Jats

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Template:Infobox ethnic group The Jat people ((Template:IPA-pa), (Template:IPA-hi)) are a traditionally agricultural community in Northern India and Pakistan.[1][2][3][lower-alpha 1][lower-alpha 2][lower-alpha 3] Originally pastoralists in the lower Indus river-valley of Sindh, Jats migrated north into the Punjab region in late medieval times, and subsequently into the Delhi Territory, northeastern Rajputana, and the western Gangetic Plain in the 17th and 18th centuries.[7][8][9] Of Muslim, Sikh, and Hindu faiths, they are now found mostly in the Pakistani provinces of Sindh and Punjab and the Indian states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan.

The Jats took up arms against the Mughal Empire during the late 17th and early 18th centuries.[10] The community played an important role in the development of the martial Khalsa panth of Sikhism.[11] The Hindu Jat kingdom reached its zenith under Maharaja Suraj Mal (1707–1763).[12] By the 20th century, the landowning Jats became an influential group in several parts of North India, including Punjab,[13] Western Uttar Pradesh,[14] Rajasthan,[15] Haryana and Delhi.[16] Over the years, several Jats abandoned agriculture in favour of urban jobs, and used their dominant economic and political status to claim higher social status.[17]

History

Jat Zamindars Hindoos Rajpootana 1874

The Jats are a paradigmatic example of community- and identity-formation in early modern Indian subcontinent.[7] "Jat" is an elastic label applied to a wide-ranging community[18][19] from simple landowning peasants [lower-alpha 4][lower-alpha 5][lower-alpha 6][20][21]Template:Efn to wealthy and influential Zamindars.[22][23][24][25][26]

By the time of Muhammad bin Qasim's conquest of Sind in the eighth century, Arab writers described agglomerations of Jats in the arid, the wet, and the mountainous regions of the conquered land of Sindh.[27] The Arab rulers, though professing a theologically egalitarian religion, maintained the position of Jats and the discriminatory practices against them that had been put in place in the long period of Hindu rule in Sind.[28] Between the eleventh and the sixteenth centuries, Jat herders at the Sind migrated up along the river valleys,[29] into the Punjab,[7] which may have been largely uncultivated in the first millennium.[30] Many took up tilling in regions such as Western Punjab, where the sakia (water wheel) had been recently introduced.[7][31] By early Mughal times, in the Punjab, the term "Jat" had become loosely synonymous with "peasant",[32] and some Jats had come to own land and exert local influence.[7] The Jats had their origins in pastoralism in the Indus valley, and gradually became agriculturalist farmers.[33] Around 1595, Jat Zamindars controlled a little over 32% of the Zamindaris in the Punjab region.[34]

According to historians Catherine Asher and Cynthia Talbot,[35] Template:Blockquote Over time the Jats became primarily Muslim in the western Punjab, Sikh in the eastern Punjab, and Hindu in the areas between Delhi Territory and Agra, with the divisions by faith reflecting the geographical strengths of these religions.[35] During the decline of Mughal rule in the early 18th century, the Indian subcontinent's hinterland dwellers, many of whom were armed and nomadic, increasingly interacted with settled townspeople and agriculturists. Many new rulers of the 18th century came from such martial and nomadic backgrounds. The effect of this interaction on India's social organization lasted well into the colonial period. During much of this time, non-elite tillers and pastoralists, such as the Jats, were part of a social spectrum that blended only indistinctly into the elite landowning classes at one end, and the menial or ritually polluting classes at the other.[36] During the heyday of Mughal rule, Jats had recognized rights. According to Barbara D. Metcalf and Thomas R. Metcalf: Template:Blockquote

Jat Sikh of the "Sindhoo" clan, Lahore, 1872

As the Mughal empire faltered, there were a series of rural rebellions in North India.[37] Although these had sometimes been characterized as "peasant rebellions", others, such as Muzaffar Alam, have pointed out that small local landholders, or zemindars, often led these uprisings.[37] The Sikh and Jat rebellions were led by such small local zemindars, who had close association and family connections with each other and with the peasants under them, and who were often armed.[38]

