View source for India Pakistan war of 1947 1948

{{Short description|1947–1948 war between India and Pakistan}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = India–Pakistan war of 1947–1948
| partof            = the [[India–Pakistan wars and conflicts|India–Pakistan wars]], [[Kashmir conflict]] and aftermath of the [[partition of India]]
| image             = Pakistani soldiers during the 1947–1948 war.jpg
| caption           = Indian troops landing on Srinagar airfield
| notes             = Conflict began when [[Pashtun people|Pashtun]] tribesmen and Tanoli from Pakistan invaded the [[princely state]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], prompting the armies of India and Pakistan to get involved shortly afterwards.
| date              = 22 October 1947 – 1 January 1949 <br>(1 year and 10 weeks)
| place             = [[Kashmir|Jammu and Kashmir]]
| result            = See [[#Aftermath|Aftermath]] section
| territory         = One-third of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] controlled by Pakistan. Indian control over remainder.<ref>{{citation |last=Tankel |first=Stephen |title=Storming the World Stage: The Story of Lashkar-e-Taiba |year=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-023803-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Iu1wBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |page=48}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web  |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1947_48.stm |title=BBC on the 1947–48 war |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150130232421/http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1947_48.stm |archive-date=30 January 2015 |url-status=live  }}</ref>
| combatant1        = {{nowrap|{{flagicon|India}} [[Dominion of India|India]]}}
| combatant2        = {{flagicon|Pakistan|1947}} [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]]
| commander1        = {{nowrap|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Governor-General of India (1947–1950).svg}}  [[Louis Mountbatten]]<br /> {{flagicon|India}} [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]<br /> {{flagicon|British India|army}}  [[Roy Bucher]]<ref name=Dasgupta>{{harvnb|Dasgupta, War and Diplomacy in Kashmir|2014}}</ref><br />{{flagicon image|Flag COAS.svg}}  [[K. M. Cariappa]]<ref name=Dasgupta /><br />{{flagicon|India|army}} [[Kodandera Subayya Thimayya|Subayya Thimayya]]<ref name="Amazing">{{cite book |title=Thimmayya:An Amazing Life |last=Khanduri|first=Chandra B. |year=1969 |publisher=Centre for Armed Historical Research, United Service Institution of India, New Delhi through Knowledge World |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-87966-36-X |page=137 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZWXfAAAAMAAJ |access-date=6 August 2010}}</ref><Br>[[File:Flag of Jammu and Kashmir (1936-1953).svg|23px]]  [[Hari Singh]]<br /> [[File:Flag of Jammu and Kashmir (1936-1953).svg|23px]]  [[Mehr Chand Mahajan]]<br /> [[File:Flag of Jammu and Kashmir (1936-1953).svg|23px]]  [[Sheikh Abdullah]]}}
| commander2        = {{nowrap|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Governor-General of Pakistan (1947-1953).svg}} [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]]<br /> {{flagicon image|Flag of the Prime Minister of Pakistan.svg}}  [[Liaquat Ali Khan]]<br /> {{flagicon image|Flag of the Chief of the Army Staff (Pakistan).svg}}  [[Frank Messervy]]<ref name=Dasgupta /><br /> {{flagicon image|Flag of the Chief of the Army Staff (Pakistan).svg}}  [[Douglas Gracey]]<ref name=Dasgupta /><br /> {{flagicon image|Flag of the Pakistani Army.svg}} [[Akbar Khan (general, born 1912)|Akbar Khan]]<ref name="Nawaz">{{harvnb|Nawaz, The First Kashmir War Revisited|2008}}</ref><br /> {{flagicon image|Flag of Muslim League.svg}}  [[Khurshid Anwar (Major)|Khurshid Anwar]]{{sfn|Nawaz, The First Kashmir War Revisited|2008|p=120}}<br /> {{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Zaman Kiani]]{{sfn|Nawaz, The First Kashmir War Revisited|2008|p=120}}<br /> {{flagicon|Pakistan}}  [[William Brown (British Army officer)|William Brown]]<ref name=Bangash />}}
| strength1         = 
| strength2         = 
| casualties1       = {{indented plainlist}}
*1,103–1,500 Indian Army personnel killed<ref name="Prasad">{{cite book |last1=Prasad |first1=Sri Nandan |last2=Pal |first2=Dharm |title=Operations in Jammu & Kashmir, 1947–48 |url=https://ia801505.us.archive.org/34/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.116302/2015.116302.Operations-In-Jammu-Amp-Kashmir-1947-48.pdf |year=1987 |publisher=History Division, Ministry of Defence, Government of India |page=379 |quotation=During the long campaign, the Indian Army lost 76 officers, 31 JCOs and 996 Other Ranks killed, making a total of 1103. The wounded totalled 3152, including 81 officers and 107 JCOs. Apart from these casualties, it appears that the J & K State Forces lost no less than 1990 officers and men killed, died of wounds, or missing presumed killed. The small RIAF lost a total of 32 officers and men who laid down their lives for the nation during these operations.  In this roll of honour, there were no less than 9 officers.}}</ref><ref name="Kargil from Surprise to Victory">{{Cite book |title=Kargil from Surprise to Victory |last=Malik |first=V. P.  |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers India |year=2010 |isbn=9789350293133 |edition=paperback  |page=343}}</ref><ref>"An incredible war: Indian Air Force in Kashmir war, 1947–48", by Bharat Kumar, Centre for Air Power Studies (New Delhi, India)</ref><ref name="Roy">{{cite book | last=Roy | first=Kaushik | title=The Oxford Companion to Modern Warfare in India: From the Eighteenth Century to Present Times | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2009 | isbn=978-0-19-569888-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ioUpAQAAIAAJ | access-date=18 May 2022 | page=215 | archive-date=18 May 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220518163641/https://books.google.com/books?id=ioUpAQAAIAAJ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Phillips+Axelrod">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E-SUAQAACAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of Wars|last1=Phillips|first1=Charles|last2=Axelrod|first2=Alan|date=2005|publisher=Facts On File|isbn=978-0-8160-2851-1|language=en|page=602 }}</ref>
*1,000 Indian soldiers missing<ref name="Phillips+Axelrod"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Maj (Retd) AGHA HUMAYUN AMIN |url=http://archive.org/details/The1947-48KashmirWarTheWarOfLostOpportunities |title=THE 1947-48 Kashmir War The war of lost opportunities |pages=70 |language=English}}</ref>
*1,990 J&K state forces killed or missing<ref name="Prasad"/>
*32 RIAF personnel killed<ref name="Prasad"/>
*3,154–3,500 Indian troops wounded<wbr><ref name="Phillips+Axelrod"/><ref name="Clodfelter-2008">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OYCwJgAACAAJ|title=Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1494–2007, 3d ed.|last=Clodfelter|first=Micheal|date=2 July 2008|publisher=McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers|isbn=978-0-7864-3319-3|language=en|page = 638}}</ref><ref name="Kargil from Surprise to Victory" /><ref name="Honor and Glory">{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Maj Gen Jagjit |title=With Honour & Glory: Wars fought by India 1947–1999 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bljFNwAACAAJ |year=2000 |publisher=Lancer Publishers |isbn=978-81-7062-109-6 |pages=18–  }}</ref><ref name=tni>{{cite web |author=Sabir Sha |title=Indian military hysteria since 1947 |newspaper=The News International |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-13-33393-Indian-military-hysteria-since-1947  |date=10 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117023543/http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-13-33393-Indian-military-hysteria-since-1947 |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* '''Total military casualties:'''
*~7,000–8,000{{Endplainlist}}
| casualties2       = {{Indented plainlist}}
*1,000 Pakistani troops killed<ref name="Phillips+Axelrod"/><ref name="Clodfelter-2008"/>
*5,000 tribesmen and Kashmiri rebels killed<wbr/><ref name="Phillips+Axelrod"/><ref name="Clodfelter-2008"/><ref name="Honor and Glory" /><ref name=tni/><ref name="Krishna1998">{{cite book |last=Krishna |first=Ashok |title=India's Armed Forces: Fifty Years of War and Peace |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGIkXCsgT2UC&pg=PA160 |year=1998 |publisher=Lancer Publishers |isbn=978-1-897829-47-9 |pages=160–  }}</ref> 
*~14,000 wounded<ref name="Honor and Glory" />
* '''Total military casualties:'''
*~20,000{{Endplainlist}}
| campaignbox       = {{Campaignbox Indo-Pakistani Wars}}
| units1            = {{tree list}}
* {{armed forces|India}}
** {{army|India}}
** {{air force|India}}<ref name = iaf1>{{Cite book|last=Kumar|first=Bharat|url=https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/10682697|title=An incredible war: Indian Air Force in Kashmir War 1947–1948|date=2014|publisher=KW Publishers in association with Centre for Air Power Studies|isbn=978-93-81904-52-7|edition=2nd|location=New Delhi|archive-date=6 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206113306/https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/10682697|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Massey|2005|p=97}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Barua|2005|p=192}}</ref>
* [[File:Flag of Jammu and Kashmir (1936-1953).svg|23px]] [[Jammu and Kashmir State Forces]]
{{tree list/end}}
| units2            = {{tree list}}
* {{armed forces|Pakistan}}
** {{army|Pakistan}}
** {{air force|Pakistan}} (supply support only)
** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee.svg}} Pakistani paramilitaries
*** [[Gilgit Scouts]]<ref name=Bangash>{{harvnb|Bangash, Three Forgotten Accessions|2010}}</ref><ref name=Khanna>{{cite book |last=Khanna |first=K. K. |title=Art of Generalship |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uAmqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA158 |date=2015 |publisher=Vij Books India Pvt Ltd |isbn=978-93-82652-93-9 |page=158  }}</ref>
*** [[Kurram Militia]]{{sfn|Jamal, Shadow War|2009|p=57}}
*** [[Frontier Corps|Frontier Scouts]]{{sfn|Jamal, Shadow War|2009|p=57}}
*** [[Khasadar]]<ref name="(Editor)">{{cite book |editor1=Nicholas Burns |editor2=Jonathon Price |title=American Interests in South Asia: Building a Grand Strategy in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ENyfHXi9wz0C&pg=PT155 |publisher=Aspen Institute |isbn=978-1-61792-400-2 |pages=155–  }}</ref>
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Muslim League.svg}} [[Muslim League National Guard]]{{sfn|Jamal, Shadow War|2009|p=49}}
* {{flagicon|Azad Kashmir}} [[Azad Kashmir Regular Force|Azad Kashmir irregular forces]]
* [[File:Liwa-e-Ahmadiyya 1-2.svg|23px]] [[Furqan Force]]<ref name="Simon Ross Valentine">{{cite book |title=Islam and the Ahmadiyya Jama'at: History, Belief, Practice |publisher=Hurst Publishers |isbn=978-1-85065-916-7 |page=204 |first=Simon Ross |last=Valentine |date=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MdRth02Q6nAC&q=furqan+force&pg=PA204}}</ref>
* [[File:Flag of Swat.svg|23px]] [[Swat Levies|Swat Army]]{{sfn|Jamal, Shadow War|2009|p=57}}
* {{Flagicon image|Flag of Hunza.svg}} [[Hunza (princely state)|Hunza state forces]]{{sfn|Brown|2014|p=|loc= Chapter 4 : The Coup D’état (October to November 1947)}}
* {{Flagicon image|Nagar State Flag.png}} [[Nagar (princely state)|Nagar state forces]]{{sfn|Brown|2014|p=|loc= Chapter 4 : The Coup D’état (October to November 1947)}}
* {{symbol|Flag of State of Chitral.svg|link=no}} [[Chitral (princely state)|Chitral state forces]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 November 2021 |title=Chitral's Role In The Liberation Of Gilgit-Baltistan |url=https://thefridaytimes.com/24-Nov-2021/chitral-s-role-in-the-liberation-of-gilgit-baltistan |access-date=8 April 2025 |website=The Friday Times |language=en}}</ref>{{tree list/end}}
}}

The '''India–Pakistan war of 1947–1948''', also known as the '''first India–Pakistan war''', was a war fought between [[Dominion of India|India]] and [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]] over the [[princely state]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] from 1947 to 1948. It was the first of the [[India–Pakistan wars]] between the two [[Partition of India|newly independent nations]]. Pakistan precipitated the war a few weeks after its independence by launching tribal ''[[Lascar|lashkar]]'' (militias) from [[Waziristan]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.princeton.edu/~jns/publications/Understanding%20Support%20for%20Islamist%20Militancy.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912114721/http://www.princeton.edu/~jns/publications/Understanding%20Support%20for%20Islamist%20Militancy.pdf |url-status=dead |title=Pakistan Covert Operations |archive-date=12 September 2014}}</ref> in an effort to capture [[Kashmir]] and to preempt the possibility of its ruler joining India.{{sfn|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|pp=31,&nbsp;34–35,&nbsp;105}}{{Sfn|Nawaz|2008}}

[[Hari Singh]], the [[Maharaja]] of Jammu and Kashmir, was facing an [[1947 Poonch rebellion|uprising by his Muslim subjects]] in [[History of Poonch District|Poonch]], and lost control in portions of the western districts. On 22 October 1947, Pakistan's [[Federally Administered Tribal Areas|Frontier tribal militias]] crossed the border of the state. These local tribal militias and irregular Pakistani forces moved to take the capital city of [[Srinagar]], but upon reaching [[Baramulla]], they took to plunder and stalled. Maharaja Hari Singh made a plea to India for assistance, and help was offered, but it was subject to his signing of an [[Instrument of Accession]] to India.

