party, both in number of members and number of officials elected, it has never elected a President, but has used its position as the largest party as a "bargaining chip" for privileges and advantages.[7] MDB was founded in 1965 at the start of the Brazilian military dictatorship as part of an enforced two-party system by the dictatorship, in which the only allowed parties were National Renewal Alliance Party (ARENA), a catch-all party representing the interests of the dictatorship, and MDB, formed to represent a wide-range moderate and less radical opposition to the dictatorship, without a clear program except the democratization of the country.[8]

Brazil also has a number of minor parties known as "Template:Ill" (Template:Langx), or "dwarf parties" (Template:Langx), that generally have a "catch-all" alignment, with no electoral base of their own, existing primarily to negotiate political support, access to resources, or advertising time.[9]

Other Big Tent centrão parties include the Progressists (PP), Brazilian Labour Party (PTB), We Can (PODE), Brazil Union (UB), Social Democratic Party (PSD), Social Christian Party (PSC), Act (AGIR), Patriot (PATRI), Forward (AVANTE), Solidarity (SD).[10]

China

The Kuomintang (KMT), the ruling party of the Republic of China (1912–1949), operated as a catch-all party encompassing a wide ideological spectrum, from the "diehard Right" to the "pink Left." However, following its defeat in the Chinese Civil War and the Great Retreat in 1949, the KMT in Taiwan gradually transitioned into a more consolidated conservative right-wing party.[11]

Canada

At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two big tent parties practicing "brokerage politics."Template:Efn[12][13][14] Both the Liberal Party of Canada and the Conservative Party of Canada (and its predecessors) have attracted support from a broad spectrum of voters.[15][16][17] Although parties such as the Quebec nationalist Bloc Québécois have elected members to the House of Commons, far-right and far-left parties have never gained a prominent force in Canadian society and have never formed a government in the Canadian Parliament.[18][19][20]

Colombia

In Colombia, the presumed League of Anti-Corruption Governors, led by the former presidential candidate, sometimes referred to as "the Colombian Trump", has been described as a "catch-all party",[21] although analysts agree that it belongs to a more or less authoritarian right-wing. That is to say to a type of extreme right.[22][23]

Finland

The centre-right National Coalition Party has been described as catch-all party supporting the interests of the urban middle classes.[24]

France

The Renaissance party (formerly La République En Marche!) founded by President Emmanuel Macron has been described as a centrist party with a catch-all nature.[25]

Germany

Both the Christian Democratic Union of Germany/Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CDU/CSU) and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) are considered big tent or catch-all parties, known in German as Volksparteien ("people's parties").[26]

India

The Indian National Congress attracted support from Indians of all classes, castes and religions supportive of the Indian independence movement.[27] The Janata Party which came into power in India in 1977, was a catch-all party that consisted of people with different ideologies opposed to The Emergency.[28]

Ireland

Fine Gael and Fianna Fáil are considered catch-all parties and are supported by people from different social classes and political ideologies.[29] The two parties are usually described as being very similar in their current and recent policies, both being positioned on the centre-right with a liberal-conservative ideology. The reasons for their remaining separate are mainly historical, with those who supported the Anglo-Irish Treaty in the 1920s eventually becoming Fine Gael and those who opposed the treaty having joined Fianna Fáil to seek an independent Ireland.

Italy

In Italy, the Five Star Movement, founded and formerly led by the comedian and actor Beppe Grillo, has been described as a catch-all protest party and "post-ideological big tent" because its supporters do not share similar policy preferences, are split on major economic and social issues and are united largely based on "anti-establishment" sentiments.[30] The Five Star Movement's "successful campaign formula combined anti-establishment sentiments with an economic and political protest which extends beyond the boundaries of traditional political orientations", but its "'catch-all' formula" has limited its ability to become "a mature, functional, effective and coherent contender for government".[30]

Japan

The New Frontier Party, which existed from 1994 to 1997, was considered a big political party because it was created to oppose the LDP by people of various ideologies, including social democrats, liberals, neoliberals, Buddhist democrats, and conservatives.[31]

