View source for Archaeology

{{Short description|Study of human activity based on materials left behind}}
{{other uses}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=December 2024}}
[[File:Dolina-Pano-3 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Excavations at [[Archaeological site of Atapuerca|Atapuerca]], an archaeological site in Spain]]
'''Archaeology''' or '''archeology'''{{efn|name=spelling}} is the study of human activity through the recovery and [[analysis]] of [[material culture]]. The [[archaeological record]] consists of [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]], [[architecture]], [[biofact (archaeology)|biofacts]] or ecofacts, [[archaeological site|sites]], and [[cultural landscape]]s. Archaeology can be considered both a [[social science]] and a branch of the [[humanities]].<ref name=Renfrew_Bahn1991 /><ref>{{cite journal |author=Sinclair, A. |year=2016 |title=The Intellectual Base of Archaeological Research 2004–2013: A visualisation and analysis of its disciplinary links, networks of authors, and conceptual language |journal=Internet Archaeology |issue=42 |doi=10.11141/ia.42.8 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sinclair |first=A. |year=2022 |title=Archaeological Research 2014 to 2021: an examination of its intellectual base, collaborative networks and conceptual language using science maps |journal=Internet Archaeology |issue=59 |doi=10.11141/ia.59.10 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It is usually considered an independent [[academic discipline]], but may also be classified as part of [[anthropology]] (in North America – the [[four-field approach]]), [[history]] or [[geography]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kristiansen |first=Kristian |title=The Oxford Handbook of Archaeology |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-174344-3 |chapter=The Discipline of Archaeology |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/27983/chapter-abstract/211656821}}</ref> The discipline involves [[Survey (archaeology)|surveying]], [[Archaeological excavation|excavation]], and eventually [[Post excavation|analysis]] of data collected, to learn more about the past. In broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research.

Archaeologists study human [[prehistory]] and [[history]], from the development of the first [[stone tool]]s at [[Lomekwi]] in East Africa 3.3&nbsp;million years ago up until recent decades.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roche |first1=Hélène |last2=Kent |first2=Dennis V. |last3=Kirwa |first3=Christopher |last4=Lokorodi |first4=Sammy |last5=Wright |first5=James D. |last6=Mortlock |first6=Richard A. |last7=Leakey |first7=Louise |last8=Brugal |first8=Jean-Philip |last9=Daver |first9=Guillaume |display-authors=6 |date=May 2015 |title=3.3&nbsp;million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi&nbsp;3, West Turkana, Kenya |journal=Nature |volume=521 |issue=7552 |pages=310–315 |doi=10.1038/nature14464 |pmid=25993961 |bibcode=2015Natur.521..310H |s2cid=1207285 |issn=1476-4687 |url=https://hal.science/hal-01159189 }}</ref> Archaeology is distinct from [[palaeontology]], which is the study of [[fossil]] remains. Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for which, by definition, there are no written records. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the [[Paleolithic]] until the advent of literacy in societies around the world.<ref name=Renfrew_Bahn1991 /> Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding [[culture history]] to reconstructing past [[lifeway]]s to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is archaeology? – Archaeology definition |website=Live Science |date=28 March 2014 |url=https://www.livescience.com/44448-what-is-archaeology.html |access-date=25 August 2017 |archive-date=21 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221143606/https://www.livescience.com/44448-what-is-archaeology.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Derived from Greek, the term ''archaeology'' means "the study of ancient history".<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-510815-6 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195108156.001.0001/acref-9780195108156 |access-date=22 July 2020 |archive-date=9 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809084502/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195108156.001.0001/acref-9780195108156 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Archaeology developed out of [[antiquarianism]] in Europe during the 19th century, and has since become a discipline practiced around the world. Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past.<ref name="Encyclopédie d'histoire numérique de l'Europe">{{cite web |title=Archaeology as a Central Issue in the Creation of Identity |website=Encyclopédie d'histoire numérique de l'Europe |url=https://ehne.fr/en/encyclopedia/themes/arts-in-europe/nationalist-speeches-art-during-19th-century/archaeology-a-central-issue-in-creation-identity |access-date=2022-12-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bueno |first=Christina |year=2016 |title=The Pursuit of Ruins: Archaeology, History, and the Making of Modern Mexico |location=Albuquerque |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |pages=25&nbsp;ff}}</ref> Since its early development, various specific sub-disciplines of archaeology have developed, including [[maritime archaeology]], [[feminist archaeology]], and [[archaeoastronomy]], and numerous different scientific techniques have been developed to aid archaeological investigation. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with [[pseudoarchaeology]], the [[Archaeological looting|looting]] of artifacts,<ref>{{cite news |first=Pablo |last=Markin |date=10 April 2017 |title=A special issue of ''Open Archaeology'' on non-professional metal-detecting |website=Open Science |type=blog |publisher=de Gruyter |url=http://openscience.com/a-special-issue-of-open-archaeology-on-non-professional-metal-detecting/ |access-date=2022-06-14 <!-- prev= 11 April 2017 --> |archive-date=28 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028212253/http://openscience.com/a-special-issue-of-open-archaeology-on-non-professional-metal-detecting/}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Edward B. |last=Banning |date=29 May 2019 |title=The archaeological impacts of metal detecting |journal=Open Archaeology |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=180–186 |issn=2300-6560 |doi=10.1515/opar-2019-0013 |doi-access=free}}</ref> a lack of public interest, and opposition to the excavation of human remains.

== History ==
{{Main|History of archaeology}}

=== First instances of archaeology ===
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
 | align = right
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 | header=Excavations of Nabonidus ({{Circa|550 BC}})
 | image1 = Nabonidus cylinder sippar bm1.jpg
 | caption1 = [[Cylinders of Nabonidus|Nabonidus cylinder from Sippar]]
 | image2 = Nabonidus cylinder from Sippar (extract about Naram-Sin and Sargon).jpg
 | caption2 = Extract describing the excavation
 | footer_align=center
 | footer=[[Cuneiform]] account of the excavation of a foundation deposit belonging to [[Naram-Sin of Akkad]] (ruled {{circa|2200&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}), by king [[Nabonidus]] (ruled {{circa|550&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}).<ref name="RS" /><ref name="RLK" />
}}
In [[Mesopotamia|Ancient Mesopotamia]], a foundation deposit of the [[Akkadian Empire]] ruler [[Naram-Sin of Akkad|Naram-Sin]] (ruled {{circa|2200&nbsp;BC}}) was discovered and analysed by king [[Nabonidus]], {{circa|550&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}, who is thus known as the first archaeologist.<ref name="RS">{{cite book |last1=Silverberg |first1=Robert |year=1997 |title=Great Adventures in Archaeology |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-9247-5 |page=viii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ic2za8bZeYAC&pg=PR8 |access-date=10 June 2020}}</ref><ref name="RLK">{{cite book |last1=Kelly |first1=Robert L. |last2=Thomas |first2=David Hurst |title=Archaeology: Down to Earth |year=2013 |publisher=Cengage |isbn=978-1-133-60864-6 |page=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LC0lzyqLi6gC&pg=PA2 |access-date=10 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Watrall |first=Ethan |title=Lecture&nbsp;2 |series=History of Archaeology (ANP203) |url=http://anthropology.msu.edu/anp203h-ss14/files/2013/08/ANP203-History-of-Archaeology-Lecture-2-.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408224102/http://anthropology.msu.edu/anp203h-ss14/files/2013/08/ANP203-History-of-Archaeology-Lecture-2-.pdf |archive-date=8 April 2014 |publisher=Anthropology.msu.edu |access-date=7 April 2014}}</ref> Not only did he lead the first excavations which were to find the foundation deposits of the temples of [[Shamash|Šamaš]] the sun god, the warrior goddess [[Annunitum|Anunitu]] (both located in [[Sippar]]), and the sanctuary that Naram-Sin built to the moon god, located in [[Harran]], but he also had them restored to their former glory.<ref name="RS" /> He was also the first to date an archaeological artifact in his attempt to date Naram-Sin's temple during his search for it.<ref name=hirst>{{cite web |last=Hirst |first=K. Kris |title=The History of Archaeology Part&nbsp;1 |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/the-first-archaeologists-167134 |publisher=ThoughtCo.com |access-date=April 5, 2014 |archive-date=19 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119023505/http://archaeology.about.com/cs/educationalresour/a/history1.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Even though his estimate was inaccurate by about 1,500 years, it was still a very good one considering the lack of accurate dating technology at the time.<ref name="RS" /><ref name=hirst /><ref name="RLK" />