The war was initially fought by the [[Jammu and Kashmir Rifles|Jammu and Kashmir State Forces]]{{sfn |Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|p=80}}<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vLwOck15eboC&pg=PA80 |title=Conflict Between India and Pakistan: An Encyclopedia |last=Lyon |first=Peter |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-712-2 |pages=80 |language=en}}</ref> and by militias from the [[Federally Administered Tribal Areas|frontier tribal areas]] adjoining the [[North-West Frontier Province]].<ref name=britannica>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/312908/Kashmir/214223/The-Kashmir-problem#ref673547 Kashmir] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430073828/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/312908/Kashmir/214223/The-Kashmir-problem#ref673547 |date=30 April 2015 }} in ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' (2011), online edition</ref> Following the [[Instrument of Accession (Jammu and Kashmir)|accession of the state to India]] on 26 October 1947, Indian troops were airlifted to [[Srinagar]], the state capital. British commanding officers initially refused the entry of Pakistani troops into the conflict, citing the accession of the state to India. However, later in 1948, they relented and Pakistan's armies entered the war shortly afterwards.<ref name=britannica /> The fronts solidified gradually along what later came to be known as the [[Line of Control]]. A formal ceasefire was declared effective 1 January 1949.{{sfn|Prasad & Pal, Operations in Jammu & Kashmir |1987|p=371}} Numerous analysts state that the war ended in a stalemate, with neither side obtaining a clear victory. Others, however, state that India emerged victorious as it successfully gained the majority of the contested territory.

== Background ==
{{Further|History of Kashmir|Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)}}
Prior to 1815, the area now known as "Jammu and Kashmir" comprised 22 small independent states (16 Hindu and six Muslim) carved out of territories controlled by the Amir (King) of [[Afghanistan]], combined with those of local small rulers. These were collectively referred to as the "Punjab Hill States". These small states, ruled by [[Rajput|Rajput kings]], were variously independent, vassals of the [[Mughal Empire]] since the time of [[Akbar|Emperor Akbar]] or sometimes controlled from [[Kangra State|Kangra state]] in the Himachal area. Following the decline of the Mughals, turbulence in Kangra and invasions of Gorkhas, the hill states fell successively under the control of the Sikhs under [[Ranjit Singh]].<ref name="HutchisonVogel1933">{{cite book|last1=Hutchison|first1=J.|last2=Vogel|first2=Jean Philippe|title=History of the Panjab Hill States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5uXgQwAACAAJ|year=1933|publisher=Superint., Gov. Print., Punjab}}</ref>{{rp|536}}

The [[First Anglo-Sikh war]] (1845–46) was fought between the [[Sikh Empire]], which asserted sovereignty over [[Kashmir]], and the [[East India Company]]. In the [[Treaty of Lahore]] of 1846, the Sikhs were made to surrender the valuable region (the Jullundur Doab) between the [[Beas River]] and the [[Sutlej River]] and required to pay an indemnity of 1.2 million rupees. Because they could not readily raise this sum, the East India Company allowed the [[Dogra dynasty|Dogra]] ruler [[Gulab Singh]] to acquire Kashmir from the Sikh kingdom in exchange for making a payment of 750,000 rupees to the company. Gulab Singh became the first [[Maharaja]] of the newly formed [[princely state]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], founding a [[The Royal House of Jammu and Kashmir|dynasty]] that was to rule the state, the second-largest principality during the [[British Raj]], until India gained its independence in 1947.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

From February 1944 to January 1947, Afghanistan [[Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947|faced a series of tribal revolts]]. These revolts influenced Afghanistan to take a pro-Pakistan stance during the India–Pakistan war of 1947–1948. A pro-India stance in this case would necessitate stopping Pashtuns from joining Pakistan's war against India, which was expected to cause a resurgence in rebel activity when the government was hoping to focus on national reform.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leake |first=Elisabeth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUulDQAAQBAJ |title=The Defiant Border: The Afghan-Pakistan Borderlands in the Era of Decolonization, 1936–65 |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-12602-2 |page=121 |language=en}}</ref>

== Partition of India ==
[[File:Partition of India 1947 en.svg|thumb|Partition of India and the movement of refugees]]
[[File:Auchinleck.jpg|thumb|Field Marshal [[Claude Auchinleck]], Supreme Commander of Indian and Pakistani armed forces]]
{{Main|Partition of India}}

The years 1946–1947 saw the rise of [[All-India Muslim League]] and [[Muslim nationalism in South Asia|Muslim nationalism]], demanding a separate state for India's Muslims. The demand took a violent turn on the [[Direct Action Day]] (16 August 1946) and inter-communal violence between Hindus and Muslims became endemic. Consequently, a decision was taken on 3 June 1947 to divide [[British India]] into two separate states, the [[Dominion of Pakistan]] comprising the Muslim majority areas and the [[Dominion of India]] comprising the rest. The two provinces [[Punjab]] and [[Bengal]] with large Muslim-majority areas were to be divided between the two dominions. An estimated 11 million people eventually migrated between the two parts of Punjab, and possibly 1 million perished in the inter-communal violence.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}} Jammu and Kashmir, being adjacent to the Punjab province, was directly affected by the happenings in Punjab.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

The original target date for the transfer of power to the new dominions was June 1948. However, fearing the rise of inter-communal violence, the British Viceroy [[Lord Mountbatten]] advanced the date to 15 August 1947. This gave only six weeks to complete all the arrangements for partition.{{sfn|Hodson, The Great Divide|1969|pp=293,&nbsp;320}} Mountbatten's original plan was to stay on as the joint [[Governor-general|Governor General]] for both of the new [[dominion]]s till June 1948. However, this was not accepted by the Pakistani leader [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]]. In the event, Mountbatten stayed on as the Governor General of India, whereas Pakistan chose Jinnah as its Governor General.{{sfn|Hodson, The Great Divide|1969|pp=293,&nbsp;329–330}} It was envisaged that the nationalisation of [[British Indian Army|the armed forces]] could not be completed by 15 August{{efn|At the beginning of 1947, all the posts above the rank of lieutenant colonel in the army were held by British officers.{{sfn|Sarila, The Shadow of the Great Game|2007|p=324}} Pakistan had only four lieutenant colonels,{{sfn|Barua, Gentlemen of the Raj|2003|p=133}} two of whom were involved in the Kashmir conflict: Akbar Khan and Sher Khan.{{sfn|Nawaz, The First Kashmir War Revisited|2008}} At the beginning of the war, India had about 500 British officers and Pakistan over 1000.{{sfn|Ankit, Kashmir, 1945–66|2014|p=43}}}} and hence British officers stayed on after the transfer of power. The service chiefs were appointed by the Dominion governments and were responsible to them. The overall administrative control, but not operational control, was vested with Field Marshal [[Claude Auchinleck]],{{Efn|Auchinleck was an Indian Army officer since 1903 who had been [[Commander-in-Chief, India]] from 1943}} who was titled the 'Supreme Commander', answerable to a newly formed Joint Defence Council of the two dominions. India appointed General [[Rob Lockhart]] as its Army chief and Pakistan appointed General [[Frank Messervy]].{{sfn|Hodson, The Great Divide|1969|pp=262–265}}

The presence of the British commanding officers on both sides made the India–Pakistan war of 1947 a strange war. The two commanding officers were in daily telephone contact and adopted mutually defensive positions. The attitude was that "you can hit them so hard but not too hard, otherwise there will be all kinds of repercussions."{{sfn|Ankit, Kashmir, 1945–66|2014|pp=54,&nbsp;56}} Both Lockhart and Messervy were replaced in the course of war, and their successors [[Roy Bucher]] and [[Douglas Gracey]] tried to exercise restraint on their respective governments. Bucher was apparently successful in doing so in India, but Gracey yielded and let British officers be used in operational roles on the side of Pakistan. One British officer died in action.{{sfn|Ankit, Kashmir, 1945–66|2014|pp=57–58}}

== Developments in Jammu and Kashmir (August–October 1947) ==
[[File:Sir Hari Singh Bahadur, Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, 1944.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Maharaja Hari Singh]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] in military uniform]]

With the independence of the Dominions, the [[Suzerainty|British Paramountcy]] over the princely states came to an end. The rulers of the states were advised to join one of the two dominions by executing an [[Instrument of Accession]]. [[Maharaja Hari Singh]] of Jammu and Kashmir, along with his prime minister [[Ram Chandra Kak]], decided not to accede to either dominion. The reasons cited were that the Muslim majority population of the state would not be comfortable with joining India, and that the Hindu and Sikh minorities would become vulnerable if the state joined Pakistan.{{sfn|Ankit, Henry Scott|2010|p=45}}

In 1947, the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir had a wide range of ethnic and religious communities. The [[Kashmir Division|Kashmir province]] consisting of the [[Kashmir Valley]] and the [[Muzaffarabad district]] had a majority Muslim population (over 90%). The [[Jammu Division|Jammu province]], consisting of five districts, had roughly equal numbers of Hindus and Muslims in the eastern districts ([[Udhampur]], [[Jammu]] and [[Reasi]]), and a Muslim majority in the western districts ([[Mirpur, Azad Kashmir|Mirpur]] and [[Historical Poonch District|Poonch]]). The mountainous [[Ladakh]] district (''wazarat'') in the east had a significant Buddhist presence with a Muslim majority in [[Baltistan]]. The [[Gilgit Agency]] in the north was overwhelmingly Muslim and was directly governed by the British under an agreement with the Maharaja. Shortly before the transfer of power, the British returned the Gilgit Agency to the Maharaja, who appointed a [[Dogras|Dogra]] governor for the district and a British commander for the local forces.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

The predominant political movement in the Kashmir Valley, the [[Jammu & Kashmir National Conference|National Conference]] led by [[Sheikh Abdullah]], believed in secular politics. It was allied with the [[Indian National Congress]] and was believed to favour joining India. On the other hand, the Muslims of the Jammu province supported the [[All Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference|Muslim Conference]], which was allied to the [[All-India Muslim League]] and favoured joining Pakistan. The Hindus of the Jammu province favoured an outright merger with India.<ref>{{citation |first=Balraj |last=Puri |author-link=Balraj Puri |title=The Question of Accession |journal=Epilogue |volume=4 |number=11 |pages=4–6 |date=November 2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TMxJzb7N_8wC&pg=PA4 |ref={{sfnref|Puri, The Question of Accession|2010}} |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117135717/https://books.google.com/books?id=TMxJzb7N_8wC&pg=PA4  }}</ref> In the midst of all the diverging views, the Maharaja's decision to remain independent was apparently a judicious one.{{sfn|Ankit, Henry Scott|2010}}
{{clear left}}