The former main centre-left opposition, the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ), was Japan's version of third way politics and served since the mid-1990s as a ‘big tent party’ for a plethora of heterogeneous groups ranging from two socialist parties to liberal and conservative groups.[32]

Mexico

The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) held power in Mexico for 71 uninterrupted years, from 1929 to 2000. It was founded after the Mexican Revolution by Mexican president Plutarco Elías Calles. Then known as the National Revolutionary Party, it was founded with the intent of providing a political space to allow all surviving leaders and combatants of the Mexican Revolution to participate and to resolve the grave political crisis that had been caused by the assassination of President-elect Álvaro Obregón in 1928. Throughout its nine-decade existence, the PRI has adopted a vast array of ideologies, which have often been determined by the president of the republic in office at the time. The party nationalized the petroleum industry in 1938 and the banking industry in 1982. In the 1980s, the party went through reforms that shaped its current incarnation, with policies characterized as centre-right, such as the privatization of state-run companies, closer relations with the Catholic Church, and embracing free-market capitalism and neoliberal policies.[33][34][35]

The National Regeneration Movement, founded by Andrés Manuel López Obrador, has often been described as a big-tent party because of the various constituents who joined its ranks during the 2018 Mexican general elections.[36][37] Juntos Hacemos Historia is a big-tent alliance led by the National Regeneration Movement that contested the 2021 Mexican legislative election.[38] The successor alliance, Sigamos Haciendo Historia, has been described by some political scientists as catch-all.[39]

The Ecologist Green Party of Mexico has often been described in terms of catch all politics. AP News describes it as a "strange political group" that almost always joins the governing party's coalition to maintain influence.[40] According to Muñoz Patraca, a professor of political science at UNAM, the PVEM is not a political party like other movements in favor of democratization, or economic or social struggles. Rather, the party serves, in name only, to concerns about the environment - escaping the traditional left-right ideological axis.[41] Miguel Angel Toro, the Director of the Bachelor's Degree in Government and Public Transformation at Tecnológico de Monterrey, describes the party as a "party that has no ideology... It’s been with parties who are on the right, center, and the left.” Critically, Toro says, “the big parties overestimate the votes the Partido Verde can bring in, so the party always ends up with more seats than they would have gotten. That gives the Green Party more life than it should have.” [42]

Portugal

The centre-left Socialist Party (PS) and centre-right Social Democratic Party (PSD) have been described as catch-all parties.[43]

Romania

Romania's Social Democratic Party has been referred to as a catch-all party. Political analyst Radu Magdin described it in December 2016 as having conservative values, while being economically liberal, and espousing left-leaning rhetoric on public policies.[44]

Spain

Citizens (Spanish: Ciudadanos) has been considered as an example of astroturfing in the Spanish media since 2015. Originally founded as a social-democratic regional party opposed to Catalan nationalism, the party switched to a catch-all message to attract votes from the right to the moderate left in the party's appearance in the national political landscape. Its stance includes a mix of liberalism and pro-Europeanism, but the party has also embraced populist views on the legitimacy of its political opponents; conservative views on topics such as the criminal system and personal property and Spanish nationalist positions. It has become one of the most recognisable catch-all parties in the history of the country. In the mid-2010s, however, the party's main ideology is perceived to have drifted towards the right, with Albert Rivera admitting that it would not agree to form a coalition with the two main centre-left and left parties after the April 2019 Spanish general election, regardless of the results.[45][46][47] Furthermore, some commentators argue that Ciudadanos was attempting to supplant the People's Party, which suffered massive losses as the hegemonic party of the right and thus contributed to the shift in Ciudadanos to the right. Similarly, Ciudadanos has allied with both the conservative People's Party and the far-right Vox to achieve coalitions in regional parliaments. That has given rise to the expression "the three rights" or colloquially "El Trifachito" to describe the grouping, which defines its opposition as "the left".

South Africa

The African National Congress (ANC) has been the governing party of South Africa since the country's first democratic election, in 1994, and it has been described by the media as a "big tent" party.[48][49][50][51] An important aspect of its electoral success has been its ability to include a diverse range of political groups most notably in the form of the Tripartite Alliance between the ANC; the South African Communist Party; and the country's largest trade union, COSATU.[49] Additional interest groups in the party are members of the business community and traditional leaders.