=== Antiquarians ===
{{Main|Antiquarian}}
{{further|History of Chinese archaeology}}
[[File:Ciriaco d'Ancona di Benozzo Gozzoli.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[Cyriacus of Ancona]] (fresco by [[Benozzo Gozzoli]])]]
The science of archaeology (from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|ἀρχαιολογία}} {{tlit|grc|archaiologia}}, from {{lang|grc|ἀρχαῖος}}, {{tlit|grc|arkhaios}} 'ancient' and {{lang|grc|-λογία}}, {{tlit|grc|-logia}} 'study')<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=archaeology |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=archaeology |dictionary=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]] |access-date=26 December 2013 |archive-date=27 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227114545/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=archaeology |url-status=live}}</ref> grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as [[antiquarian]]ism. Antiquarians studied history with particular attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts, as well as historical sites. Antiquarianism focused on the empirical evidence that existed for the understanding of the past, encapsulated in the motto of the 18th&nbsp;century antiquary, [[Richard Colt Hoare]]: "We speak from facts, not theory". Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a [[science]] took place during the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment period]] in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hirst |first=K. Kris |date=9 February 2017 |title=The history of archaeology: How ancient relic hunting became science |website=[[about.com]] |url=http://archaeology.about.com/od/historyofarchaeology/a/history_series.htm |access-date=8 April 2018 |archive-date=11 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611094527/http://archaeology.about.com/od/historyofarchaeology/a/history_series.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>

In [[Imperial China]] during the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279), figures such as [[Ouyang Xiu]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Ebrey |first=Patricia Buckley |year=1999 |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of China |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=148 |isbn=0-521-66991-X |edition=paperback}}</ref> and [[Zhao Mingcheng]] established the tradition of Chinese [[epigraphy]] by investigating, preserving, and analyzing ancient [[Chinese bronze inscriptions]] from the [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] periods.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rudolph |first=R. C. |year=1963 |title=Preliminary notes on Sung archaeology |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=22 |number=2 |pages=169–177, esp. 171 |doi=10.2307/2050010 |jstor=2050010 |s2cid=164153713}}</ref><ref name=Trigger-2006>{{cite book |last=Trigger |first=Bruce G. |year=2006 |title=A History of Archaeological Thought |edition=2nd |place=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-84076-7}}</ref>{{rp|style=ama|p=74}}<ref name=Clunas-2004>{{cite book |last=Clunas |first=Craig |year=2004 |title=Superfluous Things: Material culture and social status in early modern China |place=Honolulu |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=0-8248-2820-8}}</ref>{{rp|style=ama|p=95}} In [[Dream Pool Essays|his book]] published in 1088, [[Shen Kuo]] criticized contemporary Chinese scholars for attributing ancient bronze vessels as creations of famous sages rather than artisan commoners, and for attempting to revive them for ritual use without discerning their original functionality and purpose of manufacture.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fraser |first1=Julius Thomas |last2=Haber |first2=Francis C. |year=1986 |title=Time, Science, and Society in China and the West |place=Amherst |publisher=University of Massachusetts Press |isbn=0-87023-495-1 |page=227}}</ref> Such antiquarian pursuits waned after the Song period, were revived in the 17th century during the [[Qing dynasty]], but were always considered a branch of [[Chinese historiography]] rather than a separate discipline of archaeology.<ref name=Trigger-2006 />{{rp|style=ama|pp=74–76}}<ref name=Clunas-2004 />{{rp|style=ama|p=97}}

In [[Renaissance Europe]], philosophical interest in the remains of [[Ancient Greece|Greco]]-[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late [[Middle Ages]], with [[Renaissance humanism|humanism]].

[[Cyriacus of Ancona]] was a restlessly itinerant Italian [[Renaissance humanism|humanist]] and [[antiquarian]] who came from a prominent family of merchants in [[Republic of Ancona|Ancona]], a [[maritime republics|maritime republic]] on the [[Adriatic]]. He was called by his contemporaries ''pater antiquitatis'' ('father of antiquity') and today "father of classical archaeology": ''"Cyriac of Ancona was the most enterprising and prolific recorder of Greek and Roman antiquities, particularly inscriptions, in the fifteenth century, and the general accuracy of his records entitles him to be called the founding father of modern classical archeology."''<ref>Edward W. Bodnar, ''Later travels'', with Clive Foss, introduction (pp. ix-xxiii)</ref> He travelled throughout Greece and all around the Eastern Mediterranean, to record his findings on ancient buildings, statues and inscriptions, including archaeological remains still unknown to his time: the [[Parthenon]], [[Delphi]], the [[Egyptian pyramids]], the [[hieroglyphics]].<ref>E. W. Bodnar, ''Cyriacus of Ancona and Athens'', Bruxelles-Berchem, 1960.</ref> He noted down his archaeological discoveries in his diary, ''Commentaria'' (in six volumes).

[[Flavio Biondo]], an Italian Renaissance humanist historian, created a systematic guide to the ruins and [[topography of ancient Rome]] in the early 15th century, for which he has been called an early founder of archaeology.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Flavio Biondo |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica |date=31 May 2021 |edition=Online |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Flavio-Biondo |access-date=27 October 2021 |archive-date=27 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027152435/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Flavio-Biondo |url-status=live}}</ref>

Antiquarians of the 16th century, including [[John Leland (antiquary)|John Leland]] and [[William Camden]], conducted surveys of the English countryside, drawing, describing and interpreting the monuments that they encountered.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=John Leland |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica |edition=Online |date=14 April 2021 |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Leland |access-date=27 October 2021 |archive-date=22 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422103503/https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Leland |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=William Camden |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica |edition=Online |date=28 April 2021 |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Camden |access-date=27 October 2021 |archive-date=27 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027153034/https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Camden |url-status=live}}</ref>

The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' first cites "archaeologist" from 1824; this soon took over as the usual term for one major branch of antiquarian activity. "Archaeology", from 1607 onward, initially meant what we would call "ancient history" generally, with the narrower modern sense first seen in 1837. However, it was [[Jacob Spon]] who, in 1685, offered one of the earliest definitions of ''"archaeologia"'' to describe the study of antiquities in which he was engaged, in the preface of a collection of [[Epigraphy|transcriptions of Roman inscriptions]] which he had gleaned over the years of his travels, entitled ''Miscellanea eruditae antiquitatis.''