=== Operation Gulmarg plan ===
{{Location map+
|Pakistan
|float      = right
|width      = 250
|caption    = Operation Gulmarg locations
|nodiv      = 1
|mini       = 1
|places     =
{{location map~ |Pakistan |lat=34.36|N |long=73.47|E |label=Muzaffarabad |position=right |link=Muzaffarabad |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=70}}
{{location map~ |Pakistan |lat=33.76|N |long=74.09|E |label=Poonch |position=right |link=Poonch (town) |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=70}}
{{location map~ |Pakistan |lat=32.98|N |long=74.07|E |label=Bhimber |position=right |link=Bhimber |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=70}}
{{location map~ |Pakistan |lat=34.18|N |long=73.24|E |label=Abbottabad |position=left |link=Abbottabad |mark=Red pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=0}}
{{location map~ |Pakistan |lat=34.75|N |long=72.35|E |label=Swat |position=left |link=Swat (princely state) |mark=Green pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=0}}
{{location map~ |Pakistan |lat=35.20|N |long=71.88|E |label=Dir |position=left |link=Dir (princely state) |mark=Green pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=0}}
{{location map~ |Pakistan |lat=35.85|N |long=71.79|E |label=Chitral |position=left |link=Chitral (princely state) |mark=Green pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=0}}
{{location map~ |Pakistan |lat=32.94|N |long=70.61|E |label=Bannu |position=right |link=Bannu |mark=Red pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=0}}
{{location map~ |Pakistan |lat=32.29|N |long=69.57|E |label=Wanna |position=right |link=Wanna, Pakistan |mark=Red pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=0}}
{{location map~ |Pakistan |lat=33.58|N |long=71.42|E |label=Kohat |position=right |link=Kohat |Red=Red pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=0}}
{{location map~ |Pakistan |lat=33.37|N |long=70.55|E |label=Thall |position=right |link=Thal, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa |mark=Red pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=0}}
{{location map~ |Pakistan |lat=34.01|N |long=71.98|E |label=Nowshera |position=right |link=Nowshera, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa |mark=Red pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=0}}
{{location map~ |Pakistan |lat=35.507284|N |long=73.35631334|E |label=Indus river |position=right |link=Indus River |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=70}}
{{location map~ |Pakistan |lat=31.712541|N |long=74.456148|E |label=Ravi river |position=river |link=Ravi River |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=70}}
}}

According to Indian military sources, the Pakistani Army prepared a plan called Operation Gulmarg and put it into action as early as 20 August, a few days after Pakistan's independence. The plan was accidentally revealed to an Indian officer, [[Onkar Singh Kalkat|Major O. S. Kalkat]] serving with the [[Bannu Brigade]].{{efn|Major Kalkat was the [[brigade major]] at the [[Bannu Brigade]], who opened a Demi-Official letter marked "Personal/Top Secret" on 20 August 1947 signed by General [[Frank Messervy]], the then Commander in Chief of the Pakistan Army. It was addressed to Kalkat's commanding officer Brig. C. P. Murray, who happened to be away at another post. The Pakistani officials suspected Kalkat and placed him under house arrest. He escaped and made his way to New Delhi on 18 October. However, the Indian military authorities and defence minister did not believe his information. He was recalled and debriefed on 24 October after the tribal invasion of Kashmir had started.{{sfn|Prasad & Pal, Operations in Jammu & Kashmir |1987 |p=17}}}} According to the plan, 20 ''lashkars'' (tribal militias), each consisting of 1,000 [[Pashtuns|Pashtun tribesmen]], were to be recruited from among various Pashtun tribes, and armed at the brigade headquarters at [[Bannu]], [[Wanna, Pakistan|Wanna]], [[Peshawar]], [[Kohat]], [[Thal, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Thall]] and [[Nowshera, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Nowshera]] by the first week of September. They were expected to reach the launching point of [[Abbottabad]] on 18 October, and cross into Jammu and Kashmir on 22 October. Ten ''lashkars'' were expected to attack the [[Kashmir Valley]] through [[Muzaffarabad]] and another ten ''lashkars'' were expected to join the rebels in [[Historical Poonch District|Poonch]], [[Bhimber District|Bhimber]] and [[Rawalakot]] with a view to advance to [[Jammu]]. Detailed arrangements for the military leadership and armaments were described in the plan.{{sfn|Prasad & Pal, Operations in Jammu & Kashmir |1987 |pp=17–19}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Kalkat |first=Onkar S. |title=The Far-flung Frontiers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EWO5AAAAIAAJ |publisher=Allied Publishers |year=1983 |pages=40–42}}</ref>

The regimental records show that, by the last week of August, the [[21st Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (Frontier Force)|11th Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (Frontier Force)]] (PAVO Cavalry) regiment was briefed about the invasion plan. Colonel Sher Khan, the Director of Military Intelligence, was in charge of the briefing, along with Colonels Akbar Khan and  Khanzadah. The Cavalry regiment was tasked with procuring arms and ammunition for the 'freedom fighters' and establishing three wings of the insurgent forces: the South Wing commanded by Major General [[Mohammed Zaman Kiani|Zaman Kiani]], a Central Wing based at Rawalpindi and a North Wing based at Abbottabad. By 1 October, the Cavalry regiment completed the task of arming the insurgent forces. "Throughout the war there was no shortage of small arms, ammunitions, or explosives at any time." The regiment was also told to be on stand by for induction into fighting at an appropriate time.{{sfnp|Effendi, Punjab Cavalry|2007|pp=151–153}}{{sfnp|Joshi, Kashmir, 1947–1965: A Story Retold|2008|p=59–}}<ref name="Wajahat review">{{citation |last=Amin |first=Agha Humayun |chapter=Memories of a Soldier by Major General Syed Wajahat Hussain (Book Review) |title=Pakistan Military Review, Volume 18 |date=August 2015 |isbn=978-1-5168-5023-5 |publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform |chapter-url=https://www.slideshare.net/AAmin1/pakistan-military-review-volume-18-inside-waziristan |access-date=17 April 2018 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308155722/https://www.slideshare.net/AAmin1/pakistan-military-review-volume-18-inside-waziristan |url-status=live }}</ref>

Scholars have noted considerable movement of Pashtun tribes during September–October. By 13 September, armed Pashtuns drifted into Lahore and Rawalpindi. The Deputy Commissioner of [[Dera Ismail Khan]] noted a scheme to send tribesmen from [[Malakand Agency|Malakand]] to [[Sialkot]], in lorries provided by the Pakistan government. Preparations for attacking Kashmir were also noted in the princely states of [[Swat (princely state)|Swat]], [[Dir (princely state)|Dir]], and [[Chitral (princely state)|Chitral]]. Scholar Robin James Moore states there is "little doubt" that Pashtuns were involved in border raids all along the Punjab border from the [[Indus River|Indus]] to the [[Ravi River|Ravi]].{{sfn|Moore, Making the new Commonwealth|1987|p=49}}

Pakistani sources deny the existence of any plan called Operation Gulmarg. However, Shuja Nawaz does list 22 Pashtun tribes involved in the invasion of Kashmir on 22 October.{{sfn|Nawaz, The First Kashmir War Revisited|2008|p=124–125}}

=== Rebellion in Poonch ===
[[File:AJ&K Divisions.png|thumb|273x273px|Poonch district of Pakistan-administered Azad Kashmir (in green) along with Muzaffarabad (blue) and Mirpur (yellow) districts in 1947]]
{{Main|1947 Poonch rebellion}}

Sometime in August 1947, the first signs of trouble broke out in [[Historical Poonch District|Poonch]], about which diverging views have been received. Poonch was originally an internal ''jagir'' (autonomous principality), governed by an alternative family line of Maharaja Hari Singh. The taxation is said to have been heavy. The Muslims of Poonch had long campaigned for the principality to be absorbed into the Punjab province of British India. In 1938, a notable disturbance occurred for religious reasons, but a settlement was reached.{{sfn|Ankit, The Problem of Poonch|2010|p=8}} During the [[Second World War]], over 60,000 men from Poonch and Mirpur districts enrolled in the British Indian Army. After the war, they were discharged with arms, which is said to have alarmed the Maharaja.{{sfn|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|p=41}} In June, Poonchis launched a 'No Tax' campaign.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=squHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA143|title=State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India, c. 1900–1950, By I. Copland.|date=26 April 2005|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-00598-3|pages=143}}</ref> In July, the Maharaja ordered that all the soldiers in the region be disarmed.{{efn|Under the Jammu and Kashmir Arms Act of 1940, the possession of all fire arms was prohibited in the state. The Dogra Rajputs were however exempted in practice.<ref>{{cite book |last=Parashar |first=Parmanand |title=Kashmir and the Freedom Movement |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q0fUEZDsvqoC&pg=PA178 |date=2004 |publisher=Sarup & Sons |isbn=978-81-7625-514-1 |pages=178–179}}</ref>}} The absence of employment prospects coupled with high taxation drove the Poonchis to rebellion.{{sfn|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|p=41}} The "gathering head of steam", states scholar Srinath Raghavan, was utilised by the local Muslim Conference led by [[Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim Khan]] (Sardar Ibrahim) to further their campaign for accession to Pakistan.{{sfn|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|p=105}}

According to state government sources, the rebellious militias gathered in the Naoshera-Islamabad area, attacking the state troops and their supply trucks. A battalion of state troops was dispatched, which cleared the roads and dispersed the militias. By September, order was reestablished.{{sfn|Ankit, The Problem of Poonch|2010|p=9}}  The Muslim Conference sources, on the other hand, narrate that hundreds of people were killed in [[Bagh, Azad Kashmir|Bagh]] during flag hoisting around 15 August and that the Maharaja unleashed a 'reign of terror' on 24 August. Local Muslims also told Richard Symonds, a British Quaker social worker, that the army fired on crowds, and burnt houses and villages indiscriminately.{{sfn|Snedden, Kashmir: The Unwritten History|2013|p=42}} According to the Assistant British High Commissioner in Pakistan, H. S. Stephenson, "the Poonch affair... was greatly exaggerated".{{sfn|Ankit, The Problem of Poonch|2010|p=9}}

===Operation Datta Khel===
{{main|Operation Datta Khel}}

Operation Datta Khel was a military operation and coup planned by [[William Brown (British Army officer)|Major William Brown]] along with the [[Gilgit Scouts]], aimed at overthrowing the rule of the [[Dogra dynasty]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Kashmir]]. The operation was launched shortly after the independence of Pakistan. By 1 November, [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] had been annexed from the Dogra dynasty, and was made part of Pakistan after a brief provisional government.<ref name="Warikoo 2009">{{cite book | last=Warikoo | first=K. | title=Himalayan Frontiers of India: Historical, Geo-Political and Strategic Perspectives | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Routledge Contemporary South Asia Series | year=2009 | isbn=978-1-134-03294-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_Z8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA60| page=60}}</ref>

=== Pakistan's preparations, Maharaja's manoeuvring ===
[[File:Liaquat Ali Khan.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Liaquat Ali Khan]], Prime Minister of Pakistan]]

Scholar [[Prem Shankar Jha]] states that the Maharaja had decided, as early as April 1947, that he would accede to India if it was not possible to stay independent.<ref>{{citation |last=Jha |first=Prem Shankar |author-link=Prem Shankar Jha |title=Response (to the reviews of ''The Origins of a Dispute: Kashmir 1947'') |journal=Commonwealth and Comparative Politics |volume=36 |number=1 |date=March 1998 |doi=10.1080/14662049808447762  |pages=113–123}}</ref>{{rp|115}} The rebellion in Poonch possibly unnerved the Maharaja. Accordingly, on 11 August, he dismissed his pro-Pakistan Prime Minister, Ram Chandra Kak, and appointed retired Major [[Janak Singh]] in his place.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s5KMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA155|title=Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris|last=Snedden|first=Christopher|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2015|isbn=978-1-84904-342-7|pages=155}}</ref> On 25 August, he sent an invitation to Justice [[Mehr Chand Mahajan]] of the Punjab High Court to come as the Prime Minister.{{sfn|Mahajan, Looking Back|1963|p=123}} On the same day, the Muslim Conference wrote to the Pakistani Prime Minister [[Liaquat Ali Khan]] warning him that "if, God forbid, the Pakistan Government or the Muslim League do not act, Kashmir might be lost to them".{{sfn|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|p=103}} This set the ball rolling in Pakistan.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