United Kingdom

When Gordon Brown became the prime minister of the United Kingdom in 2007, he invited several members from outside the Labour Party into his government. They included former CBI Director-General Digby Jones who became a Minister of State and former Liberal Democrats leader Paddy Ashdown who was offered the position of Northern Ireland Secretary (Ashdown turned down the offer).[52][53] The media often referred to Brown's ministry as "a government of all the talents" or simply "Brown's big tent".[54]

All for Unity was a big tent anti-SNP electoral alliance that contested the 2021 Scottish Parliament election but failed to win any seats.[55]

United States

The Democratic Party was a "big-tent" party during the New Deal coalition, which was formed to support President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal policies from the 1930s to the 1960s.[56] The coalition brought together labor unions, working-class voters, lower-middle class voters, farm organizations, secular liberals, Southern Democrats, African Americans, urban voters, and immigrants.[57][58]

After the 1974 Dallas Accord, the Libertarian Party embraced the big-tent idea to the extent it ensured that the anarcho-capitalist views would not be excluded from the majority minarchist party.[59]

The Libertarian Socialist Caucus of the Democratic Socialists of America identifies DSA as a "big tent" organization amongst the American left, as individual members are aligned with a wide range of socialist ideologies, including social democracy, democratic socialism, the democratic road to socialism, Trotskyism, Marxism–Leninism, and anarchism.[60]