These communities of rising peasant-warriors were not well-established Indian castes,[39] but rather quite new, without fixed status categories, and with the ability to absorb older peasant castes, sundry warlords, and nomadic groups on the fringes of settled agriculture.[38][40] The Mughal Empire, even at the zenith of its power, functioned by devolving authority and never had direct control over its rural grandees.[38] It was these zemindars who gained most from these rebellions, increasing the land under their control.[38] The triumphant even attained the ranks of minor princes, such as the Jat ruler Badan Singh of the princely state of Bharatpur.[38]

Hindu Jats

The Hindu Jat Maharaja of Bharatpur, 1882

In 1669, the Hindu Jats, under the leadership of Gokula, rebelled against the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Mathura.[41] The community came to predominate south and east of Delhi after 1710.[42] According to historian Christopher Bayly Template:Blockquote

The Jats had moved into the Gangetic Plain in two large migrations, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries respectively.[42] They were not a caste in the usual Hindu sense, for example, in which Bhumihars of the eastern Gangetic plain were; rather they were an umbrella group of peasant-warriors.[42] According to Christopher Bayly: Template:Blockquote

By the mid-eighteenth century, the ruler of the recently established Jat kingdom of Bharatpur, Raja Surajmal, felt sanguine enough about durability to build a garden palace at nearby Deeg.[43] According to historian, Eric Stokes, Template:Blockquote Template:Gallery

Muslim Jats

Template:Main

A Jutt (Jat) Muslim camel-driver from Sind, 1872

When Arabs entered Sindh and other Southern regions of current Pakistan in the seventh century, the chief tribal groupings they found were the Jats and the Med people. These Jats are often referred as Zatts in early Arab writings. The Muslim conquest chronicles further point at the important concentrations of Jats in towns and fortresses of Lower and Central Sindh.[44][45] Today, Muslim Jats are found in Pakistan and India.[46]

Sikh Jats

Template:Main

The Sikh Jat Maharaja of Patiala, 1898

While followers important to Sikh tradition like Baba Buddha were among the earliest significant historical Sikh figures, and significant numbers of conversions occurred as early as the time of Guru Angad (1504–1552),[47] the first large-scale conversions of Jats is commonly held to have begun during the time of Guru Arjan (1563–1606).[47][48]Template:Rp While touring the countryside of eastern Punjab, he founded several important towns like Tarn Taran Sahib, Kartarpur, and Hargobindpur which functioned as social and economic hubs, and together with the community-funded completion of the Darbar Sahib to house the Guru Granth Sahib and serve as a rallying point and center for Sikh activity, established the beginnings of a self-contained Sikh community, which was especially swelled with the region's Jat peasantry.[47] They formed the vanguard of Sikh resistance against the Mughal Empire from the 18th century onwards.

It has been postulated, though inconclusively, that the increased militarization of the Sikh panth following the martyrdom of Guru Arjan (beginning during the era of Guru Hargobind and continuing after) and its large Jat presence may have reciprocally influenced each other.[49]Template:Full citation neededTemplate:Sfn

At least eight of the 12 Sikh Misls (Sikh confederacies) were led by Jat Sikhs,[50] who would form the vast majority of Sikh chiefs.[51]

According to censuses in gazetteers published during the colonial period in the early 20th century, further waves of Jat conversions, from Hinduism to Sikhism, continued during the preceding decades.[52][53] Writing about the Jats of Punjab, the Sikh author, Khushwant Singh opined that their attitude never allowed themselves to be absorbed in the Brahminic fold :Template:Blockquote

In Punjab, the states of Patiala,[54] Faridkot, Jind, and Nabha[55] were ruled by the Sikh Jats.