Liaquat Ali Khan sent a Punjab politician [[Mian Iftikharuddin]] to explore the possibility of organising a revolt in Kashmir.{{sfn|Bhattacharya, What Price Freedom|2013|pp=25–27}} Meanwhile, Pakistan cut off essential supplies to the state, such as petrol, sugar and salt. It also stopped trade in timber and other products, and suspended train services to Jammu.{{sfn|Ankit, October 1947|2010|p=9}}{{sfn|Jamal, Shadow War|2009|p=50}} Iftikharuddin returned in mid-September to report that the National Conference held strong in the Kashmir Valley and ruled out the possibility of a revolt.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

[[File:Murree Richtone(HDR).jpg|thumb|left|[[Murree]], overlooking Kashmir]]
Meanwhile, Sardar Ibrahim had escaped to West Punjab, along with dozens of rebels, and established a base in [[Murree]]. From there, the rebels attempted to acquire arms and ammunition for the rebellion and smuggle them into Kashmir. Colonel [[Akbar Khan (Pakistani general)|Akbar Khan]], one of a handful of high-ranking officers in the Pakistani Army,{{efn|According to scholar [[Christine Fair]], at the time of independence, Pakistan had one major general, two brigadiers, and six colonels, even though the requirements were for 13 major generals, 40 brigadiers, and 52 colonels.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fair |first=C. Christine |author-link=C. Christine Fair |title=Fighting to the End: The Pakistan Army's Way of War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szaTAwAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-989271-6 |page=58  }}</ref>}} with a keen interest in Kashmir, arrived in Murree, and got enmeshed in these efforts. He arranged 4,000 rifles for the rebellion by diverting them from the Army stores. He also wrote out a draft plan titled ''Armed Revolt inside Kashmir'' and gave it to Mian Iftikharuddin to be passed on to the Pakistan's Prime Minister.{{sfn|Guha, India after Gandhi|2008|loc=Section 4.II}}{{sfn|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|pp=105–106}}{{sfn|Nawaz, The First Kashmir War Revisited|2008|p=120}}

On 12 September, the Prime Minister held a meeting with Mian Iftikharuddin, Colonel Akbar Khan and another Punjab politician Sardar [[Shaukat Hayat Khan]]. Hayat Khan had a separate plan, involving the [[Muslim League National Guard]] and the militant Pashtun tribes from the [[Federally Administered Tribal Areas|Frontier regions]]. The Prime Minister approved both the plans, and despatched [[Khurshid Anwar (Major)|Khurshid Anwar]], the head of the Muslim League National Guard, to mobilise the Frontier tribes.{{sfn|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|pp=105–106}}{{sfn|Nawaz, The First Kashmir War Revisited|2008|p=120}}

[[File:Jawaharlal Nehru 1946.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Jawaharlal Nehru]], Prime Minister of India]]
The Maharaja was increasingly driven to the wall with the rebellion in the western districts and the Pakistani blockade. He managed to persuade Justice Mahajan to accept the post of Prime Minister (but not to arrive for another month, for procedural reasons). He sent word to the Indian leaders through Mahajan that he was willing to accede to India but needed more time to implement political reforms. However, it was India's position that it would not accept accession from the Maharaja unless it had the people's support. The Indian Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] demanded that Sheikh Abdullah should be released from prison and involved in the state's government. Accession could only be contemplated afterwards. Following further negotiations, Sheikh Abdullah was released on 29 September.{{sfn|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|p=106}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Victoria Schofield|title=Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rkTetMfI6QkC|year=2000|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-86064-898-4|page=44|quote=Nehru therefore suggested to Patel that the maharaja should 'make friends with the National Conference, 'so that there might be this popular support against Pakistan'. Nehru had hoped that the maharaja could be persuaded to accede to India before any invasion took place and he realised that accession would only be more easily accepted if Abdullah, as a popular leader, were brought into the picture.}}</ref>

Nehru, foreseeing a number of disputes over princely states, formulated a policy that states
{{blockquote|"wherever there is a dispute in regard to any territory, the matter should be decided by a referendum or plebiscite of the people concerned. We shall accept the result of this referendum whatever it may be."{{sfn|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|pp=49–51}}{{sfn|Dasgupta, War and Diplomacy in Kashmir|2014|pp=28–29}}}}
The policy was communicated to Liaquat Ali Khan on 1 October at a meeting of the Joint Defence Council. Khan's eyes are said to have "sparkled" at the proposal. However, he made no response.{{sfn|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|pp=49–51}}{{sfn|Dasgupta, War and Diplomacy in Kashmir|2014|pp=28–29}}
{{Clear}}

=== Operations in Poonch and Mirpur ===
{{Main|1947 Poonch rebellion}}

Armed rebellion started in the Poonch district at the beginning of October 1947.<ref name="ul-Hassan">{{citation |last=ul-Hassan |first=Syed Minhaj |title=Qaiyum Khan and the War of Kashmir, 1947–48 AD. |journal=FWU Journal of Social Sciences |volume=9 |number=1 |year=2015 |pages=1–7 |url=http://www.sbbwu.edu.pk/journal/Journal%20June%202015/1.%20Qaiyum%20Khan%20and%20the%20War%20of%20Kashmir,%20proof%20reading%20and%20APA.pdf |ref={{sfnref|ul Hassan, Qaiyum Khan and the War of Kashmir|2015}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309063114/http://www.sbbwu.edu.pk/journal/Journal%20June%202015/1.%20Qaiyum%20Khan%20and%20the%20War%20of%20Kashmir,%20proof%20reading%20and%20APA.pdf |archive-date=9 March 2017 |url-status=live  }}</ref><ref>{{citation |first=Sumit |last=Ganguly |title=Wars without End: The Indo-Pakistani Conflict |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=541 |date=September 1995 |pages=167–178 |publisher=Sage Publications |jstor=1048283 |ref={{sfnref|Ganguly, Wars without End|1995}} |doi=10.1177/0002716295541001012|s2cid=144787951 }}</ref>
The fighting elements consisted of "bands of deserters from the State Army, serving soldiers of the Pakistan Army on leave, ex-servicemen, and other volunteers who had risen spontaneously."{{sfn|Zaheer, The Times and Trial of the Rawalpindi Conspiracy|1998|p=113}}
The first clash is said to have occurred at [[Thorar]] (near [[Rawalakot]]) on 3–4 October 1947.<ref name="reg history">Regimental History Cell, ''History of the Azad Kashmir Regiment, Volume 1 (1947–1949)'',  Azad Kashmir Regimental Centre, NLC Printers, Rawalpindi,1997</ref>
The rebels quickly gained control of almost the entire Poonch district. The State Forces garrison at the [[Poonch (city)|Poonch city]] came under heavy siege.<ref>{{cite book |first=Sumantra |last=Bose |author-link=Sumantra Bose |title=Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-674-01173-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/00book939526581/page/100 100] |url=https://archive.org/details/00book939526581/page/100 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Copland |first=Ian |title=State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India, c. 1900–1950 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=squHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA143 |year=2005 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-0-230-00598-3 |page=143  }}</ref>

In the [[Kotli District|Kotli tehsil]] of the Mirpur district, border posts at Saligram and [[Owen Pattan]] on the Jhelum river were captured by rebels around 8 October. [[Sehnsa]] and [[Throchi]] were lost after some fighting.{{sfn|Cheema, Crimson Chinar|2015|p=57}}{{sfn|Palit, Jammu and Kashmir Arms|1972|p=162}} State Force records reveal that Muslim officers sent with reinforcements sided with the rebels and murdered the fellow state troops.{{sfnp|Brahma Singh, History of Jammu and Kashmir Rifles|2010|pp=235–236}}

Radio communications between the fighting units were operated by the Pakistan Army.{{sfn|Korbel, Danger in Kashmir|1966|p=94}} Even though the Indian Navy intercepted the communications, lacking intelligence in Jammu and Kashmir, it was unable to determine immediately where the fighting was taking place.<ref>{{cite book |last=Swami |first=Praveen |author-link=Praveen Swami |title=India, Pakistan and the Secret Jihad: The covert war in Kashmir, 1947–2004 |series=Asian Security Studies |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vrl8AgAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0-415-40459-4 |page=19  }}</ref>

== Accession of Kashmir ==
Following the rebellions in the Poonch and Mirpur area<ref name="lamb">Lamb, Alastair (1997), ''Incomplete partition: the genesis of the Kashmir dispute 1947–1948'', Roxford, {{ISBN|0-907129-08-0}}</ref> and the Pakistan-backed{{sfn|Prasad & Pal, Operations in Jammu & Kashmir |1987|p=18}} Pashtun tribal invasion from the [[North-West Frontier Province]],<ref name="snl">{{Cite web|url=http://snl.no/Kashmir-konflikten|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117185400/https://snl.no/Kashmir-konflikten|url-status=dead|title=Kashmir-konflikten|first=Gunnar|last=Filseth|date=13 November 2018|archive-date=17 November 2015|via=Store norske leksikon}}</ref><ref name="nrk">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nrk.no/urix/kashmir-konflikten-1.461250|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618000408/http://www.nrk.no/nyheter/verden/1.461250|url-status=dead|title=Kashmir-konflikten|date=2 January 2002|archive-date=18 June 2013|website=NRK}}</ref> the Maharaja asked for Indian military assistance. India set the condition that Kashmir must accede to India for it to receive assistance. The Maharaja complied, and the [[Government of India]] recognised the accession of the princely state to India. Indian troops were sent to the state to defend it.{{efn|Accession from Kashmir was requested mainly at the insistence of the Governor General Lord Mountbatten, who was congnizant of the apprehensions of the British military officers on both the sides over the possibility of an inter-dominion war.{{sfn|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|pp=52–53}} In fact, there was a [[Stand Down Order (1947)|Stand Down Order]] already issued by the Supreme Commander Claude Auchinleck that, in the event of an inter-Dominion war, all the British officers on both the sides should immediately stand down.{{sfnp|Dasgupta, War and Diplomacy in Kashmir|2014|pp=25–26}} However, Mountbatten's decision has been questioned by Joseph Korbel and biographer Philip Ziegler.{{sfn|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|pp=58–59}}}} The [[Jammu & Kashmir National Conference]] volunteers aided the [[Indian Army]] in its campaign to drive out the Pathan invaders.<ref name="Sayyid Mīr Qāsim">{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KNFJKap8YxwC| title = My Life and Times| publisher = Allied Publishers Limited| year = 1992| isbn = 9788170233558| access-date = 15 November 2015| archive-date = 6 February 2023| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230206113823/https://books.google.com/books?id=KNFJKap8YxwC| url-status = live}}</ref>

Pakistan refused to recognise the accession of Kashmir to India, claiming that it was obtained by "fraud and violence."{{sfn|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|p=61}} Governor General [[Mohammad Ali Jinnah]] ordered his Army Chief General Douglas Gracey to move Pakistani troops to Kashmir at once. However, the Indian and Pakistani forces were still under a joint command, and Field Marshal Auchinleck prevailed upon him to withdraw the order. With its accession to India, Kashmir became legally Indian territory, and the British officers could not a play any role in an inter-Dominion war.{{sfn|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|p=60}}<ref name="Connell1959">{{cite book |last=Connell |first=John |title=Auchinleck: A Biography of Field-Marshal Sir Claude Auchinleck |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ZYDAAAAMAAJ |year=1959 |publisher=Cassell}}</ref> The Pakistan Army made available arms, ammunition, and supplies to the rebel forces who were dubbed the "Azad Army". Pakistan Army officers "conveniently" on leave and the former officers of the [[Indian National Army]] were recruited to command the forces.