Other examples

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See also

Notes

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References

  1. ↑ Definition of "big tent" in English. oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 2 May 2017.
  2. ↑ Armenian snap elections seen as the final chapter of the Velvet Revolution. Europe Elects(December 4, 2018). Retrieved 2019-10-25.
  3. ↑ Divergent views vital to Howard's broad church(22 March 2005).
  4. ↑ Can the Liberal Party hold its 'broad church' of liberals and conservatives together?(10 April 2018).
  5. ↑ OP-ED: How the house of cards came crashing down(2021-04-08).
  6. ↑ Centrão vive quarta encarnação, agora restrito ao fisiologismo(2018-07-29).
  7. ↑ PMDB volta a se chamar MDB: retorno ao passado para aplacar crise de imagem, Benites, Talita Bedinelli, Afonso. El País Brasil(2017-12-19). Retrieved 2022-09-24.
  8. ↑ Partidos políticos, Deak, Andre. Memórias da ditadura(2014-11-12). Retrieved 2022-09-24.
  9. ↑ Fim da coligação e partido de aluguel | Gazeta Digital. Fim da coligação e partido de aluguel | Gazeta Digital. Retrieved 2025-10-07.
  10. ↑ O que é o poderoso centrão, que pode definir o sucessor de Cunha. BBC News Brasil. Retrieved 2022-09-24.
  11. ↑ GENERALS OUTBID CHINESE LIBERALS; Their Military Success Makes Compromise Less Likely. The New York Times(6 October 1946). Retrieved 3 February 2026.
  12. ↑ Canadian Democracy: An Introduction{{#if:Brooks|, Brooks}. Oxford University Press(2004). ISBN 978-0-19-541806-4
  13. ↑ Thinking Government: Public Administration and Politics in Canada, Fourth Edition{{#if:Johnson|, Johnson}. University of Toronto Press(2016). ISBN 978-1-4426-3521-0
  14. ↑ Parties, Polarization and Democracy in the United States{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Taylor & Francis(2015). ISBN 978-1-317-25478-2
  15. ↑ Group Politics and Social Movements in Canada: Second Edition{{#if:Smith|, Smith}. University of Toronto Press(2014). ISBN 978-1-4426-0695-1
  16. ↑ Plurality-Majority Electoral Systems: A Review. Elections Canada.
  17. ↑ The Canadian Environment in Political Context{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. University of Toronto Press(2015). ISBN 978-1-4426-0871-9
  18. ↑ Canadian Multiculturalism and the Absence of the Far Right. Nationalism and Ethnic Politics({Template:Year).
  19. ↑ Canada's Secret to Resisting the West's Populist Wave. The New York Times.
  20. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named MarlandGiasson2012
  21. ↑ Elecciones presidenciales en Colombia: la hora de la esperanza. Facultad de Periodismo y Comunicación Social - UNLP(2022-05-31). Retrieved 2023-05-13.
  22. ↑ La Justicia obliga a Rodolfo Hernández a debatir con Gustavo Petro ante el balotaje en Colombia(2022-06-15). Retrieved 2023-06-29.
  23. ↑ Colombia's Hernandez is offering a passive revolution from above, Schneider, Aaron. www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2023-06-30.
  24. ↑ Parties, Governments and Voters in Finland: Politics Under Fundamental Societal Transformation{{#if:Karvonen|, Karvonen}. ECPR Press(2014). ISBN 978-1-910259-33-7
  25. ↑ Why the Left Loses: The Decline of the Centre-Left in Comparative Perspective{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Policy Press(2017). ISBN 978-1-4473-3269-5
  26. ↑ Europeanisation and Party Politics: How the EU affects Domestic Actors, Patterns and Systems{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. ECPR Press(2014). ISBN 978-1-907301-84-1
  27. ↑ Pax Ethnica: Where and How Diversity Succeeds{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. PublicAffairs(2012). ISBN 9781610390484
  28. ↑ Political Parties - NCERT. National Council of Educational Research and Training. Retrieved 8 May 2021.
  29. ↑ Politics in the Republic of Ireland: Sixth Edition{{#if:Weeks|, Weeks}. Taylor & Francis(2018). ISBN 978-1-317-31269-7
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Valentina Romei, Five Star Movement: the protest party explained in charts: Direct democracy and rejection of binary politics brings success but stunts maturity, Financial Times (January 10, 2017).
  31. ↑ Party Politics in Japan: Political Chaos and Stalemate in the 21st Century{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2014). ISBN 9781317745976
  32. ↑ How Japan's Left is repeating its unfortunate history. International Politics & Society Journal(25 November 2020). Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  33. ↑ Meade, the King of the Mexican Sandwich. El Universal(January 11, 2018).
  34. ↑ Class and Race Formation in North America{{#if:Russell|, Russell}. University of Toronto Press(2009). ISBN 978-0-8020-9678-4