Demographics

According to anthropologist Sunil K. Khanna, Jat population is estimated to be around 30 million (or 3 crore) in South Asia in 2010. This estimation is based on statistics of the last caste census and the population growth of the region. The last caste census was conducted in 1931, which estimated Jats to be 8 million, mostly concentrated in India and Pakistan.[56] Deryck O. Lodrick estimates Jat population to be over 33 million (around 12 million and over 21 million in India and Pakistan, respectively) in South Asia in 2009 while noting the unavailability of precise statistics in this regard. His estimation is based on a late 1980s population projection of Jats and the population growth of India and Pakistan. He also notes that some estimates put their total population in South Asia at approximately 43 million in 2009. His religion-wise break-up of Jats is as follows: 47% Hindus, 33% Muslims, and 20% Sikhs.[57]

Republic of India

File:CharanSinghRedFortDelhi15August1979.JPG
Chaudhary Charan Singh, the first Jat Prime Minister of India, accompanied by his wife, on his way to address the nation at the Red Fort, Delhi, Independence Day, 15 August 1979.

In India, multiple 21st-century estimates put Jats' population share at 20–25% in Haryana state and at 20–35% in Punjab state.[58][59][60] In Rajasthan, Delhi, and Uttar Pradesh, they constitute around 9%, 5%, and 1.2% respectively of the total population.[61][62][63]

In the 20th century and more recently, Jats have dominated as the political class in Haryana[64] and Punjab.[65] Some Jat people have become notable political leaders, including the sixth Prime Minister of India, Charan Singh[66] and the sixth Deputy Prime Minister of India, Chaudhary Devi Lal.[67]

Consolidation of economic gains and participation in the electoral process are two visible outcomes of the post-independence situation. Through this participation they have been able to significantly influence the politics of North India. Economic differentiation, migration and mobility could be clearly noticed amongst the Jat people.[68]

Jats are classified as Other Backward Class (OBC) in seven of India's thirty-six States and UTs, namely Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.[69] However, only the Jats of Rajasthan – excluding those of Bharatpur district and Dholpur district – are entitled to reservation of central government jobs under the OBC reservation.[70] In 2016, the Jats of Haryana organized massive protests demanding to be classified as OBC in order to obtain such affirmative action benefits.[69]

Pakistan

Template:See also Many Jat Muslim people live in Pakistan and have dominant roles in public life in the Pakistani Punjab and Pakistan in general. Jat communities also exist in Pakistani-administered Kashmir, in Sindh, particularly the Indus delta and among Seraiki-speaking communities in southern Pakistani Punjab, the Kachhi region of Balochistan and the Dera Ismail Khan District of the North West Frontier Province.

In Pakistan also, Jat people have become notable political leaders, like Hina Rabbani Khar.[71]

Culture and society

Military

Template:See also

File:14th Murrays Jat Lancers (Risaldar Major) by AC Lovett (1862-1919).jpg
14th Murrays Jat Lancers (Risaldar Major) by AC Lovett (1862–1919).jpg
File:The Jat Regiment marching contingents passes through the Rajpath during the 66th Republic Day Parade 2015, in New Delhi on January 26, 2015.jpg
A contingent of the Jat Regiment of Indian Army, during the Republic day parade

Many Jat people serve in the Indian Army, including the Jat Regiment, Sikh Regiment, Rajputana Rifles and the Grenadiers, where they have won many of the highest military awards for gallantry and bravery. Jat people also serve in the Pakistan Army especially in the Punjab Regiment.[72]

The Jat people were designated by officials of the British Raj as a "martial race", which meant that they were one of the groups whom the British favoured for recruitment to the British Indian Army.[73][74] This was a designation created by administrators that classified each ethnic group as either "martial" or "non-martial": a "martial race" was typically considered brave and well built for fighting,[75] whilst the remainder were those whom the British believed to be unfit for battle because of their sedentary lifestyles.[76] However, the martial races were also considered politically subservient, intellectually inferior, lacking the initiative or leadership qualities to command large military formations. The British had a policy of recruiting the martial Indians from those who has less access to education as they were easier to control.[77][78] According to modern historian Jeffrey Greenhunt on military history, "The Martial Race theory had an elegant symmetry. Indians who were intelligent and educated were defined as cowards, while those defined as brave were uneducated and backward". According to Amiya Samanta, the marital race was chosen from people of mercenary spirit (a soldier who fights for any group or country that will pay him/her), as these groups lacked nationalism as a trait.[79] The Jats participated in both World War I and World War II, as a part of the British Indian Army.[80] In the period subsequent to 1881, when the British reversed their prior anti-Sikh policies, it was necessary to profess Sikhism in order to be recruited to the army because the administration believed Hindus to be inferior for military purposes.[81]