In archeological terminology, such descriptive aspects of early antiquarianism (and later archaeology in general) are also known as ''archaeography'', that encompasses various descriptions of archaeological sites and objects, initially by travelers, traders, diplomats and other non-professionals, who were often in position to view sites and antiquities in a better state of preservation then encountered later by scholars, thus making such early archaeographical accounts (writings, drawings, etc.) very valuable for modern archaeological studies,{{sfn|Kipfer|2000|p=30|ps=: "archaeography: The systematic description of archaeological objects over time made by nonprofessionals (travelers, traders, diplomats, etc.) who are often in situations where they view sites and antiquities in a much better state of preservation than that in which they are today. These accounts, either in writings or drawings, are valued in archaeological studies (syn. archeography)."}} that are continuing to use and apply various descriptive (archaeographical) practices and tools, integrated into modern archaeological methodology.{{sfn|Deetz|1989|p=429-435}}

Twelfth-century Indian scholar [[Kalhana]]'s writings involved recording of local traditions, examining manuscripts, inscriptions, coins and architectures, which is described as one of the earliest traces of archaeology. One of his notable work is called ''Rajatarangini'' which was completed {{circa|1150|lk=no}} and is described as one of the first history books of India.<ref>{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Upinder |year=2009 |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |publisher=Pearson |page=13 |isbn=978-93-325-6996-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cvauDwAAQBAJ |access-date=11 May 2022 |archive-date=31 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731065145/https://www.google.com/books/edition/A_History_of_Ancient_and_Early_Medieval/cvauDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ucko |first=P. J. |title=Theory in Archaeology: A World Perspective |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-134-84346-6 |page=192 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_hKIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT192 |access-date=2022-05-10 |archive-date=10 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510144036/https://books.google.com/books?id=_hKIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT192 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="renfrew">{{cite book |last1=Cunliffe |first1=B. W. |last2=Colin Renfrew |first2=B. W. C. |last3=Cunliffe |first3=P. |last4=Davies |first4=W. |last5=Renfrew |first5=C. |last6=Davies |first6=P. |author7=British Academy |last8=Renfrew |first8=D. |last9=Davies |first9=P. |display-authors=6 |year=2002 |title=Archaeology: The widening debate |publisher=British Academy |series=British Academy centenary monographs |isbn=978-0-19-726255-9 |page=309 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jkhgPgH330YC&pg=PA309 |access-date=10 May 2022 |archive-date=10 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510144026/https://books.google.com/books?id=jkhgPgH330YC&pg=PA309 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== First excavations ===
[[File:stonehenge 1877.JPG|thumb|left|upright=1.15|alt=old photograph of stonehenge with toppled stones|An early photograph of [[Stonehenge]] taken July 1877]]
[[File:Johann Joachim Winckelmann (Raphael Mengs after 1755).jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[Johann Joachim Winckelmann]] (Raphael Mengs after 1755)]]
One of the first sites to undergo archaeological [[Excavations at Stonehenge|excavation]] was [[Stonehenge]] and other [[megalith]]ic monuments in England. [[John Aubrey]] (1626–1697) was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous [[megalith]]ic and other [[Ancient monument|field monuments]] in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings. He attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes.<ref>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Hunter |author-link=Michael Hunter (historian) |year=1975 |title=John Aubrey and the Realm of Learning |place=London |publisher=Duckworth |isbn=978-0-7156-0818-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/johnaubreyrealmo0000hunt/page/156 156–157, 162–166, 181] |url=https://archive.org/details/johnaubreyrealmo0000hunt/page/156}}</ref>

Excavations were also carried out by the Spanish military engineer [[Roque Joaquín de Alcubierre]] in the ancient towns of [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]], both of which had been covered by ash during the [[Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79]]. These excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, as well the unearthing of [[fresco]]s, had a big impact throughout Europe.

However, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard; the importance of concepts such as [[Stratification (archaeology)|stratification]] and [[Archaeological context|context]] were overlooked.<ref>{{cite book |last=King |first=Dorothy |author-link=Dorothy King |year=2006 |title=The Elgin Marbles |publisher=Hutchinson}}</ref>

In the mid-18th century, the German [[Johann Joachim Winckelmann]] lived in Rome and devoted himself to the study of Roman antiquities, gradually acquiring an unrivalled knowledge of ancient art.<ref>Sime, James; Mitchell, John Malcolm (1911). "Winckelmann, Johann Joachim". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 707</ref> Then, he visited the archaeological excavations being conducted at [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]].<ref>"WINCKELMANN, Johann Joachim (1779)" [http://www.horti-hesperidum.com/show.php?item=192 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908220953/https://www.horti-hesperidum.com/show.php?item=192 |date=8 September 2021 }}</ref> He was one of the founders of scientific archaeology and first applied the categories of style on a large, systematic basis to the [[history of art]].<ref>David Irwin, ''Winckelmann: Writings on Art'' (London: Phaidon) 1972.</ref> He was one of the first to separate Greek art into periods and time classifications.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofartofan0000winc |title=History of the art of antiquity |last=Winckelmann |first=Johann Joachim|author1-link=Johann Joachim Winckelmann |date=2006 |publisher=Getty Research Institute |editor1=Potts, Alex |editor1-link=Alexander Potts |isbn=978-0-89236-668-2 |location=Los Angeles}}</ref> Winckelmann has been called both "The prophet and founding hero of [[modern archaeology]]"<ref name=b584>[[#Boorstin|Boorstin]], 584</ref> and the father of the discipline of [[art history]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Walter |title=Instant Art History |year=1995 |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |isbn=0-449-90698-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/instantarthistor00robi/page/240 240] |chapter=Introduction |quote=The father of official art history was a German named Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–68). |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/instantarthistor00robi/page/240}}</ref>

=== Development of archaeological method ===
[[File:Both Lozenges.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Artifacts discovered at the 1808 [[Bush Barrow]] excavation by Sir [[Richard Colt Hoare]] and [[William Cunnington]].]]
The father of archaeological excavation was [[William Cunnington]] (1754–1810). He undertook excavations in [[Wiltshire]] from around 1798,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Everill, P. |year=2010 |title=The Parkers of Heytesbury: Archaeological pioneers |journal=Antiquaries Journal |volume=90 |pages=441–453 |doi=10.1017/S000358151000003X |s2cid=162145183}}</ref> funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of [[Neolithic]] and [[Bronze Age]] [[tumulus|barrows]], and the terms he used to categorize and describe them are still used by archaeologists today.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Everill, P. |year=2009 |title=Invisible pioneers |journal=British Archaeology |volume=108 |pages=40–43}}</ref> Future [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Thomas Jefferson]] also did his own excavations in 1784 using the [[trench]] method, on several [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] burial mounds in [[Virginia]]. His excavations were prompted by the [[Mound Builders|"Moundbuilders" question]]; however, his careful methods led him to admit he saw no reason why ancestors of the Native Americans of his time could not have raised those mounds.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Renfrew |first1=Colin |title=Archaeology essentials: theories, methods, practice |last2=Bahn |first2=Paul G. |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-500-29159-7 |edition=3. |location=London |pages=17–18}}</ref>