  35. ↑ Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, and Institutions in a Changing Global Order{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Cambridge University Press(July 21, 2014). ISBN 9781139991384
  36. ↑ Mexico 2018: How AMLO Took a Page from the PRI Playbook, Schettino, Macario(6 June 2018). Retrieved 18 September 2018.
  37. ↑ Mexican leftist's 'big tent' pitch puts presidency in sight, Graham, Dave(20 March 2018). Retrieved 18 September 2018.
  38. ↑ Morena, PT y PVEM presentan alianza 'Juntos hacemos historia' para elecciones de 2021. El Financiero(December 24, 2020). Retrieved 2021-02-22.
  39. ↑ Ideología de Morena y coalición Sigamos Haciendo Historia: cuál es, Almaraz, Karina. Telediario México(2024-05-28). Retrieved 2025-02-13.
  40. ↑ Mexico's small, oft-questioned Green Party to become the second-largest force in Congress. AP News(2024-06-14). Retrieved 2025-02-13.
  41. ↑ Tendencias Organizacionales y Democracia Interna en Los Partidos Políticos en México: Los Casos Del PAN, PRI, PRD, PT, PVEM, MC y MORENA{{#if:Espejel Espinoza|, Espejel Espinoza}. Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Instituto de Investigaciones sobre la Universidad y la Educacion(2022). ISBN 978-607-30-5637-3
  42. ↑ Green Like AstroTurf—or Dollars. Slate(2021-06-30). Retrieved 2025-02-13.
  43. ↑ The Selection of Political Party Leaders in Contemporary Parliamentary Democracies: A Comparative Study{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2014). ISBN 978-1-317-92945-1
  44. ↑ Pragmatism is a winner for Romanian Left. Politico(13 December 2016). Retrieved 20 May 2023.
  45. ↑ ¿Ciudadanos es de izquierdas o de derechas?(2015-05-15). Retrieved 2019-04-25.
  46. ↑ Albert Rivera: "No vamos a pactar con el PSOE ni con Sánchez, les echaremos y punto"(2019-03-03). Retrieved 2019-04-25.
  47. ↑ ¿Se va Ciudadanos a la derecha? Sí, pero quizás no tanto. Retrieved 2019-04-25.
  48. ↑ 2019 Elections - ANALYSIS: Curiouser and Curiouser – the strange case of the 2019 elections, Grootes, Stephen. Daily Maverick(May 5, 2019). Retrieved 2019-11-09.
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 A Political Opening in South Africa. Council on Foreign Relations(July 18, 2017). Retrieved 2019-11-09.
  50. ↑ South Africa's Third Way revival, Shoki, William. africasacountry.com(April 2019). Retrieved 2019-11-09.
  51. ↑ ANC stability shakes SA's economic future, Herskovitz, Jon. The M&G Online(September 15, 2010). Retrieved 2019-11-09.
  52. ↑ In full: Brown's government. BBC News(June 29, 2007).
  53. ↑ The fallout from Brown's job offer. BBC News(June 21, 2007).
  54. ↑ First 100 days: Gordon Brown. BBC News(October 5, 2007).
  55. ↑ Galloway's bid to form united front to save Union shunned. The Times. Retrieved 2021-03-28.
  56. ↑ Why People Don't Trust Government{{#if:King|, King}. Harvard University Press(1997)
  57. ↑ Feminists and Party Politics{{#if:Young|, Young}. University of Michigan Press(2000)
  58. ↑ Template:Cite encyclopedia
  59. ↑ The conservative movement: Social movements past and present{{#if:Gottfried|, Gottfried}. Twayne(1993)
  60. ↑ A Guide to DSA Politics. Democratic Socialists of America's Libertarian Socialist Caucus(2025-01-31). Retrieved 2025-10-24.
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 The CDU and the Politics of Gender in Germany: Bringing Women to the Party{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Cambridge University Press(16 August 2010). ISBN 978-1-139-49116-7
  62. ↑ Dilma Rousseff and Brazil face up to decisive month. BBC News(March 29, 2016). Retrieved 27 August 2017.
  63. ↑ The Politics of Italy: Governance in a Normal Country{{#if:Newell|, Newell}. Cambridge University Press(28 January 2010). ISBN 978-0-521-84070-5
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Europeanisation and Party Politics: How the EU affects Domestic Actors, Patterns and Systems{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. ECPR Press(2014). ISBN 978-1-907301-84-1
  65. ↑ Central and East European Politics: From Communism to Democracy{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Rowman & Littlefield(2011). ISBN 978-0-7425-6734-4
  66. ↑ Growth to Limits: Germany, United Kingdom, Ireland, Italy{{#if:Maguire|, Maguire}. Walter de Gruyter(1986). ISBN 978-3-11-011131-6
  67. ↑ Contemporary Ireland{{#if:O'Malley|, O'Malley}. Palgrave Macmillan(2011). ISBN 978-0-230-34382-5Template:Dead link
  68. ↑ The Georgian succession(July 2013).
  69. ↑ Comparative Politics: Structures and Choices{{#if:Barrington|, Barrington}. Cengage Learning(2009). ISBN 978-0-618-49319-7