The Indian Army admitted in 2013 that the 150-strong Presidential Bodyguard comprises only people who are Hindu Jats, Jat Sikhs and Hindu Rajputs. Refuting claims of discrimination, it said that this was for "functional" reasons rather than selection based on caste or religion.[82]

Religious beliefs

Template:See also Deryck O. Lodrick estimates religion-wise break-up of Jats as follows: 47% Hindus, 33% Muslims, and 20% Sikhs.[57]

Jats pray to their dead ancestors, a practice which is called Jathera.[83]

Varna status

There are conflicting scholarly views regarding the varna status of Jats in Hinduism. Some sources state that Jats are regarded as Kshatriyas, while others assign Vaishya or Shudra varna to them.Template:Citation needed According to the political scientist Shailendra Sharma, cultivating castes such as Jat and the Bhumihar in Uttar Pradesh and Haryana are of "upper shudra status".[84] According to the Indian Anthropologist Indera Paul Singh, Brahmins demoted the varna status of Jats from Kshatriya to Sat Shudra (clean Shudra) in the Vedic period for challenging the authority of Brahmins.[85] According to Irfan Habib, Jats were a "pastoral Chandala-like tribe" in Sindh during the eighth century. Their 11th-century status of Shudra varna changed to Vaishya varna by the 17th century, with some of them aspiring to improve it further after their 17th-century rebellion against the Mughals.[86]

The Rajputs refused to accept Jat claims to Kshatriya status during the later years of the British Raj and this disagreement frequently resulted in violent incidents between the two communities.[87] The claim at that time of Kshatriya status was being made by the Arya Samaj, which was popular in the Jat community. The Arya Samaj saw it as a means to counter the colonial belief that the Jats were not of Aryan descent but of Indo-Scythian origin.[88]

Female infanticide & status of woman in society

During colonial period, many communities including Hindu Jats were found to be practicing female infanticide in different regions of Northern India.[89][90]

In Jat society, it has been observed that differential treatment is given to woman in comparison to man, birth of a male child in a family is celebrated and is considered as auspicious over the birth of a girl child where the family affair is subdued. In villages, female members are supposed to get married at a younger age and they are expected to work in fields as subordinate to the male members. There is general bias against education for the girl child in the society though the trends to it are changing with urbanisation. Purdah system is practiced by women in Jat villages which act as hindrance to their overall emancipation. The village Jat councils which are male-dominated mostly don't allow female members to head their councils as the common opinion on it is that women are inferior, incapable and less intelligent to men.[91]

Clan system

The Jat people are subdivided into numerous clans, some of which overlap with other groups.[92] Hindu and Sikh Jats practice clan exogamy.[93]

List of clans

Template:Div col

Template:Div col end

Jats are part of Punjabi and Haryanvi culture and are often portrayed in Indian and Pakistani films and songs.