[[File:Pakistani Convoy heading to liberate kashmir.jpg|thumb|A Pakistan Army convoy advances in Kashmir]]

In May 1948, the Pakistan Army officially entered the conflict, in theory to defend the Pakistan borders, but it made plans to push towards Jammu and cut the lines of communications of the Indian forces in the Mehndar Valley.{{sfn|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|pp=65–67}} In [[Gilgit]], the force of [[Gilgit Scouts]] under the command of a British officer Major William Brown mutinied and overthrew the governor Ghansara Singh. Brown prevailed on the forces to declare accession to Pakistan.{{sfn|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|p=63}}<ref name="Brown2014">{{cite book|last=Brown|first=William|title=Gilgit Rebelion: The Major Who Mutinied Over Partition of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_l9tBQAAQBAJ|date=30 November 2014|publisher=Pen and Sword|isbn=978-1-4738-2187-3}}</ref> They are also believed to have received assistance from the [[Chitral Scouts]] and the [[Chitral Bodyguard|Bodyguard]] of the state of [[Chitral (princely state)|Chitral]], one of the [[princely states of Pakistan]], which had acceded to Pakistan on 6 October 1947.<ref>Martin Axmann, ''Back to the future: the Khanate of Kalat and the genesis of Baluch Nationalism 1915–1955'' (2008), p. 273</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uHQMAQAAMAAJ|title=Frontier facets: Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province|last=Tahir|first=M. Athar|year=2007|publisher=National Book Foundation; Lahore|language=en}}</ref>

== Stages of the war ==

=== Initial invasion ===

[[File:Pashtun Tribesmen Warriors during the 1st Kashmir War.jpg|thumb|Pashtun warriors from different tribes on their way to Kashmir]]
On 22 October 1947, [[Khurshid Anwar (Major)|Khurshid Anwar]] entered Kashmir near [[Muzaffarabad]] heading a lashkar of 4,000 tribesmen.{{sfn|Whitehead, A Mission in Kashmir|2007|p=60}} The Pashtun tribal attack was launched in the Muzaffarabad sector. The state forces stationed in the border regions around [[Muzaffarabad]] and Domel were quickly defeated by tribal forces (Muslim state forces mutinied and joined them) and the way to the capital was open. Among the raiders, there were many active Pakistani Army soldiers disguised as tribals. They were also provided logistical help by the Pakistan Army. Rather than advancing toward Srinagar before state forces could regroup or be reinforced, the invading forces remained in the captured cities in the border region engaging in looting and other crimes against their inhabitants.<ref>Tom Cooper, [http://www.acig.info/CMS/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=159 I Indo-Pakistani War, 1947–1949] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002104334/http://www.acig.info/CMS/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=159 |date=2 October 2016 }}, Air Combat Information Group, 29 October 2003</ref> In the [[Poonch River|Poonch valley]], the state forces retreated into towns where they were besieged.<ref>Ministry of Defence, Government of India. Operations in Jammu and Kashmir 1947–1948. (1987). Thomson Press (India) Limited, New Delhi. This is the Indian Official History.</ref>

Records indicate that the Pakistani tribals beheaded many Hindu and Sikh civilians in Jammu and Kashmir.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Iqbal |first1=Khuram |title=The Making of Pakistani Human Bombs |date=2015 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-1-4985-1649-5 |page=35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppkpCwAAQBAJ |language=en  }}</ref>
{{clear|left}}

=== Indian operation in the Kashmir Valley ===

After the accession, India airlifted troops and equipment to Srinagar under the command of Lt. Col. [[Dewan Ranjit Rai]], where they reinforced the princely state forces, established a defence perimeter and defeated the tribal forces on the outskirts of the city. After Khurshid Anwar and some of the tribesmen advanced again, about 1,000 of them reached [[Budgam]] by 3 November, which was within striking distance of the Srinagar airfield. Here they were [[Battle of Badgam|confronted by Indian troops]].{{sfn|Whitehead, A Mission in Kashmir|2007|pp=156}} 

The Indians managed on holding both the capital and airfield overnight against extreme odds. The successful defence included an outflanking manoeuvre by Indian [[Armored car (military)|armoured cars]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiandefencereview.com/interviews/defence-of-srinagar-1947/|title=Defence of Srinagar 1947|work=Indian Defence Review|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318174203/http://www.indiandefencereview.com/interviews/defence-of-srinagar-1947/|archive-date=18 March 2016}}</ref> during the [[Battle of Shalateng]]. The defeated tribal forces were pursued as far as [[Baramulla]] and [[Uri (India)|Uri]] and these towns, too, were recaptured.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

In the Poonch valley, tribal forces continued to besiege state forces.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

In [[Gilgit]], the state paramilitary forces, the [[Gilgit Scouts]], under the command of [[Major (rank)|Major]] [[William Brown (British Army officer)|William Brown]], joined the invading tribal forces, who thereby obtained control of this northern region of the state. The tribal forces were also joined by troops from [[Chitral (princely state)|Chitral]], whose ruler, [[Muzaffar ul-Mulk]] the Mehtar of Chitral, had acceded to Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8N7sAAAAMAAJ|title=Persistence and transformation in the Eastern Hindu Kush: a study of resource management systems in Mehlp Valley, Chitral, North Pakistan|last=Rahman|first=Fazlur|date=1 January 2007|publisher=In Kommission bei Asgard-Verlag|isbn=978-3-537-87668-3|page=32|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Wilcox">{{cite book |last=Wilcox |first=Wayne Ayres |title=Pakistan: The Consolidation of a Nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=59y9OwAACAAJ |year=1963 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-02589-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s5KMCwAAQBAJ|title=Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris|last=Snedden|first=Christopher|date=1 January 2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-1-84904-342-7|language=en}}</ref>

{{clear}}

=== Attempted link-up at Poonch and fall of Mirpur ===

Indian forces ceased pursuit of tribal forces after recapturing Uri and Baramula, and sent a [[relief column]] southwards, in an attempt to relieve Poonch. Although the relief column eventually reached Poonch, the siege could not be lifted. A second relief column reached [[Kotli]], and evacuated the garrisons of that town and others but were forced to abandon it being too weak to defend it. Meanwhile, Mirpur was captured by the tribal forces on 25 November 1947 with the help of Pakistan's [[PAVO Cavalry]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Effendi |first=Col. M. Y. |title=Punjab Cavalry: Evolution, Role, Organisation and Tactical Doctrine 11 Cavalry, Frontier Force, 1849–1971 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MeXeAAAAMAAJ |year=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Karachi |isbn=978-0-19-547203-5 |pages=157–160  }}</ref> This led to the [[1947 Mirpur massacre]] where Hindu women were reportedly abducted by tribal forces and taken into Pakistan. They were sold in the brothels of Rawalpindi. Around 400 women jumped into wells in Mirpur committing suicide to escape from being abducted.<ref>{{cite book |first=Colonel Tej K. |last=Tikoo |chapter=Genesis of Kashmir Problem and how it got Complicated: Events between 1931 and 1947 AD |title=Kashmir: Its Aborigines and their Exodus |publisher=Lancer Publishers |location=New Delhi, Atlanta |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-935501-58-9}}</ref>
{{clear left}}

=== Fall of Jhanger and attacks on Naoshera and Uri ===

The tribal forces attacked and captured [[Jhangar|Jhanger]]. They then attacked [[Nowshera, Jammu and Kashmir|Naoshera]] unsuccessfully, and made a series of unsuccessful attacks on [[Uri, Jammu and Kashmir|Uri]]. In the south a minor Indian attack secured [[Chhamb|Chamb]]. By this stage of the war the front line began to stabilise as more Indian troops became available.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}}

=== Operation Vijay: counterattack to Jhanger ===
The Indian forces launched a counterattack in the south recapturing Jhanger and Rajauri. In the Kashmir Valley the tribal forces continued attacking the Uri [[garrison]]. In the north, [[Skardu]] was brought under siege by the Gilgit Scouts.<ref name="Operations in Jammu and Kashmir 1947–1948 CLAW">{{cite web|last1=Singh|first1=Rohit|title=Operations in Jammu and Kashmir 1947–1948|url=http://www.claws.in/images/journals_doc/SW%20i-10.10.2012.150-178.pdf|website=Centre for Land Warfare Studies|pages=141–142|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020092019/http://www.claws.in/images/journals_doc/SW%20i-10.10.2012.150-178.pdf|archive-date=20 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Indian spring offensive ===
The Indians held onto Jhanger against numerous counterattacks, who were increasingly supported by regular Pakistani Forces. In the Kashmir Valley the Indians attacked, recapturing Tithwail. The Gilgit scouts made good progress in the High Himalayas sector, infiltrating troops to bring [[Leh]] under siege, capturing [[Kargil town|Kargil]] and defeating a relief column heading for Skardu.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}}

=== Operations Gulab and Eraze ===
{{main|Siege of Skardu}}

The Indians continued to attack in the Kashmir Valley sector driving north to capture Keran and Gurais ([[Operation Eraze]]).<ref name="Offl_Hist_1947">{{cite book |title=History of Operations in Jammu and Kashmir 1947–1948 |last1=Prasad|first1=S.N.|last2=Dharm Pal |year=1987 |publisher=History Department, Ministry of Defence, Government of India. (printed at Thomson Press (India) Limited) |location=New Delhi |page=418}}</ref>{{rp|308–324}} They also repelled a counterattack aimed at [[Teetwal]]. In the Jammu region, the forces besieged in Poonch broke out and temporarily linked up with the outside world again. The Kashmir State army was able to defend Skardu from the Gilgit Scouts impeding their advance down the Indus valley towards Leh. In August the [[Chitral Scouts]] and [[Chitral Bodyguard]] under Mata ul-Mulk besieged Skardu and with the help of artillery were able to take Skardu. This freed the Gilgit Scouts to push further into [[Ladakh]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7sneAAAAMAAJ|title=In the Line of Duty: A Soldier Remembers|last=Singh|first=Harbakhsh|date=1 January 2000|publisher=Lancer Publishers & Distributors|isbn=9788170621065|page=227|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TqTjAAAAMAAJ|title=The battles of Zojila, 1948|last=Bloeria|first=Sudhir S.|date=31 December 1997|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|page=72|isbn=9788124105092|language=en}}</ref>

=== Operation Bison ===
{{Main|Military operations in Ladakh (1948)}}

During this time the front began to settle down. The siege of Poonch continued. An unsuccessful attack was launched by [[77th Indian Infantry Brigade|77 Parachute Brigade]] (Brig Atal) to capture [[Zoji La]] pass. Operation Duck, the earlier epithet for this assault, was renamed as Operation Bison by [[Kodandera Madappa Cariappa|Cariappa]]. [[M5 Stuart|M5 Stuart light tanks]] of [[7th Light Cavalry|7 Cavalry]] were moved in dismantled conditions through Srinagar and winched across bridges while two field companies of the [[Madras Engineer Group|Madras Sappers]] converted the mule track across Zoji La into a jeep track. The surprise attack on 1 November by the brigade with armour supported by two regiments of [[Ordnance QF 25-pounder|25-pounder gun-howitzers]] and a regiment of [[QF 3.7-inch mountain howitzer|3.7-inch mountain guns]], forced the pass and pushed the tribal and Pakistani forces back to [[Matayan]] and later [[Dras]]. The brigade linked up on 24 November at [[Kargil town|Kargil]] with Indian troops advancing from [[Leh]] while their opponents eventually withdrew northwards toward [[Skardu]].<ref name="Rescue">{{cite book |title=Operation Rescue:Military Operations in Jammu & Kashmir 1947–49 |last=Sinha |first=Lt. Gen. S.K. |year=1977 |publisher=Vision Books |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-7094-012-5 |page=174 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMwBAAAAMAAJ  }}</ref>{{rp|103–127}} The Pakistani attacked the Skardu on 10 February 1948 which was repulsed by the Indian soldiers.<ref name="Ladakh And Kargil">{{cite book|last1=Malhotra|first1=A.|title=Trishul: Ladakh And Kargil 1947–1993|date=2003|publisher=Lancer Publishers|isbn=9788170622963|pages=5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rWKy6DOTO9YC&q=Sher+Jung+Thapa&pg=PA4}}</ref> Thereafter, the Skardu Garrison was subjected to continuous attacks by the [[Pakistan Army]] for the next three months and each time, their attack was repulsed by the Colonel [[Sher Jung Thapa]] and his men.<ref name="Ladakh And Kargil" /> Thapa held the Skardu with hardly 250 men for whole six long months without any reinforcement and replenishment.<ref name="In a State of Violent Peace: Voices from the Kashmir Valley">{{cite book|last1=Khanna|first1=Meera|title=In a State of Violent Peace: Voices from the Kashmir Valley|date=2015|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers|isbn=9789351364832|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LxTmCQAAQBAJ&q=Thapa+held+the+Skardu+with+hardly+250+men+for+six+long+months&pg=PT65}}</ref> On 14 August, Thapa had to surrender Skardu to the Pakistani Army<ref>{{Cite book|title=In a State of Violent Peace: Voices from the Kashmir Valley|last=Khanna|first=Meera|publisher=HarperCollins Publisher|year=2015|isbn=9789351364832}}</ref> and raiders after a year long siege.{{sfn|Barua|2005|pp=164–165}}