One of the major achievements of 19th-century archaeology was the development of [[stratigraphy]]. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new [[geology|geological]] and [[palaeontology|palaeontological]] work of scholars like [[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith]], [[James Hutton]] and [[Charles Lyell]]. The systematic application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of [[Prehistory|prehistorical]] and [[Bronze Age]] sites. In the third and fourth decades of the 19th century, archaeologists like [[Jacques Boucher de Perthes]] and [[Christian Jürgensen Thomsen]] began to put the artifacts they had found in chronological order.
[[File:Lootsi 8, R68.4 karv2.1 200x.jpg|thumb|This photo is made of a single goat hair from a textile found on the 14th century ship in Tallinn, Estonia. Photo was done in archaeology department (University of Tartu) by microscope Olympus BX51, magnification 200x]]
A major figure in the development of archaeology into a rigorous science was army officer and [[ethnology|ethnologist]] [[Augustus Pitt Rivers]],<ref>{{cite book |author=Bowden, Mark |year=1984 |title=General Pitt Rivers: The father of scientific archaeology |publisher=[[Salisbury and South Wiltshire Museum]] |isbn=0-947535-00-4}}</ref> who began excavations on his land in England in the 1880s. Highly methodical by the standards of the time, he is widely regarded as the first scientific archaeologist. He [[Pitt Rivers Museum|arranged his artifacts]] by type or "[[Typology (archaeology)]]", and within types chronologically. This style of arrangement, designed to highlight the evolutionary trends in human artifacts, was of enormous significance for the accurate dating of the objects. His most important methodological innovation was his insistence that ''all'' artifacts, not just beautiful or unique ones, be collected and catalogued.<ref>{{cite book |first=Dan |last=Hicks |year=2013 |chapter=Characterizing the World Archaeology Collections of the Pitt Rivers Museum |title=World Archaeology at the Pitt Rivers Museum: A characterization |publisher=Archaeopress |location=Oxford |editor1-first=Dan |editor1-last=Hicks |editor2-first=Alice |editor2-last=Stevenson |isbn=978-1-905739-58-5 |chapter-url=http://archaeopress.com/ArchaeopressShop/Public/download.asp?id=%7B64476CB8-7963-40E1-B225-F54DA37A2F9A%7D |access-date=8 April 2018 |archive-date=19 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119080539/http://archaeopress.com/ArchaeopressShop/Public/download.asp?id=%7B64476CB8-7963-40E1-B225-F54DA37A2F9A%7D |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Glamilders, Åland Ahvenanmaa, Finland (5228289913) (2).jpg|thumb|Archaeological excavation of a Stone Age settlement at Glamilders in Långbergsöda village, [[Saltvik]], [[Åland]], in 1906.]]

[[William Flinders Petrie]] is another man who may legitimately be called the Father of Archaeology. His painstaking recording and study of artifacts, both in Egypt and later in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], laid down many of the ideas behind modern archaeological recording; he remarked that "I believe the true line of research lies in the noting and comparison of the smallest details." Petrie developed the [[seriation (archaeology)|system of dating layers based on pottery and ceramic findings]], which revolutionized the chronological basis of [[Egyptology]]. Petrie was the first to scientifically investigate the [[Great Pyramid of Giza|Great Pyramid]] in Egypt during the 1880s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sir William Flinders Petrie 1853–1942 |publisher=Palestine Exploration Fund |year=2000 |url=http://www.pef.org.uk/profiles/sir-william-flinders-petrie-1853-1942 |access-date=19 November 2007 |archive-date=14 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514060319/http://www.pef.org.uk/profiles/sir-william-flinders-petrie-1853-1942 |url-status=live}}</ref> He was also responsible for mentoring and training a whole generation of Egyptologists, including [[Howard Carter]] who went on to achieve fame with the discovery of the tomb of 14th-century BC pharaoh [[Tutankhamun]].

[[File:Aerial photograph of Maiden Castle from the west, 1937.jpg|thumb|left|alt=earthern fort with many walls|[[Mortimer Wheeler]] pioneered [[Wheeler-Kenyon method|systematic excavation]] in the early 20th century. Pictured, are his excavations at [[Maiden Castle, Dorset]], in October 1937.]]
The first stratigraphic excavation to reach wide popularity with public was that of [[Hissarlik]], on the site of ancient [[Troy]], carried out by [[Heinrich Schliemann]], [[Frank Calvert]] and [[Wilhelm Dörpfeld]] in the 1870s. These scholars individuated nine different cities that had overlapped with one another, from prehistory to the [[Hellenistic period]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Kenneth W. |last=Harl |title=Great Ancient Civilizations of Asia Minor |website=thegreatcourses.com |url=http://www.thegreatcourses.com/tgc/courses/course_detail.aspx?cid=363 |access-date=23 November 2012 |archive-date=17 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130317124954/http://www.thegreatcourses.com/tgc/Courses/course_detail.aspx?cid=363 |url-status=live}}</ref> Meanwhile, the work of Sir [[Arthur Evans]] at [[Knossos]] in [[Crete]] revealed the ancient existence of an equally advanced [[Minoan civilization]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Joseph Alexander |last=MacGillivray |year=2000 |title=Minotaur: Sir Arthur Evans and the Archaeology of the Minoan Myth |location=New York, NY |publisher=Hill and Wang (Farrar, Straus and Giroux)}}</ref>

The next major figure in the development of archaeology was Sir [[Mortimer Wheeler]], whose highly disciplined approach to excavation and systematic coverage in the 1920s and 1930s brought the science on swiftly. Wheeler developed the [[Wheeler-Kenyon method|grid system of excavation]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Renfrew |first1=Colin |title=Archaeology essentials: theories, methods, practice |last2=Bahn |first2=Paul G. |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-500-29159-7 |edition=3. |location=London |page=24}}</ref> which was further improved by his student [[Kathleen Kenyon]].

Archaeology became a [[professional]] activity in the first half of the 20th&nbsp;century, and it became possible to study archaeology as a subject in universities and even schools. By the end of the 20th&nbsp;century nearly all professional archaeologists, at least in developed countries, were graduates. Further adaptation and innovation in archaeology continued in this period, when [[maritime archaeology]] and [[urban archaeology]] became more prevalent and [[rescue archaeology]] was developed as a result of increasing commercial development.<ref name="Renfrew_Bahn1991#5">Renfrew and Bahn (2004 [1991]):33–35</ref>

== Purpose ==
[[File:Australopithecus africanus - Cast of taung child.jpg|thumb|Cast of the skull of the [[Taung child]], uncovered in [[South Africa]]. The Child was an infant of the ''[[Australopithecus africanus]]'' species, an early form of [[hominin]]]]
[[File:Archaeology.rome.arp.jpg|thumb|Archaeologists excavating in [[Rome]], Italy]]
The purpose of archaeology is to learn more about past societies and the development of the [[human]] race. Over 99% of the development of humanity has occurred within [[Prehistory|prehistoric]] cultures, who did not make use of [[literacy|writing]], thereby no written records exist for study purposes. Without such written sources, the only way to understand prehistoric societies is through archaeology. Because archaeology is the study of past human activity, it stretches back to about 2.5 million years ago when the first [[Stone Age|stone tools]] are found – [[Oldowan|The Oldowan Industry]]. Many important developments in human history occurred during prehistory, such as the [[human evolution|evolution of humanity]] during the [[Paleolithic]] period, when the [[hominin]]s developed from the [[australopithecines]] in [[Africa]] and eventually into modern ''[[Homo sapiens]]''. Archaeology also sheds light on many of humanity's technological advances, for instance the ability to use fire, the development of [[stone tool]]s, the discovery of [[metallurgy]], the beginnings of [[religion]] and the creation of [[agriculture]]. Without archaeology, little or nothing would be known about the use of material culture by humanity that pre-dates writing.<ref name="ncl" />