Notable people

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See also

Footnotes

Template:Notelist

References

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  2. ↑ Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction{{#if:Nesbitt|, Nesbitt}. Oxford University Press(2016). ISBN 978-0-19-874557-0
  3. ↑ Sikhs, Swamis, Students and Spies: The India Lobby in the United States, 1900–1946{{#if:Gould|, Gould}. SAGE Publications(2006). ISBN 978-0-7619-3480-6
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age{{#if:Bayly|, Bayly}. Cambridge University Press(2001). ISBN 978-0-521-79842-6
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age{{#if:Bayly|, Bayly}. Cambridge University Press(2001). ISBN 978-0-521-79842-6
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age{{#if:Bayly|, Bayly}. Cambridge University Press(2001). ISBN 978-0-521-79842-6
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 India before Europe{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Cambridge University Press(2006). ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7
  8. ↑ Nomads in the Sedentary World. Routledge. Quote: "Hiuen Tsang gave the following account of a numerous pastoral-nomadic population in seventh-century Sin-ti (Sind): 'By the side of the river..[of Sind], along the flat marshy lowlands for some thousand li, there are several hundreds of thousands [a very great many] families ..[which] give themselves exclusively to tending cattle and from this derive their livelihood. They have no masters, and whether men or women, have neither rich nor poor.' While they were left unnamed by the Chinese pilgrim, these same people of lower Sind were called Jats' or 'Jats of the wastes' by the Arab geographers. The Jats, as 'dromedary men.' were one of the chief pastoral-nomadic divisions at that time, with numerous subdivisions, ....
  9. ↑ Indo-Islamic society: 14th – 15th centuries. BRILL. Quote: "In Sind, the breeding and grazing of sheep and buffaloes was the regular occupations of pastoral nomads in the lower country of the south, while the breeding of goats and camels was the dominant activity in the regions immediately to the east of the Kirthar range and between Multan and Mansura. The jats were one of the chief pastoral-nomadic divisions here in early-medieval times, and although some of these migrated as far as Iraq, they generally did not move over very long distances on a regular basis. Many jats migrated to the north, into the Panjab, and here, between the eleventh and sixteenth centuries, the once largely pastoral-nomadic Jat population was transformed into sedentary peasants. Some Jats continued to live in the thinly populated barr country between the five rivers of the Panjab, adopting a kind of transhumance, based on the herding of goats and camels. It seems that what happened to the jats is paradigmatic of most other pastoral and pastoral-nomadic populations in India in the sense that they became ever more closed in by an expanding sedentary-agricultural realm."
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  28. ↑ The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge University Press. Quote: "... Nor can the liberation that the Muslim conquerors offered to those who sought to escape from the caste system be taken for granted. … a caliphal governor of Sind in the late 830s is said to have … (continued the previous Hindu requirement that) … the Jats, when walking out of doors in future, to be accompanied by a dog. The fact that the dog is an unclean animal to both Hindu and Muslim made it easy for the Muslim conquerors to retain the status quo regarding a low-caste tribe. In other words, the new regime in the eighth and ninth centuries did not abrogate discriminatory regulations dating from a period of Hindu sovereignty; rather, it maintained them. (page 15)"
  29. ↑ The Sikhs of the Punjab. Cambridge University Press. Quote: "... the most numerous of the agricultural tribes (in the Punjab) were the Jats. They had come from Sindh and Rajasthan along the river valleys, moving up, displacing the Gujjars and the Rajputs to occupy culturable lands. (page 5)"
  30. ↑ An agrarian history of South Asia. Cambridge University Press. Quote: "The flatlands in the upper Punjab doabs do not seem to have been heavily farmed in the first millennium. … Early-medieval dry farming developed in Sindh, around Multan, and in Rajasthan… From here, Jat farmers seem to have moved into the upper Punjab doabs and into the western Ganga basin in the first half of the second millennium. (page 117)"
  31. ↑ Sufi saints and state power: the pirs of Sind, 1843–1947{{#if:Ansari|, Ansari}. Cambridge University Press(1992). ISBN 978-0-521-40530-0 Quote: "Between the eleventh and sixteenth centuries, groups of nomadic pastoralists known as Jats, having worked their way northwards from Sind, settled in the Panjab as peasant agriculturalists and, largely on account of the introduction of the Persian wheel, transformed much of western Panjab into a rich producer of food crops. (page 27)"