=== Operation Easy; Poonch link-up ===
{{Main|Military operations in Poonch (1948)}}

The Indians now started to get the upper hand in all sectors. [[Poonch (city)|Poonch]] was finally relieved after a siege of over a year. The Gilgit forces in the High Himalayas, who had previously made good progress, were finally defeated. The Indians pursued as far as Kargil before being forced to halt due to supply problems. The [[Zoji La]] pass was forced by using tanks (which had not been thought possible at that altitude) and Dras was recaptured.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}}

At 23.59 hrs on 1 January 1949, a United Nations-mediated ceasefire came into effect, bring the war to an end.{{sfn|Prasad & Pal, Operations in Jammu & Kashmir |1987|p=371}}

{{Clear|left}}

== Aftermath ==

[[File:Un-kashmir-jammu.png|thumb|right|The [[Line of Control]] between India and Pakistan agreed in the Simla Agreement (UN Map)]]

The terms of the ceasefire, laid out in a [[United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan|UN Commission]] resolution on 13 August 1948,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/uncom1.htm|title=Resolution adopted by the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan on 13 August 1948.|access-date=3 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307070548/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/uncom1.htm|archive-date=7 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> were adopted by the commission on 5 January 1949.This required Pakistan to withdraw its forces, both regular and irregular, while allowing India to maintain minimal forces within the state to preserve law and order. Upon compliance with these conditions, a [[plebiscite]] was to be held to determine the future of the territory. Owing to disagreements over the demilitarisation steps, a plebiscite was never held and the cease-fire line essentially became permanent. Some sources may refer to 5 January as the beginning of the ceasefire.<ref name="e049">{{cite book | last1=Pastor-Castro | first1=R. | last2=Thomas | first2=M. | title=Embassies in Crisis: Studies of Diplomatic Missions in Testing Situations | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Routledge Studies in Modern History | year=2020 | isbn=978-1-351-12348-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qzX7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT144| page=144}}</ref>

Indian losses in the war totalled 1,104 killed and 3,154 wounded;<ref name="Kargil from Surprise to Victory" /> Pakistani, about 6,000 killed and 14,000 wounded.<ref name="Honor and Glory" />

Numerous analysts state that the war ended in a stalemate, with neither side obtaining a clear victory.<ref>{{multiref|{{cite book|last=Lamb|first=Alastair|author-link=Alastair Lamb|title=Incomplete Partition: The Genesis of the Kashmir Dispute 1947–1948|publisher=Roxford Books|year=1997|pages=181, 197|quote= Following their open intervention, of course, the Indian strength on this sector, once established, increased rapidly; but never to such an extent as to threaten to overwhelm the Azad Kashmiri defenders. During the course of 1948 '''a stalemate was reached which has persisted more or less to the present day'''. A front line was stabilised which ran south from the Indian controlled Poonch salient, passed just west of Naoshera (which remained in Indian hands), and reached the old Punjab border (now that of Pakistan) a few miles to the west of the Chenab River. The Jammu & Kashmir State town garrisons to the west of this line were unable to hold out against Azad Kashmiri siege, many falling during the course of November 1947. The extreme south of this sector was really an extension of the Punjab plains; and here fighting could take place on a surprisingly large scale, so that in successive Indo-Pakistani Wars this was to be the scene of great clashes of armour and the use of tactical air power, at times of a magnitude which would have aroused notice in World War II <br/> As 1947 drew to a close, it was already possible to detect a pattern in the Kashmir conflict. The combination of the Azad Kashmiris and the Gilgit Scouts, with varying degrees of assistance both moral and material from Pakistan, had produced the beginnings of a '''stalemate''', and this the cleverer soldiers on both sides appreciated. India now had over 90,000 regular troops in Jammu & Kashmir and '''yet no quick military solution was in sight'''. There would, of course, be much fighting in the future. 1948 saw both the epic struggle for Poonch and, later in the year, the Indian victories at the Zoji La and Kargil which achieved control over the Leh-Srinagar road and not only gave India Possession of the Ladakhi capital but also access to the desolate Tibetan borderlands without which the Sino-Indian conflict of the late 1950s would certainly have assumed a rather different form. By the beginning of 1948, however, astute observers could well have concluded that some kind of partition.}}  | {{cite book|last=Kapur|first=S. Paul|title=Jihad as Grand Strategy: Islamist Militancy, National Security, and the Pakistani State|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2017|isbn=978-0-19-976852-3|pages=49–50|quote=Despite its '''inconclusive ending''', the first Kashmir war had two major results.  First, it demonstrated that nonstate actors could enable Pakistan to challenge India in a manner that limited the prospect of direct military confrontation ... Second, the war enhanced Kashmir's importance to Pakistan, extending the dispute well past the time of partition and transforming it into a contest of national resolve with India.}}|{{cite book|last=Margolis|first=Eric|title=War at the Top of the World: The Struggle for Afghanistan, Kashmir, and Tibet|publisher=Routledge|year=2001|isbn=0-415-92712-9|pages=121, 157|quote=Meanwhile, in typical tribal fashion, the Pathans delayed their attack on Srinagar and its airfield in order to devote themselves to looting and pillage. This delay allowed India time to mount an air bridge to Srinagar. The Indians used their entire inventory of thirty Dakota military transports to airlift a battalion of Sikhs, blood enemies of the Pathans, to Srinagar’s airfield. A three-thousand-man army brigade was rushed up the terrible roads from the plains to Kashmir. After a month of chaotic fighting, the Pathans and Muslim irregular forces were pushed westward by arriving Indian Army troops. '''Further inconclusive fighting''', which was joined in 1948 by regular Pakistani army units, sputtered on until the United Nations imposed a ceasefire in January 1949 between India and Pakistan.}} | {{Cite book|last1=Khan|first1=Feroz Hassan|last2=Lavoy|first2=Peter R.|last3=Clary|first3=Christopher|editor-last=Lavoy|editor-first=Peter R.|title=Asymmetric Warfare in South Asia: The Causes and Consequences of the Kargil Conflict|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|chapter=Pakistan's motivations and calculations for the Kargil conflict|page=71|quote=Kargil was a pivotal battleground during the First Kashmir War.  In October 1947, Gilgit Scouts, assisted by Muslim soldiers in the Kashmir state army, mounted a successful coup d'etat in the Northern Areas.  The so-called Azad (Free) Forces set up headquarters in the valley town of Astore.  The rebels then recruited additional volunteers in the Gilgit and Baltistan regions and moved along the valleys and Indus River while pushing back the Kashmir state army.  In February 1948, the "Azad Forces" besieged the garrison in Skardu where non-Muslim civilian and military personnel had taken refuge.  In response Pakistan's motivations and calculations for the Kargil In the end, the fighting proved '''inconclusive''', and Pakistani and Indian forces reached a military stalemate in Kashmir.  The negotiated Cease-Fire Line was codified in the Karachi Agreement of 1949}} | {{Cite book|last=Fortna|first=Virginia Page|title=Peace Time: Cease-Fire Agreements and the Duribility of Peace|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2017|isbn=978-0-691-11512-2|pages=59–61|quote=The war escalated toward the end of 1948, when Pakistan moved troops up from Lahore to fight in Jammu province, exposing itself to possible attack in the Punjab.  However, before the war spread beyond the Kashmir territory, and '''before a conclusive military outcome was reached on the battlefield''', a cease-fire was arranged by the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP), a five-member body send by the UN to help resolve the conflict.}} | {{cite book|last=Khan|first=Saira|title=Nuclear Weapons and Conflict Transformation: The Case of India-Pakistan|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|series=Asian Security Studies series|year=2009|isbn=978-0-20389176-6|page=91|quote=The first fifteen years of the India-Pakistan conflict witnessed violence of different intensities.  Even before institutionalizing their independence, India and Pakistan were locked in a crisis which led to their first war from 1947 to 1949.  Pakistan showed no hesitation in starting the war and India reciprocated in kind.  Though '''inconclusive''', the war has left a permanent mark on the India-Pakistan conflict.}}|{{Cite book |last=Mohan |first=Surinder|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=th6MEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA91 |title=Complex Rivalry: The Dynamics of India-Pakistan Conflict |date=6 October 2022 |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |isbn=978-0-472-22063-2 |language=en|page=91|quote=Later, when the outcome of the First Kashmir War did not favor either side, the resulting stalemate led to a puzzling division of Kashmir between the two adversaries.}} | {{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U0onSobrkREC&pg=PA194 |title=The International Ambitions of Mao and Nehru: National Efficacy Beliefs and the Making of Foreign Policy |date=29 December 2011 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-139-50193-4 |language=en|page=194|quote=Although certain minor operations were possible, India was essentially confronted with a stalemate.}} | {{Cite book |last=Fair |first=C. Christine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jjaTAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |title=Fighting to the End: The Pakistan Army's Way of War |date=2014 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-989270-9 |language=en|page=14|quote=Although the war ended in a stalemate with international intervention, Pakistan may have rightly concluded that the strategy of using irregular fighters succeeded.}} | {{Cite book |last=Gardner |first=Kyle J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xCoNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA237 |title=The Frontier Complex: Geopolitics and the Making of the India-China Border, 1846–1962 |date=21 January 2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-84059-0 |language=en|page=237|quote=In the stalemate that followed the first Indo-Pakistani War...}} |  {{Cite book |last=Alagappa |first=Muthiah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k-m0YnoBdwkC&pg=PA218 |title=The Long Shadow: Nuclear Weapons and Security in 21st Century Asia |date=2008 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8047-6086-7 |language=en|page=218|quote=That effort failed, and the ensuing war in 1947{{snd}}48 ended in a military stalemate.}} | {{Cite book |last=Ganguly |first=Sumit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rz4bJ3ejsisC&pg=PA94 |title=The Kashmir Question: Retrospect and Prospect |date=1 March 2004 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-135-75658-1 |language=en|page=94|quote=In January 1948, with a military stalemate at hand, India referred the Kashmir dispute to the UN.}} | {{Cite book |last1=Chari |first1=P. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9cSLKn2BoYIC&pg=PA15 |title=Four Crises and a Peace Process: American Engagement in South Asia |last2=Cheema |first2=Pervaiz Iqbal |last3=Cohen |first3=Stephen P. |date=19 March 2009 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0-8157-1386-9 |language=en|page=15|quote=With British officers present in both armies and the international community urging restraint, the conflict ended in a tactical and strategic stalemate.}} | {{Cite book |last=Sprague |first=Stanley B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jzUGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |title=Pakistan Since Independence: A History, 1947 to Today |date=12 November 2020 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-1-4766-8151-1 |language=en|page=29|quote=A stalemate developed, with neither side able to win an overwhelming victory.}} | {{Cite book |last=Snedden |first=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s5KMCwAAQBAJ |title=Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-1-84904-342-7 |language=en|page=185|quote=In the south of J&K, the war situation was essentially a stalemate by 1949.}} | {{Cite book |last=Quackenbush |first=Stephen L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l9c5DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA323 |title=International Conflict: Logic and Evidence |date=12 August 2014 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=978-1-4522-4098-5 |language=en|page=323|quote=The first Kashmir War between India and Pakistan lasted from October 1947 to January 1949 and ended in a stalemate...}} | {{Cite book |last=Ankit |first=Rakesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5RtqDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA63 |title=The Kashmir Conflict: From Empire to the Cold War, 1945–66 |date=17 June 2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-22525-6 |pages=63 |language=en|quote=The outcome was a stalemate in which India's democratic desires and Pakistan's security aims were stymied on the altar of greater concerns}} | {{Cite book |last=Behera |first=Navnita Chadha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h48nhaNzHxEC&pg=PA76 |title=Demystifying Kashmir |date=1 May 2007 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8157-0859-9 |language=en|quote=The 1947 war ended in a military stalemate|page=76}} | {{Cite book |last=Ray |first=Jayanta Kumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nyk6oA2nOlgC&pg=PA208 |title=Aspects of India's International Relations, 1700 to 2000: South Asia and the World |date=2007 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-0834-7 |language=en|page=208|quote=With the onset of winter and the consequent problems of maintaining the supply lines, the military situation reached a stalemate.}} | {{citation |last1=Duschinski|first1=Haley|last2=Bhan|first2=Mona|last3=Zia|first3=Ather|editor1-last=Duschinski|editor1-first=Haley|editor2-last=Bhan|editor2-first=Mona|editor3-last=Zia|editor3-first=Ather|editor4-last=Mahmood|editor4-first=Cynthia|title=Resisting Occupation in Kashmir|chapter=Introduction "Rebels of the Streets": Violence, Protest, and Freedom in Kashmir|publisher=Pennsylvania University Press|year=2018|isbn=978-0-8122-4978-1|page=2|quote=Since India's independence from British colonial rule and the subsequent partition in 1947, India and Pakistan, both of which claim sovereign control over the region, have found '''four inconclusive wars''' over Kashmir.}}}}</ref> Others, however, state that [[India]] emerged victorious as it successfully gained the majority of the contested territory.<ref>{{multiref|{{cite book | last=Ali | first=A. | title=Pakistan's National Security Approach and Post-Cold War Security: Uneasy Co-existence | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Routledge Studies in South Asian Politics | year=2021 | isbn=978-1-000-37239-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EKsXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 | access-date=22 December 2023 | page=34|quote=In the first Kashmir war, India occupied two-thirds of the disputed territory and Pakistan was clearly defeated during its first war with India.}}|{{cite book |last=Wilcox |first=Wayne Ayres |title=Pakistan: The Consolidation of a Nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=59y9OwAACAAJ |year=1963 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-02589-8 |page=66 |quote="The war for states had not only ended in Indian military victory but had given its leaders enormous self-confidence and satisfaction over a job well done."}} | {{cite book
|title=New Zealand Defence Quarterly, Issues 24–29
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fBcqAQAAIAAJ&q=invasion+1965
|year=1999
|publisher=New Zealand. Ministry of Defence
|quote="India won, and gained two-thirds of Kashmir, which it successfully held against another Pakistani invasion in 1965."
}}|{{cite book
|last1=Brozek
|first1=Jason
|title=War bellies: the critical relationship between resolve and domestic audiences
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t34IAQAAMAAJ
|year=2008
|publisher=University of Wisconsin—Madison
|isbn=978-1-109-04475-1
|page=142
|quote="the 1947 First Kashmir (won by India, according to MIDS classification)"
}} | {{cite book
|last1=Hoontrakul
|first1=Pongsak
|title=The Global Rise of Asian Transformation: Trends and Developments in Economic Growth Dynamics
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RrKYBgAAQBAJ&q=Indo-Pakistan+war+of+1947+victorious+India+defeated+Pakistan&pg=PA37
|year=2014
|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan
|edition=illustrated
|isbn=978-1-137-41235-5
|page=37
|quote="Victor: India, Defeated: Pakistan"
}} | {{cite book | author= [[David H. Kaplan]], Guntram H. Herb| title=Nations and Nationalism [4 volumes]: A Global Historical Overview [4 volumes] | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing | year=2008 | isbn=978-1-85109-908-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xxjOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1235 |quote=Pakistan lost all three wars, which is a major source of humiliation for Pakistanis. The first war (1947-1948) was fought over Kashmir, a predominately Muslim region that remained in India when India was portioned into two states. The war failed to secure Pakistan's sovereignty over the region as it left the majority of it under India. | page=1235}}|{{cite book | last=Hughes | first=G. | title=My Enemy's Enemy: Proxy Warfare in International Politics | publisher=Liverpool University Press | year=2012 | isbn=978-1-83764-186-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNXFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 | access-date=22 December 2023|quote=Pakistan has fought and lost four wars with India (1947, 1965, 1971 and 1999) | page=27}}}}</ref>