However, it is not only prehistoric, pre-literate cultures that can be studied using archaeology but historic, literate cultures as well, through the sub-discipline of [[historical archaeology]]. For many literate cultures, such as [[Ancient Greece]] and [[Mesopotamia]], their surviving records are often incomplete and biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the [[elite]] classes, such as the [[clergy]], or the [[bureaucracy]] of court or temple. The literacy of [[aristocracy|aristocrats]] has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into [[library|libraries]] and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases, assumptions, cultural values and possibly deceptions of a limited range of individuals, usually a small fraction of the larger population. Hence, written records cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record may be closer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own biases, such as [[sampling bias]] and differential preservation.<ref name="archaeological" />

Often, archaeology provides the only means to learn of the existence and behaviors of people of the past. Across the millennia many thousands of cultures and societies and billions of people have come and gone of which there is little or no written record or existing records are misrepresentative or incomplete. Writing as it is known today did not exist in human civilization until the 4th millennium BC, in a relatively small number of technologically advanced civilizations. In contrast, ''Homo sapiens'' has existed for at least 200,000 years, and other species of ''Homo'' for millions of years (see [[Human evolution]]). These civilizations are, not coincidentally, the best-known; they are open to the inquiry of historians for centuries, while the study of pre-historic cultures has arisen only recently. Within a literate civilization many events and important human practices may not be officially recorded. Any knowledge of the early years of human civilization – the development of agriculture, cult practices of folk religion, the rise of the first cities – must come from archaeology.

In addition to their scientific importance, archaeological remains sometimes have political or cultural significance to descendants of the people who produced them, monetary value to collectors, or strong aesthetic appeal. Many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic, religious, political, or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies.

This view is often espoused in works of popular fiction, such as [[Raiders of the Lost Ark]], [[The Mummy (1999 film)|The Mummy]], and [[King Solomon's Mines (1950 film)|King Solomon's Mines]]. When unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously, accusations of pseudoscience are invariably levelled at their proponents ''(see [[Pseudoarchaeology]])''. However, these endeavours, real and fictional, are not representative of modern archaeology.

=== Theory ===
{{Main|Archaeological theory}}
There is no one approach to archaeological theory that has been adhered to by all archaeologists. When archaeology developed in the late 19th century, the first approach to archaeological theory to be practised was that of [[cultural-history archaeology|cultural-historical archaeology]], which held the goal of explaining why cultures changed and adapted rather than just highlighting the fact that they did, therefore emphasizing [[historical particularism]].<ref name="autogenerated1" /> In the early 20th&nbsp;century, many archaeologists who studied past societies with direct continuing links to existing ones (such as those of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], [[Siberia]]ns, [[Mesoamerica]]ns etc.) followed the [[direct historical approach]], compared the continuity between the past and contemporary ethnic and cultural groups.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> In the 1960s, an archaeological movement largely led by American archaeologists like [[Lewis Binford]] and [[Kent Flannery]] arose that rebelled against the established cultural-history archaeology.<ref name="Binford1962" /><ref name="Flannery1967" /> They proposed a "New Archaeology", which would be more "scientific" and "anthropological", with [[hypothesis]] testing and the [[scientific method]] very important parts of what became known as [[processual archaeology]].<ref name="autogenerated1" />

In the 1980s, a new [[postmodern]] movement arose led by the British archaeologists [[Michael Shanks (archaeologist)|Michael Shanks]],<ref name="Shanks_Tilley1987" /><ref name="Shanks_Tilley1988" /><ref name="Shanks1991" /><ref name="Shanks1993" /> [[Christopher Tilley]],<ref name="Tilley1993" /> [[Daniel Miller (anthropologist)|Daniel Miller]],<ref name="Miller_Tilley1984" /><ref name="Miller_etal1989" /> and [[Ian Hodder]],<ref name="Hodder1982" /><ref name="Hodder1985" /><ref name="Hodder1987" /><ref name="Hodder1990" /><ref name="Hodder1991" /><ref name="Hodder1992" /> which has become known as [[post-processual archaeology]]. It questioned processualism's appeals to scientific positivism and impartiality, and emphasized the importance of a more self-critical theoretical [[reflexivity (social theory)|reflexivity]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2007}} However, this approach has been criticized by processualists as lacking scientific rigour, and the validity of both processualism and post-processualism is still under debate. Meanwhile, another theory, known as [[historical processualism]], has emerged seeking to incorporate a focus on process and post-processual archaeology's emphasis of reflexivity and history.<ref name="Pauketat2001" />

Archaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of influences, including [[systems theory in archaeology|systems theory]], [[evolution|neo-evolutionary thought]],<ref name="Hinshaw2000" />[[#cite note-Hinshaw2000-35|<span class="mw-reflink-text">[35]</span>]] [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]], [[postmodernism]], [[Structure and agency|agency theory]], [[Cognitive archaeology|cognitive science]], [[structural functionalism]], [[Marxism]], [[Gender archaeology|gender-based]] and [[feminist archaeology]], [[queer theory]], [[Postcolonialism|postcolonial thoughts]], [[Materiality (social sciences and humanities)|materiality]], and [[posthumanism]].

== Methods ==
[[File:Indusketa arkeologikoa.webm|thumb|Video showing the different works in an archaeological recovery and analysis]]
An archaeological investigation usually involves several distinct phases, each of which employs its own variety of methods. Before any practical work can begin, however, a clear objective as to what the archaeologists are looking to achieve must be agreed upon. This done, a site is [[Archaeological survey|surveyed]] to find out as much as possible about it and the surrounding area. Second, an excavation may take place to uncover any archaeological features buried under the ground. And, third, the information collected during the excavation is studied and evaluated in an attempt to achieve the original research objectives of the archaeologists. It is then considered good practice for the information to be published so that it is available to other archaeologists and historians, although this is sometimes neglected.<ref name="renfrew" />