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  46. ↑ Canadian Sikhs Through a Century, 1897-1997{{#if:Singha|, Singha}. Gyan Sagar Publications(2001). ISBN 9788176850759 Quote: "Most of the Muslim Jats are in Pakistan and some of them are in India as well."
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. A&C Black(2013). ISBN 9781441102317Template:Rp
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  49. ↑ Who is a Sikh?: the problem of Sikh identity{{#if:McLeod|, McLeod}
  50. ↑ When Sparrows Became Hawks: The Making of the Sikh Warrior Tradition, 1699–1799{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press, USA(3 November 2011). ISBN 978-0-19-975655-1
  51. ↑ When Sparrows Became Hawks: The Making of the Sikh Warrior Tradition, 1699–1799{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Oxford University Press(2011). ISBN 978-0199756551
  52. ↑ The transformation of Sikh society — Page 92 by Ethne K. Marenco - The gazetteer also describes the relation of the Jat Sikhs to the Jat Hindus ... to 2019 in 1911 is attributed to the conversion of Jat Hindus to Sikhism. ...
  53. ↑ Social philosophy and social transformation of Sikhs by R. N. Singh (Ph. D.) Page 130 - The decrease of Jat Hindus from 16843 in 1881 to 2019 in 1911 is attributed to the conversion of Jat Hindus to Sikhism. ...
  54. ↑ Animal Kingdoms{{#if:Hughes|, Hughes}. Harvard University Press(2013). ISBN 978-0674074781
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  68. ↑ K L Sharma:The Jats — Their Role and Contribution to the Socio-Economic Life and Polity of North and North West India, Vol.I, 2004. Ed. by Vir Singh, page 14
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 History repeats itself as yet another Central govt faces a Jat stir. Hindustan Times(22 February 2016).
  70. ↑ Rajasthan was first state to extend OBC benefits to Jats in 1999. The Times of India(23 February 2016). Retrieved 15 March 2016.
  71. ↑ Foreign Minister Hina Rabbani Khar. First Post (India). Retrieved 11 May 2013.
  72. ↑ The Indian Army 1914–1947{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Osprey(2001). ISBN 1-84176-196-6
  73. ↑ India And The First World War{{#if:Pati|, Pati}. Atlantic Publishers(1996). ISBN 9788171565818
  74. ↑ American Indians in World War I: At Home and at War{{#if:Britten|, Britten}. University of New Mexico Press(1997). ISBN 0-8263-2090-2
  75. ↑ Martial Races and Imperial Subjects: Violence and Governance in Colonial India 1857–1914. European Review of History({Template:Date).
  76. ↑ Martial Races: The military, race and masculinity in British Imperial Culture, 1857–1914{{#if:Streets|, Streets}. Manchester University Press(2004). ISBN 978-0-7190-6962-8
  77. ↑ Khaki and the Ethnic Violence in India: Army, Police, and Paramilitary Forces During Communal Riots{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Three Essays Collective(2003). ISBN 9788188789092
  78. ↑ Prostitution, Race, and Politics: Policing Venereal Disease in the British Empire{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Psychology Press(2003). ISBN 978-0-415-94447-2
  79. ↑ Gorkhaland Movement: A Study in Ethnic Separatism{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. APH Publishing(2000). ISBN 978-81-7648-166-3
  80. ↑ The British Empire and the Second World War{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Continuum International Publishing Group(2005). ISBN 1-85285-417-0
  81. ↑ Religious Nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in India{{#if:Van Der Veer|, Van Der Veer}. University of California Press(1994). ISBN 978-0-520-08256-4
  82. ↑ Prez Bodyguards Only for Rajput, Jats and Sikhs: Army. Outlookindia.com(2 October 2013).
  83. ↑ The Getes{{#if:Jhutti|, Jhutti}. Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, University of Pennsylvania(2003)
  84. ↑ Development and Democracy in India{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Lynne Rienner Publishers(1999). ISBN 978-1-55587-810-8
  85. ↑ A Sikh Village. Journal of American Folklore({Template:Date).
  86. ↑ Essays in Indian History: Towards a Marxist Perception{{#if:Habib|, Habib}. Anthem Press(2002). ISBN 978-1843310259
  87. ↑ The Cat and the Lion: Jaipur State in the British Raj{{#if:Stern|, Stern}. BRILL(1988). ISBN 9789004082830
  88. ↑ Religion, Caste & Politics in India{{#if:Jaffrelot|, Jaffrelot}. Primus Books(2010). ISBN 9789380607047
  89. ↑ Female Infanticide: The Colonial Experience. Economic and Political Weekly({Template:Date).
  90. ↑ Towards a Conceptual Understanding of Female Infanticide and Neglect in Colonial India. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress({Template:Date).
  91. ↑ Status Portrait of Jat Woman. Indian Anthropologist({Template:Date).
  92. ↑ Guide to Taxila{{#if:Marshall|, Marshall}. Cambridge University Press(1960)
  93. ↑ Know the Jat{{#if:Kadyan|, Kadyan}. BlueRose Publishers(2020)