  70. ↑ Template:Cite thesis
  71. ↑ Why the Left Loses: The Decline of the Centre-Left in Comparative Perspective{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Policy Press(2017). ISBN 978-1-4473-3269-5
  72. ↑ Législatives : "Le parti d'Emmanuel Macron a un caractère attrape-tout". Les Inrocks(June 9, 2017).
  73. ↑ Japan's International Relations: Politics, Economics and Security{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2001). ISBN 978-1-134-32806-2
  74. ↑ Parties, Governments and Voters in Finland: Politics Under Fundamental Societal Transformation{{#if:Karvonen|, Karvonen}. ECPR Press(2014). ISBN 978-1-910259-33-7
  75. ↑ Morena no está institucionalizado; "cacha" de todos lados: politólogo Ibero(2018-01-21).
  76. ↑ El Salvador: "The President's Aim is to Concentrate Power"(22 September 2021). Retrieved 1 October 2023.
  77. ↑ Biopolitics, Militarism, and Development: Eritrea in the Twenty-First Century. Berghahn Books.
  78. ↑ Party Members and Activists{{#if:Cross|, Cross}. Routledge(2015). ISBN 978-1-317-52432-8
  79. ↑ Armenian Elections: Technology vs. Ideology. Caucasus Analytical Digest({Template:Date).
  80. ↑ David Torrance, "Scotland's Progressive Dilemma," The Political Quarterly, 88 (2017): 52–59. doi:10.1111/1467-923X.12319.
  81. ↑ Alex Salmond's big tent bulges as Tommy Sheridan lends voteless support. The Guardian(25 April 2011). Retrieved 26 April 2020.
  82. ↑ Serbian Compliance Patterns towards EU Integration under the Progressive Party: An Exercise in Statecraft. Retrieved 13 December 2018.
  83. ↑ Party Responses to the EU in the Western Balkans: Transformation, Opposition or Defiance?{{#if:Stojić|, Stojić}. Springer(2017)
  84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 The Selection of Political Party Leaders in Contemporary Parliamentary Democracies: A Comparative Study{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2014). ISBN 978-1-317-92945-1
  85. ↑ Southern European Socialism: Parties, Elections, and the Challenge of Government{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Manchester University Press(1989). ISBN 978-0-7190-2500-6
  86. ↑ Tolerance Through Law: Self Governance and Group Rights In South Tyrol{{#if:Pallaver|, Pallaver}. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers(2008). ISBN 978-90-04-16302-7
  87. ↑ Minority Rules: Electoral Systems, Decentralization, and Ethnoregional Party Success{{#if:Lublin|, Lublin}. Oxford University Press(2014). ISBN 978-0-19-994884-0
  88. ↑ 88.0 88.1 Junts pel Sí (Together for Yes): "We are all in, we've reached the end of the line". Ara(2015-07-21).
  89. ↑ Russia's Changing Economic and Political Regimes: The Putin Years and Afterwards{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(2013). ISBN 978-1-135-00695-2
  90. ↑ Dictionary of the Modern Politics of Southeast Asia{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Routledge(20 November 2014). ISBN 978-1-317-62233-8
  91. ↑ New Pakatan Harapan coalition formed. Astro Awani(22 September 2015). Retrieved 23 September 2015.
  92. ↑ Malaysia's opposition forms Pakatan Harapan alliance. The Straits Times(23 September 2015). Retrieved 23 September 2015.
  93. ↑ Persatuan Perikatan Parti Malaysia (PPPM) telah menjadi Gabungan rasmi politik yang dikenali sebagai Parti Perikatan Nasional (PN), PN Official, Leadership. Gabungan Perikatan Nasional(2020-03-23). Retrieved 2020-03-23.
  94. ↑ ROS: Pakatan can register as a single party. Malaysiakini(8 October 2009). Retrieved 8 October 2009.
  95. ↑ Jeffrey Kitingan forms United Borneo Front to get more for Sabah, Sarawak(16 December 2010). Retrieved 23 April 2018.
  96. ↑ Opposition parties form United Sabah Alliance. Daily Express(10 March 2015). Retrieved 12 April 2018.
  97. ↑ Sabah BN coalition to be disbanded to pave way for Gabungan Bersatu. New Straits Times(12 May 2018). Retrieved 13 May 2018.
  98. ↑ RoS approves registration of Gabungan Rakyat Sabah, says Hajiji. malaymail(11 March 2022). Retrieved 13 March 2022.
  99. ↑ 'GRS stronger now as a fully local party'. Daily Express(18 December 2022). Retrieved 21 December 2022.
  100. ↑ Sarawak BN parties pull out of coalition to form independent state-based pact(12 June 2018). Retrieved 12 June 2018.
  101. ↑ Dr M announces new coalition of four parties, Gerakan Tanah Air. New Straits Times(August 4, 2022). Retrieved 5 August 2022.
  102. ↑ Sabah Dream Party can be recognized as dominant party in Sabah
  103. ↑ The White Russian Army in Exile 1920-1941{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(2002). ISBN 978-0-19-925021-9
  104. ↑ In the Wake of Empire.

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