=== Remote sensing ===
Before actually starting to dig in a location, [[Remote sensing (archaeology)|remote sensing]] can be used to look where sites are located within a large area or provide more information about sites or regions. There are two types of remote sensing instruments—passive and active. Passive instruments detect natural energy that is reflected or emitted from the observed scene. Passive instruments sense only radiation emitted by the object being viewed or reflected by the object from a source other than the instrument. Active instruments emit energy and record what is reflected. [[Satellite imagery]] is an example of passive remote sensing. Here are three active remote sensing instruments:
[[Image:Rand Medieval Settlement in Lincolnshire.jpg|right|thumb|A [[lidar]] view of the site of Rand Medieval Settlement in Lincolnshire, England.]]
* '''Lidar''': [[Lidar]] (light detection and ranging) uses a laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) to transmit a light pulse and a receiver with sensitive detectors to measure the backscattered or reflected light. 
Distance to the object is determined by recording the time between the transmitted and backscattered pulses and using the speed of light to calculate the distance travelled. Lidars can determine atmospheric profiles of aerosols, clouds, and other constituents of the atmosphere.
* '''Laser altimeter''': A laser altimeter uses a lidar (see above) to measure the height of the instrument platform above the surface. By independently knowing the height of the platform with respect to the mean Earth's surface, the topography of the underlying surface can be determined.<ref>{{cite web |first=Graham |last=Steve |date=17 September 1999 |title=Remote sensing |series=Feature Articles |publisher=[[NASA]] |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/RemoteSensing/ |access-date=8 April 2018 |archive-date=20 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180420181813/https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/RemoteSensing/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
* '''Drones''': Archaeologists around the world use [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|drones]] to speed up survey work and protect sites from squatters, builders and miners. In Peru, small drones helped researchers produce three-dimensional models of Peruvian sites instead of the usual flat maps – and in days and weeks instead of months and years.<ref name=peru>{{cite news |agency=Reuters in Lima |title=Peru's archaeologists turn to drones to help protect and explore ancient ruins |department=World News |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=25 August 2013 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/25/peru-archaeologists-drones-ancient-ruins |access-date=27 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825124451/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/25/peru-archaeologists-drones-ancient-ruins |archive-date=25 August 2013}}</ref> Drones costing as little as £650 have proven useful. In 2013, drones have flown over at least six Peruvian archaeological sites, including the colonial Andean town Machu Llacta {{convert|4000|m}} above sea level. The drones continue to have altitude problems in the Andes, leading to plans to make a drone [[blimp]], employing open source software.<ref name=peru /> Jeffrey Quilter, an archaeologist with Harvard University said, "You can go up three metres and photograph a room, 300 metres and photograph a site, or you can go up 3,000 metres and photograph the entire valley."<ref name=peru /> In September 2014 drones weighing about {{convert|5|kg|0|abbr=on}} were used for 3D mapping of the above-ground ruins of the Greek city of [[Aphrodisias]]. The data are being analysed by the Austrian Archaeological Institute in Vienna.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Hudson |first=Hal |date=24 September 2014 |title=Air-chaeological drones search for ancient treasures |magazine=[[New Scientist]] |issue=2988 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22329883.900-airchaeological-drones-search-for-ancient-treasures.html |access-date=2 October 2014 |archive-date=28 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140928035608/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22329883.900-airchaeological-drones-search-for-ancient-treasures.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Field survey ===
{{Main|Archaeological survey}}
[[File:Distribution of surveyed areas (blue) within the southern Mesopotamian floodplains (yellow).webp|thumb|Satellite image of [[Mesopotamia]] (with the Persian Gulf in the lower right corner) indicating the areas that have been subjected to regional surveys (in blue) over the past decades]]
The archaeological project then continues (or alternatively, begins) with a field survey. Regional survey is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. Site survey is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and [[midden]]s, within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods.

Survey was not widely practised in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible [[Feature (archaeology)|features]] there. [[Gordon Willey]] pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the [[Viru Valley]] of coastal [[Peru]],<ref name="Willey1953" /><ref name="Willey1968" /> and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later.<ref name="Billmand_Feinman1999" />

Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artifacts. (Nevertheless, surveying a large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ [[sampling (statistics)|sampling]] methods.)<ref name="Redman1974" /> As with other forms of non-destructive archaeology, survey avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as [[Human settlement|settlement patterns]] and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into [[map]]s, which may show surface features and/or artifact distribution.

[[File:Archaeological survey of Kaf al-Kalb, eastern Jordan, May 2015.jpg|thumb|Archaeologists surveying a site in the ''[[Harrat al-Sham]]'', eastern Jordan]]

The simplest survey technique is surface survey. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanized transport, to search for features or artifacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as [[auger (drill)|augers]], corers, and [[shovel test]] pits. If no materials are found, the area surveyed is deemed [[sterile deposit|sterile]].
[[File:The residual foundations of a double-walled enclosure in the near infrared, visible spectrum and thermal infrared.jpg|thumbnail|right|The residual foundations of a double-walled enclosure in the near infrared, visible spectrum and the thermal infrared.]]

[[File:Archeoscan excavation site.jpg|thumbnail|right|Inverted kite aerial photo of an excavation of a Roman building at Nesley near Tetbury in Gloucestershire.]]

[[Aerial survey]] is conducted using [[camera]]s attached to [[airplane]]s, [[balloon (aircraft)|balloons]], [[UAVs]], or even [[Kite]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kite aerial photography |url=http://www.armadale.org.uk/kite03.htm |access-date=2 December 2012 |archive-date=25 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425030503/http://www.armadale.org.uk/kite03.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial photographs are used to document the status of the archaeological dig. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. [[Plant]]s growing above a buried human-made structure, such as a stone wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as [[midden]]s) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening [[cereal|grain]], which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial photographs taken at different times of day will help show the outlines of structures by changes in shadows. Aerial survey also employs [[ultraviolet]], [[infrared]], [[ground-penetrating radar]] wavelengths, [[Lidar]] and [[thermography]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Reeves |first=D. M. |year=1936 |title=Aerial photography and archaeology |journal=American Antiquity |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=102–107 |doi=10.2307/275881 |jstor=275881 |s2cid=164041261}}</ref>

[[Geophysical survey (archaeology)|Geophysical survey]] can be the most effective way to see beneath the ground. [[Magnetometer]]s detect minute deviations in the [[Earth's magnetic field]] caused by [[iron]] artifacts, [[kiln]]s, some types of [[stone structures]], and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the [[electrical resistivity]] of the soil are also widely used. Archaeological features whose electrical resistivity contrasts with that of surrounding soils can be detected and mapped. Some archaeological features (such as those composed of stone or brick) have higher resistivity than typical soils, while others (such as organic deposits or unfired clay) tend to have lower resistivity.

Although some archaeologists consider the use of [[metal detector]]s to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying.<ref>{{cite news |last=Sánchez |first=Rosalía |date=25 February 2015 |title=Para los arqueólogos es un ladrón, para los buscadores de tesoros un ídolo |access-date=19 December 2017 |newspaper=[[El Mundo (Spain)|El Mundo]] |language=es |url=http://www.elmundo.es/cultura/2015/02/25/54ee2718ca4741d71a8b457b.html |archive-date=22 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222051045/http://www.elmundo.es/cultura/2015/02/25/54ee2718ca4741d71a8b457b.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on [[English Civil War]] battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a 19th-century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to archaeology where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the [[Portable Antiquities Scheme]].

Regional survey in [[underwater archaeology]] uses geophysical or remote sensing devices such as marine magnetometer, [[side-scan sonar]], or sub-bottom sonar.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hall |first=E. T. |year=1970 |title=Survey techniques in underwater archaeology |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences |volume=269 |issue=1193 |pages=121–124 |doi=10.1098/rsta.1970.0090 |bibcode=1970RSPTA.269..121H |jstor=73925 |s2cid=124297131}}</ref>

=== Excavation ===
{{Main|Archaeological excavation}}
[[File:Iowa archaeology edgewater.JPG|thumb|Excavations at the 3800-year-old [[Edgewater Park Site]], [[Iowa]]]]
[[File:Vill excavation.jpg|thumb|upright|Archaeological excavation that discovered prehistoric caves in [[Vill]] ([[Innsbruck]]), [[Austria]]]]
[[File:Sifting for POW remains, Wake Island.jpg|thumb|An archaeologist sifting for [[Prisoner of war|POW]] remains on [[Wake Island]].]]
{{unreferenced section|date=August 2025}}
Archaeological excavation existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as [[stratigraphy]], three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context.

Modern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features, known as their [[provenance]] or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see [[Harris matrix#Harris' laws of archaeological stratigraphy|Primary Laws of Archaeology]]). Likewise, their [[archaeological association|association]], or [[relationship (archaeology)|relationship]] with nearby objects and [[feature (archaeology)|features]], needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce which [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] and features were likely used together and which may be from different [[archaeological phase|phases]] of activity. For example, excavation of a site reveals its stratigraphy; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct cultures, artifacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures.

Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research, in relative terms. Also, as a destructive process, it carries [[ethics|ethical]] concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. Again the percentage of a site excavated depends greatly on the country and "method statement" issued. [[Sampling (statistics)|Sampling]] is even more important in excavation than in survey. Sometimes large mechanical equipment, such as [[backhoe]]s ([[J. C. Bamford|JCBs]]), is used in excavation, especially to remove the [[topsoil]] ([[overburden]]), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with [[trowel]]s or [[hoe (tool)|hoes]] to ensure that all features are apparent.
[[File:Ghamari cave (2).jpg|thumb|Archaeological excavations in the Middle Paleolithic cave site of the Ghamari Cave, Zagros 2025]]
The next task is to form a [[Archaeological plan|site plan]] and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the [[Archaeological natural|natural subsoil]] are normally excavated in portions to produce a visible [[archaeological section]] for recording. A feature, for example a pit or a ditch, consists of two parts: the [[Cut (archaeology)|cut]] and the [[Fill (archaeology)|fill]]. The cut describes the edge of the feature, where the feature meets the natural soil. It is the feature's boundary. The fill is what the feature is filled with, and will often appear quite distinct from the natural soil. The cut and fill are given consecutive numbers for recording purposes. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and [[Single context recording|recording]] sheets are filled in describing the [[Archaeological context|context]] of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site.

=== Analysis ===
{{Main|Post-excavation analysis}}
[[File:LuzonensisMolars.jpg|thumb|Five of the seven known fossil teeth of ''[[Homo luzonensis]]'' found in [[Callao Cave]], the [[Philippines]].]]
Once artifacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them. This process is known as [[post-excavation analysis]], and is usually the most time-consuming part of an archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for final excavation reports for major sites to take years to be published.

At a basic level of analysis, artifacts found are cleaned, catalogued and compared to published collections. This comparison process often involves classifying them [[Typology (archaeology)|typologically]] and identifying other sites with similar artifact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through [[archaeological science]], meaning that artifacts can be dated and their compositions examined. Bones, plants, and pollen collected from a site can all be analysing using the methods of [[zooarchaeology]], [[paleoethnobotany]], [[palynology]] and [[stable isotopes]]<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/10256016.2019.1598986 |pmid=30943760 |volume=55 |issue=3 |title=Is the 'canine surrogacy approach' (CSA) still valid for dogs and humans in market-oriented and subsistence-oriented communities in Brazil? |year=2019 |journal=Isotopes in Environmental and Health Studies |pages=227–236 |first1=Luiz Abdalla Filho |last1=Adibe |first2=Bielefeld Nardoto |last2=Gabriela |first3=de Aro Galera |last3=Leonardo |first4=Leite de Souza |last4=Janaina |first5=Santos Reis |last5=Luiza |first6=Almoza Hernandez |last6=Yeleine |first7=Sales |last7=Rebeca |first8=Guimarães Gerardi |last8=Daniel |first9=Antonio Martinelli |last9=Luiz |bibcode=2019IEHS...55..227A |s2cid=93000409}}</ref> while any texts can usually be [[Deciphering|deciphered]].

These techniques frequently provide information that would not otherwise be known, and therefore they contribute greatly to the understanding of a site.

== Subfields ==
{{Main|Subfields of archaeology}}

As with most [[academic discipline]]s, there are a very large number of [[archaeological sub-disciplines]] characterized by a specific method or type of material (e.g., [[lithic analysis]], [[music (archaeology)|music]], [[archaeobotany]]), geographical or chronological focus (e.g. [[Near Eastern archaeology]], [[Islamic archaeology]], [[Medieval archaeology]]), other thematic concern (e.g. maritime archaeology, [[landscape archaeology]], [[battlefield archaeology]]), or a specific [[archaeological culture]] or [[civilization]] (e.g. [[Egyptology]], [[Indology]], [[Sinology]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=What is archaeology? |publisher=Society for American Archaeology |website=www.saa.org |url=http://www.saa.org/Default.aspx?TabId=1346 |access-date=25 August 2017 |archive-date=25 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825192840/http://www.saa.org/Default.aspx?TabId=1346 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Historical archaeology ===
{{Main|Historical archaeology}}

Historical archaeology is the study of cultures with some form of writing and deals with objects and issues from the past.

In [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]], archaeologists have explored the illicit burial of unbaptized children in medieval texts and cemeteries.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Crow, Madison |author2=Zori, Colleen |author3=Zori, Davide |date=17 December 2020 |title=Doctrinal and physical marginality in Christian death: The burial of unbaptized infants in Medieval Italy |journal=Religions |volume=11 |issue=12 |page=678 |doi=10.3390/rel11120678 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In downtown [[New York City]], archaeologists have exhumed the 18th&nbsp;century remains of the [[African Burial Ground National Monument|African Burial Ground]]. When remnants of the [[WWII]] [[Siegfried Line]] were being destroyed, emergency archaeological digs took place whenever any part of the line was removed, to further scientific knowledge and reveal details of the line's construction.

=== Ethnoarchaeology ===
{{Main|Ethnoarchaeology}}

[[Ethnoarchaeology]] is the ethnographic study of living people, designed to aid in our interpretation of the archaeological record.<ref name="Gould1971a" /><ref name="Gould1971b" /><ref name="Yellen1972" /><ref name="Yellen1977" /><ref name="Gould_Yellen1987" /><ref name="Yellen1991" /> The approach first gained prominence during the processual movement of the 1960s, and continues to be a vibrant component of post-processual and other current archaeological approaches.<ref name="Hinshaw2000" /><ref name="Sillet_et_al2006" /><ref name="Schott_Sillitoe2005" /><ref name="Ogundele2005" /><ref name="kuznar2001" /> Early ethnoarchaeological research focused on [[hunter-gatherer]] or foraging societies; today ethnoarchaeological research encompasses a much wider range of human behaviour.

=== Experimental archaeology ===
{{Main|Experimental archaeology}}

[[Experimental archaeology]] represents the application of the experimental method to develop more highly controlled observations of processes that create and impact the archaeological record.<ref name="Ascher1961" /><ref name="Saraydar_Shimada1971" /><ref name="Saraydar_Shimada1973" /><ref name="Gifford-Gonzalez_et_al1985" /><ref name="Frison1989" /> In the context of the logical positivism of processualism with its goals of improving the scientific rigor of archaeological [[epistemological|epistemologies]], the experimental method gained importance. Experimental techniques remain a crucial component to improving the inferential frameworks for interpreting the archaeological record.

=== Archaeometry ===
{{Main|Archaeological science}}

[[Archaeometry]] aims to systematize archaeological measurement. It emphasizes the application of analytical techniques from physics, chemistry, and engineering. It is a field of research that frequently focuses on the definition of the chemical composition of archaeological remains for source analysis.<ref name="Glasscock_et_al1994" /> Archaeometry also investigates different spatial characteristics of features, employing methods such as space syntax techniques and [[geodesy]] as well as computer-based tools such as [[geographic information system]] technology.<ref name="GIS, critique, representation and beyond" /> [[Rare earth elements]] patterns may also be used.<ref name="An anthropic soil transformation fingerprinted by REY patterns" /> A relatively nascent subfield is that of archaeological materials, designed to enhance understanding of prehistoric and non-industrial culture through scientific analysis of the structure and properties of materials associated with human activity.<ref name="mit" />

=== Digital archaeology ===
{{Main|Digital archeology|}}
{{See also|Computational archaeology|Virtual archaeology}}

Digital Archeology is an interdisciplinary field that applies [[information technology (IT)]], digital tools, and data management techniques to archaeology. It includes [[virtual archeology]] and [[computational archeology]].