Further reading

  • Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire{{#if:Bayly|, Bayly}. Cambridge University Press(1989). ISBN 978-0-521-38650-0
  • New farmers' movements in India{{#if:Brass|, Brass}. Taylor & Francis(1995). ISBN 978-0-7146-4134-8
  • Rural labour relations in India{{#if:Byres|, Byres}. Taylor & Francis(1999). ISBN 978-0-7146-8046-0
  • Women and social reform in modern India: a reader{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Indiana University Press(2008). ISBN 978-0-253-22049-3
  • Postcolonial developments: agriculture in the making of modern India{{#if:Gupta|, Gupta}. Duke University Press(1998). ISBN 978-0-8223-2213-9
  • Political sociology in India: contemporary trends{{#if:Gupta|, Gupta}. Orient Blackswan(1 January 1996). ISBN 978-81-250-0665-7
  • India's silent revolution: the rise of the lower castes in North India{{#if:Jaffrelot|, Jaffrelot}. Columbia University Press(2003). ISBN 978-0-231-12786-8
  • Democracy and authoritarianism in South Asia: a comparative and historical perspective{{#if:Jalal|, Jalal}. Cambridge University Press(1995). ISBN 978-0-521-47862-5
  • India's agony over religion{{#if:Larson|, Larson}. SUNY Press(1995). ISBN 978-0-7914-2412-4
  • Divine passions: the social construction of emotion in India{{#if:Lynch|, Lynch}. University of California Press(1990). ISBN 978-0-520-06647-2
  • The Indian army and the making of Punjab{{#if:Mazumder|, Mazumder}. Orient Blackswan(2003). ISBN 978-81-7824-059-6
  • Vishnu's crowded temple: India since the Great Rebellion{{#if:Misra|, Misra}. Yale University Press(2008). ISBN 978-0-300-13721-7
  • Dowry murder: the imperial origins of a cultural crime{{#if:Oldenburg|, Oldenburg}. Oxford University Press(2002). ISBN 978-0-19-515071-1
  • Ethical Life in South Asia{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Indiana University Press(1 September 2010). ISBN 978-0-253-22243-5
  • Peasants and monks in British India{{#if:Pinch|, Pinch}. University of California Press(1996). ISBN 978-0-520-20061-6
  • The Mughal Empire{{#if:Richards|, Richards}. Cambridge University Press(26 January 1996). ISBN 978-0-521-56603-2
  • Engaging cultural differences: the multicultural challenge in liberal democracies{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Russell Sage Foundation(November 2004). ISBN 978-0-87154-795-8
  • Structure and Change in Indian Society{{#if:|, {{{last}}}}. Transaction Publishers(2007). ISBN 978-0-202-36138-3
  • Changing India: bourgeois revolution on the subcontinent{{#if:Stern|, Stern}. Cambridge University Press(2003). ISBN 978-0-521-00912-6
  • Khizr Tiwana, the Punjab Unionist Party and the partition of India{{#if:Talbot|, Talbot}. Psychology Press(1996). ISBN 978-0-7007-0427-9
  • The garrison state: the military, government and society in colonial Punjab 1849–1947{{#if:Tan|, Tan}. SAGE(2005). ISBN 978-0-7619-3336-6
  • Raja Nal and the Goddess: the north Indian epic Dhola in performance{{#if:Wadley|, Wadley}. Indiana University Press(2004). ISBN 978-0-253-34478-6
  • Al-Hind: Early medieval India and the expansion of Islam, 7th-11th centuries{{#if:Wink|, Wink}. BRILL(2002). ISBN 978-0-391-04173-8

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