India gained control of about two-thirds of the Jammu and Kashmir princely state, including the [[Kashmir Valley]], the [[Jammu Division|Jammu province]] and [[Ladakh]]. Pakistan had control of one-third of the state: three western districts later named [[Azad Jammu and Kashmir]], and the northern areas including the Gilgit district, the Gilgit Agency and the [[Baltistan]] tehsil of the Ladakh district (later renamed Gilgit-Baltistan).<ref name="New Zealand Defence Quarterly">{{cite book
|title=New Zealand Defence Quarterly, Issues 24–29
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fBcqAQAAIAAJ&q=invasion+1965
|year=1999
|publisher=New Zealand. Ministry of Defence
|quote="India won, and gained two-thirds of Kashmir, which it successfully held against another Pakistani invasion in 1965."
}}</ref><ref name="South Asia in World Politics">{{cite book
|last1=Hagerty
|first1=Devin
|title=South Asia in World Politics
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ6PZ7g3Yw0C&q=indo+Pakistani+war+of+1947+india+gained+two+third+Kashmir&pg=PA460
|year=2005
|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield
|isbn=978-0-7425-2587-0
|page=460
}}</ref><ref name="The Kingfisher History Encyclopedia">{{cite book
|title=The Kingfisher History Encyclopedia
|url=https://archive.org/details/kingfisherhistor00edit
|url-access=registration
|quote=Indo Pakistani war of 1947: India gained two third Kashmir.
|year=2004
|publisher=Kingfisher
|isbn=978-0-7534-5784-9
|page=[https://archive.org/details/kingfisherhistor00edit/page/460 460]}}</ref><ref name="Raju Thomas">{{cite book
|last1=Thomas
|first1=Raju
|title=Perspectives on Kashmir: the roots of conflict in South Asia
|url=https://archive.org/details/perspectivesonka00thom |via=archive.org |url-access=registration
|year=1992
|publisher=Westview Press
|isbn=978-0-8133-8343-9
|page=[https://archive.org/details/perspectivesonka00thom/page/25 25]
}}</ref>

India and Pakistan signed the [[Karachi Agreement]] in July 1949 and established a ceasefire line to be supervised by observers. After the termination of the [[UNCIP]], the Security Council passed [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 91|Resolution 91]] (1951) and established a ''[[United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan]]'' (UNMOGIP) to observe and report violations of [[ceasefire]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmogip/background.shtml |title=UNMOGIP Background |access-date=29 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703115430/http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unmogip/background.shtml |archive-date=3 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Oxford>{{citation |last1=Shucksmith |first1=Christy |last2=White |first2=Nigel D. |chapter=United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) |editor1=Joachim Alexander Koops |editor2=Norrie MacQueen |editor3=Thierry Tardy |editor4=Paul D. Williams |title=The Oxford Handbook of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CTvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA139 |year=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-968604-9 |pages=139–}}
</ref>

The resentment over Pakistani defeat in the war resulted in a [[Rawalpindi conspiracy|failed coup]] led by General [[Akbar Khan (Pakistani general)|Akbar Khan]] in 1951 against the government of Prime Minister [[Liaquat Ali Khan]]. Army officers thought the government's acceptance of UN mediation and ceasefire was weak and squandered an opportunity to capture the entirety of Kashmir.<ref>{{cite book |author=Hasan Zaheer |year=1998 |title=The Times and Trial of the Rawalpindi Conspiracy 1951: The First Coup Attempt in Pakistan |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=xvi, 28–29 |isbn=978-0-19-577892-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=27 August 2009 |title=Rawalpindi conspiracy case, part 1 |work=The Nation |type=Opinion |url=https://www.nation.com.pk/27-Aug-2009/rawalpindi-conspiracy-case |url-status=live |access-date=19 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090828024544/http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/Opinions/Columns/27-Aug-2009/Rawalpindi-conspiracy-case |archive-date=28 August 2009 }}</ref><ref name="Ahmed 2020">{{cite book | last=Ahmed | first=T. | title=Literature and Politics in the Age of Nationalism: The Progressive Episode in South Asia, 1932–56 | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2020 | isbn=978-1-000-08394-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xGsJEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT128  | page=128}}</ref><ref name="Shaikh2018">{{cite book | last=Shaikh | first=Farzana | title=Making Sense of Pakistan | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2018 | isbn=978-0-19-006206-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1x2DDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT231  | page=231}}</ref>

After two further wars in [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965]] and [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971]], only minor changes in the ground situation had been effected. After the last war, the two countries reached the 1972 [[Simla Agreement]], converting the cease-fire line into a [[Line of Control]] and disavowing the use of force across it. In 1984, India gained [[Siachen]] after launching a [[Siachen conflict|short military action]].<ref name="Batra 2012">{{cite book | last=Batra | first=A. | title=Regional Economic Integration in South Asia: Trapped in Conflict? | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Routledge Contemporary South Asia Series | year=2012 | isbn=978-1-135-12984-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lsXfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76| page=76}}</ref>

{{Clear}}

== Military awards ==

=== Battle honours ===
After the war, a total of number of 11 [[battle honour]]s and one [[theatre honour]] were awarded to units of the Indian Army, the notable amongst which are:<ref name="Sarbans">{{cite book |title=Battle Honours of the Indian Army 1757&nbsp;– 1971 |last=Singh |first=Sarbans |year=1993 |publisher=Vision Books |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-7094-115-6 |pages=227–238 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ATfAAAAMAAJ }}</ref>
{{div col}}
* Jammu and Kashmir 1947–48 (theatre honour)
* Gurais
* Kargil
* Naoshera
* Punch
* Rajouri
* Srinagar
* Teetwal
* Zoji La
{{div col end}}

=== Gallantry awards ===
For bravery, a number of soldiers and officers were awarded the highest gallantry award of their respective countries. Following is a list of the recipients of the Indian award [[Param Vir Chakra]], and the Pakistani award [[Nishan-E-Haider]]:

;India
* Major [[Som Nath Sharma]] (Posthumous)
* [[Lance Naik]] [[Karam Singh]]
* [[Second Lieutenant]] [[Rama Raghoba Rane]]
* [[Naik (military rank)|Naik]] [[Jadu Nath Singh]] (Posthumous)
* [[Company Havildar Major]] [[CHM Piru Singh|Piru Singh Shekhawat]] (Posthumous)

;Pakistan
* [[Raja Muhammad Sarwar|Captain Muhammad Sarwar]]
* [[Saif Ali Janjua|Naik Saif Ali Janjua]] (Posthumous)

== See also ==
* [[Siege of Skardu]]
* [[Operation Desert Hawk|Rann of Kuch War]]
* [[Battle of Badgam]]
* [[India–Pakistan war of 1965]]
* [[Sino-Indian War]]
* [[Nathu La and Cho La clashes]]
* [[India–Pakistan wars and conflicts]]
* [[Kargil War]]
* [[Mohammad Usman|Brigadier Mohammad Usman]]
* [[Siachen conflict]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal |first=Rakesh |last=Ankit |title=Henry Scott: The forgotten soldier of Kashmir |journal=Epilogue |volume=4 |number=5 |url=https://documents.mx/documents/epilogue-magazine-may-2010.html |date=May 2010 |pages=44–49 |ref={{sfnref|Ankit, Henry Scott|2010}} |access-date=6 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012042756/https://documents.mx/documents/epilogue-magazine-may-2010.html |archive-date=12 October 2017 |url-status=dead }}
* {{citation |first=Rakesh |last=Ankit |title=The Problem of Poonch |journal=Epilogue |volume=4 |number=8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DpQh00eGEB0C&pg=PA8 |date=August 2010 |pages=8–49 |ref={{sfnref|Ankit, The Problem of Poonch|2010}}}}
* {{citation |first=Rakesh |last=Ankit |title=October 1947 |journal=Epilogue |volume=4 |number=11 |date=November 2010 |pages=9– |url=https://documents.mx/documents/epilogue-magazine-november-2010.html |ref={{sfnref|Ankit, October 1947|2010}} |access-date=28 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221222454/https://documents.mx/documents/epilogue-magazine-november-2010.html |archive-date=21 February 2018 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last=Ankit |first=Rakesh |title=The Kashmir Conflict: From Empire to the Cold War, 1945–66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5RtqDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-22525-6 |ref={{sfnref|Ankit, Kashmir Conflict: From Empire to the Cold War|2016}}}}
** {{citation |last=Ankit |first=Rakesh |title=Kashmir, 1945–66: From Empire to the Cold War |url=https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/370019/ |date=2014 |publisher=University of Southampton |type=phd |ref={{sfnref|Ankit, Kashmir, 1945–66|2014}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Bajwa |first=Kuldip Singh |title=Jammu and Kashmir War, 1947–1948: Political and Military Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7bREjE5yXNMC&pg=PA83 |year=2003 |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=978-81-241-0923-6 |ref={{sfnref|Bajwa, Jammu and Kashmir War|2003}}}}
* {{citation |first=Yaqoob Khan |last=Bangash |title=Three Forgotten Accessions: Gilgit, Hunza and Nagar |journal=The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History |volume=38 |number=1 |year=2010 |pages=117–143 |doi=10.1080/03086530903538269  |s2cid=159652497 |ref={{sfnref|Bangash, Three Forgotten Accessions|2010}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Barua |first=Pradeep |title=Gentlemen of the Raj: The Indian Army Officer Corps, 1817–1949 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-U8IUoC_tP0C&pg=PA133 |year=2003 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-97999-7 |pages=133– |ref={{sfnref|Barua, Gentlemen of the Raj|2003}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Barua |first1=Pradeep |title=The State at War in South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIIQhuAOGaIC |year=2005 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-1344-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Bhattacharya |first=Brigadier Samir |title=NOTHING BUT!: Book Three: What Price Freedom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HESVAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 |date=2013 |publisher=Partridge Publishing |isbn=978-1-4828-1625-9 |pages=42– |ref={{sfnref|Bhattacharya, What Price Freedom|2013}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Brahma Singh |first=K. |title=History of Jammu and Kashmir Rifles, 1820–1956: The State Force Background |publisher=Lancer International |isbn=978-81-7062-091-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=psTeAAAAMAAJ |year=1990 |ref={{sfnref|Brahma Singh, History of Jammu and Kashmir Rifles|1990}}}}
** {{citation |last=Brahma Singh |first=K. |title=History of Jammu and Kashmir Rifles, 1820–1956: The State Force Background |publisher=brahmasingh.co.nf |year=2010 |orig-year=1990 |isbn=978-81-7062-091-4 |url=http://www.brahmasingh.co.nf/books/history%20of%20jammu%20and%20kashmir%20rifles.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306195332/http://www.brahmasingh.co.nf/books/history%20of%20jammu%20and%20kashmir%20rifles.pdf |archive-date=6 March 2016 |url-status=dead |ref={{sfnref|Brahma Singh, History of Jammu and Kashmir Rifles|2010}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Cheema |first=Brig Amar |title=The Crimson Chinar: The Kashmir Conflict: A Politico Military Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qc25BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA51 |date=2015 |publisher=Lancer Publishers |isbn=978-81-7062-301-4 |pages=51– |ref={{sfnref|Cheema, Crimson Chinar|2015}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Dasgupta |first=C. |author-link=Chandrashekhar Dasgupta |title=War and Diplomacy in Kashmir, 1947–48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEtuAAAAMAAJ |date=2014 |orig-year=2002 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-81-321-1795-7 |ref={{sfnref|Dasgupta, War and Diplomacy in Kashmir|2014}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Effendi |first=Col. M. Y. |title=Punjab Cavalry: Evolution, Role, Organisation and Tactical Doctrine 11 Cavalry, Frontier Force, 1849–1971 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MeXeAAAAMAAJ |year=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Karachi |isbn=978-0-19-547203-5 |ref={{sfnref|Effendi, Punjab Cavalry|2007}}}}
* {{cite book |first=Ramachandra |last=Guha |author-link=Ramachandra Guha |title=India after Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy |publisher=Pan Macmillan |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-330-39611-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=29lXtwoeA44C |ref={{sfnref|Guha, India after Gandhi|2008}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Hajari |first=Nisid |author-link=Nisid Hajari |title=Midnight's Furies: The Deadly Legacy of India's Partition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OJGdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA185 |year=2015 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-0-547-66924-3 |pages=185– |ref={{sfnref|Hajari, Midnight's Furies|2015}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Hiro |first=Dilip |title=The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PpPCBAAAQBAJ |date=2015 |publisher=Nation Books |isbn=978-1-56858-503-1 |ref={{sfnref|Hiro, Longest August|2015}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Jamal |first=Arif |title=Shadow War: The Untold Story of Jihad in Kashmir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TNO5MAAACAAJ |year=2009 |publisher=Melville House |isbn=978-1-933633-59-6 |ref={{sfnref|Jamal, Shadow War|2009}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Joshi |first=Manoj |title=Kashmir, 1947–1965: A Story Retold |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uAT3oENcxDgC |year=2008 |publisher=India Research Press |isbn=978-81-87943-52-5 |ref={{sfnref|Joshi, Kashmir, 1947–1965: A Story Retold|2008}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Hodson |first=H. V. |title=The Great Divide: Britain, India, Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MC2UoAEACAAJ |year=1969 |publisher=Hutchinson |location=London |isbn=978-0-09-097150-3 |ref={{sfnref|Hodson, The Great Divide|1969}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Korbel |first=Josef |author-link=Josef Korbel |title=Danger in Kashmir |publisher=Princeton University Press |edition=second |year=1966 |isbn=978-1-4008-7523-8 |orig-year=1954 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Q7WCgAAQBAJ |ref={{sfnref|Korbel, Danger in Kashmir|1966}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Mahajan |first=Mehr Chand |author-link=Mehr Chand Mahajan |title=Looking Back: The Autobiography of Mehr Chand Mahajan, Former Chief Justice of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AW5u9QSxCFwC |year=1963 |publisher=Asia Publishing House |ref={{sfnref|Mahajan, Looking Back|1963}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Massey |first1=Reginald |title=Azaadi! |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkWcmnro4fkC |year=2005 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-469-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Moore |first=Robin James |title=Making the new Commonwealth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b_l-AAAAIAAJ |year=1987 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-820112-0 |ref={{sfnref|Moore, Making the new Commonwealth|1987}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Palit |first=D. K. |title=Jammu and Kashmir Arms: History of the J & K Rifles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KGZDnzqQj2QC |year=1972 |publisher=Palit & Dutt |ref={{sfnref|Palit, Jammu and Kashmir Arms|1972}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Prasad |first1=Sri Nandan |last2=Pal |first2=Dharm |title=Operations in Jammu & Kashmir, 1947–48 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.116302 |year=1987 |publisher=History Division, Ministry of Defence, Government of India |ref={{sfnref|Prasad & Pal, Operations in Jammu & Kashmir |1987}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Raghavan |first=Srinath |title=War and Peace in Modern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EbtBJb1bsHUC&pg=PA101 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819204817/https://books.google.com/books?id=EbtBJb1bsHUC&pg=PA101 |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 August 2019 |date=2010 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-00737-7 |pages=101– |ref={{sfnref|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010}} }}
* {{citation |last=Nawaz |first=Shuja |title=The First Kashmir War Revisited |date=May 2008 |journal=India Review |volume=7 |number=2 |pages=115–154 |doi=10.1080/14736480802055455 |issn=1473-6489 |s2cid=155030407}}
* {{citation |first=Shuja |last=Nawaz |title=The First Kashmir War Revisited |journal=India Review |volume=7 |number=2 |pages=115–154 |doi=10.1080/14736480802055455 |date=May 2008  |s2cid=155030407 |ref={{sfnref|Nawaz, The First Kashmir War Revisited|2008}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Nawaz |first=Shuja |title=Crossed Swords: Pakistan, Its Army, and the Wars Within |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jKyfAAAAMAAJ |year=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-547660-6 |ref={{sfnref|Nawaz, Crossed Swords|2008}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Sarila |first=Narendra Singh |title=The Shadow of the Great Game: The Untold Story of India's Partition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WW5FPgAACAAJ |year=2007 |publisher=Constable |isbn=978-1-84529-588-2 |ref={{sfnref|Sarila, The Shadow of the Great Game|2007}}}}
* {{cite book |first=Victoria |last=Schofield |author-link=Victoria Schofield |title=Kashmir in Conflict |publisher=I. B. Taurus & Co |location=London and New York |year=2003 |orig-year=2000 |isbn=1-86064-898-3 |ref={{sfnref|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003}} |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/00book584554548 }}
* {{cite book |first=Christopher |last=Snedden |author-link=Christopher Snedden |title=Kashmir: The Unwritten History |publisher=HarperCollins India |year=2013 |isbn=978-9350298985 |orig-year=first published as ''The Untold Story of the People of Azad Kashmir'', 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0cPjAAAAQBAJ |ref={{sfnref|Snedden, Kashmir: The Unwritten History|2013}}}}
* {{citation |last=Whitehead |first=Andrew |title=A Mission in Kashmir |url=http://www.andrewwhitehead.net/full-text-a-mission-in-kashmir.html |year=2007 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-670-08127-1 |ref={{sfnref|Whitehead, A Mission in Kashmir|2007}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Zaheer |first=Hasan |title=The Times and Trial of the Rawalpindi Conspiracy, 1951: The First Coup Attempt in Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rjNuAAAAMAAJ |year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-577892-2 |ref={{sfnref|Zaheer, The Times and Trial of the Rawalpindi Conspiracy|1998}}}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
;Major sources:
* {{aut|Ministry of Defence,  Government of India}}. ''Operations in Jammu and Kashmir 1947–1948''. (1987). Thomson Press (India) Limited, New Delhi. This is the Indian Official History.
* {{aut|Lamb, Alastair}}. ''Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, 1846–1990''. (1991). Roxford Books. {{ISBN|0-907129-06-4}}.
* {{aut|Praval, K.C.}} ''The Indian Army After Independence''. (1993). Lancer International, {{ISBN|1-897829-45-0}}
* {{aut|Sen, Maj Gen L.P.}} ''Slender Was The Thread: The Kashmir confrontation 1947–1948.'' (1969). Orient Longmans Ltd, New Delhi.
* {{aut|Vas, Lt Gen. E. A.}} ''Without Baggage:  A personal account of the Jammu and Kashmir Operations 1947–1949''. (1987). Natraj Publishers Dehradun. {{ISBN|81-85019-09-6}}.

;Other sources:
* {{aut|Cohen, Lt Col Maurice}}. ''Thunder over Kashmir''. (1955). Orient Longman Ltd. Hyderabad
* {{aut|Hinds, Brig Gen SR}}. ''Battle of Zoji La''. (1962). Military Digest, New Delhi.
* {{aut|Sandhu, Maj Gen Gurcharan}}. ''The Indian Armour:  History Of The Indian Armoured Corps 1941–1971''. (1987). Vision Books Private Limited, New Delhi,  {{ISBN|81-7094-004-4}}.
* {{aut|Singh, Maj K Brahma}}. ''History of Jammu and Kashmir Rifles (1820–1956)''. (1990). Lancer International New Delhi, {{ISBN|81-7062-091-0}}.
* Ayub, Muhammad (2005). ''An army, Its Role and Rule: A History of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil, 1947–1999''. RoseDog Books. {{ISBN|9780805995947}}.

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110405210142/http://indianarmy.nic.in/Site/FormTemplete/frmTempSimple.aspx?MnId=BfMpdR9l1kE=&ParentID=a2GSpnDbruI= Partition and Indo Pak War of 1947–48], Indian Army, archived 5 April 2011.

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