Examples of digital archaeology include the use of [[computer graphics]] to create virtual [[3D modeling|3D models]] of sites, like the throne room of an Assyrian palace or ancient Rome.<ref name="virt" /> [[Photogrammetry]] and digital [[topography|topographical]] models are combined with [[astronomy|astronomical]] calculations to check if structures, such as pillars, align with astronomical events like the sun's position at a [[solstice]].<ref name="virt" /> [[Agent-based modelling]] and [[computer simulation|simulation]] are used to understand past social dynamics and outcomes. [[Data mining]] is applied to large collections of archaeological 'grey literature'.

=== Cultural resources management ===
{{Main|Cultural resource management}}
Archaeology can be a subsidiary activity within Cultural resource management (CRM), also called [[Cultural heritage management]] (CHM) in the UK.<ref name="The University of Exeter – SoGAER – Department of Archaeology" /> CRM archaeologists frequently examine archaeological sites threatened by development. CRM accounts for most archaeological research done in the US and much of that in [[western Europe]]. In the US, CRM archaeology has been a growing concern since the passage of the [[National Historic Preservation Act]] (NHPA) of 1966. Most scholars and politicians believe CRM has helped preserve much of the US' history and prehistory that would have otherwise been lost in the expansion of cities, dams, and highways. Along with other statutes, the NHPA mandates that projects on federal land, or involving federal funds or permits, consider the effects of the project on each [[archaeological site]].

The application of CRM in the UK is not limited to government-funded projects. Since 1990, [[PPG 16]]<ref name="Planning Policy Guidance 16: Archaeology and planning – Planning, building and the environment – Communities and Local Government" /> has required planners to consider archaeology as a [[material consideration]] in determining applications for new development. As a result, archaeological organizations undertake mitigation work in advance of, or during, construction work in archaeologically sensitive areas, at the [[polluter pays principle|developer's expense]]. Some of the largest archaeological projects ever undertaken in the UK are due to major infrastructure projects like the [[A14 road (England)|A14]] road improvement scheme, or the building of [[HS2]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=West|first1=E|last2=Christie|first2=C|last3=Moretti|first3=D|last4=Scholma-Mason|first4=O|last5=Smith|first5=A|title=A Route Well Travelled. The archaeology of the A14 Huntingdon to Cambridge Road Improvement Scheme|journal=Internet Archaeology|date=2024|issue=67|doi=10.11141/ia.67.22|doi-access=free|url=https://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue67/22/index.html|archive-date=7 March 2025|access-date=6 March 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250307173409/https://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue67/22/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=A|last2=West|first2=E|last3=Sherlock|first3=S|last4=Gdaniec|first4=K|last5=Bowsher|first5=D|title=Great Excavations: Methodological considerations arising after a major archaeological infrastructure project for the A14 Cambridge to Huntingdon Road Improvement Scheme|journal=Internet Archaeology|date=2024|issue=67|doi=10.11141/ia.67.21|doi-access=free|url=https://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue67/21/index.html|archive-date=17 March 2025|access-date=6 March 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250317185638/https://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue67/21/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In England, ultimate responsibility of care for the historic environment rests with the [[Department for Culture, Media and Sport]]<ref name="Department for Culture Media and Sport – historic environment" /> in association with [[English Heritage]].<ref name="English Heritage – Stonehenge & the History of England: English Heritage" /> In [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland]], the same responsibilities lie with [[Historic Scotland]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Historic Scotland |publisher=Historic Scotland |type=main page |url=http://www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/ |access-date=5 May 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426014641/http://www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/ |archive-date=26 April 2009}}</ref> [[Cadw]]<ref name="Cadw" /> and the [[Northern Ireland Environment Agency]]<ref name="Built Environment" /> respectively. In France, the [[Institut national du patrimoine]] (The National Institute of Cultural Heritage) trains [[curator]]s specialized in archaeology. Their mission is to enhance the objects discovered. The curator is the link between scientific knowledge, administrative regulations, heritage objects and the public.

Among the goals of CRM are the identification, preservation, and maintenance of [[cultural]] sites on public and private lands, and the removal of culturally valuable materials from areas where they would otherwise be destroyed by human activity, such as proposed construction. This study involves an examination to determine whether significant archaeological sites are present in the area affected by the proposed construction. If these do exist, time and money must be allotted for their excavation. If initial survey and/or test excavations indicate the presence of an extraordinarily valuable site, the construction may be prohibited entirely.

Cultural resources management has been criticized. CRM is conducted by private companies that bid for projects by submitting proposals outlining the work to be done and expected budget. The agency responsible for the construction often chooses the proposal that asks for the least funding. CRM archaeologists face time pressure, often being forced to complete their work in much less time that might be allotted for a solely academic project. Compounding the time pressure is the vetting process of site reports that are required to be submitted by CRM firms to the appropriate [[State Historic Preservation Office]] (SHPO). From the SHPO's perspective there is no difference between a report submitted by a CRM firm operating under tight deadline, and a multi-year academic project.{{citation needed|date=May 2025}}

The ratio of open academic archaeology positions to the number of archaeology MA/MSc and PhD students is low.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marwick |first1=Ben |last2=Poole |first2=Anne Marie |last3=Zhang |first3=Ailin |last4=Shafizadeh |first4=Setareh |last5=Beck |first5=Jess |title=Hire Ed: Job Market Dynamics for Tenure-Track Faculty Positions in Archaeology |journal=American Antiquity |date=22 December 2025 |pages=1–23 |doi=10.1017/aaq.2025.10117|doi-access=free }}</ref> CRM, once an intellectual backwater for individuals with "strong backs and weak minds",<ref name="Flannery1982" /> has attracted these graduates, and CRM offices are increasingly staffed by advance degreed workers with a track record of producing scholarly articles, but who also have extensive CRM field experience.

== Protection ==
[[File:Blue Shield Fact Finding Mission Libyen.jpg|thumb|[[Karl von Habsburg]], on a [[Blue Shield International]] fact-finding mission in Libya]]
The protection of archaeological finds for the public from catastrophes, wars and armed conflicts is increasingly being implemented internationally. This happens on the one hand through international agreements and on the other hand through organizations that monitor or enforce protection. [[United Nations]], [[UNESCO]] and [[Blue Shield International]] deal with the protection of cultural heritage and thus also archaeological sites. This also applies to the integration of [[United Nations peacekeeping]]. Blue Shield International has undertaken various fact-finding missions in recent years to protect archaeological sites during the wars in Libya, Syria, Egypt and Lebanon. The importance of archaeological finds for identity, tourism and sustainable economic growth is repeatedly emphasized internationally.<ref>UNESCO convenes Libyan and international experts meeting for the safeguard of Libya's cultural heritage. UNESCO World Heritage Center – News, 21. Oktober 2011.</ref><ref>Roger O'Keefe, Camille Péron, Tofig Musayev, Gianluca Ferrari "Protection of Cultural Property. Military Manual." UNESCO, 2016, S. 73ff.</ref><ref>Eric Gibson: ''The Destruction of Cultural Heritage Should be a War Crime.'' In: The Wall Street Journal, 2 March 2015.</ref><ref>Eden Stiffman "Cultural Preservation in Disasters, War Zones. Presents Big Challenges" in The Chronicle Of Philanthropy, 11 May 2015.</ref><ref>"UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.", UNESCO – 13 September 2017.</ref><ref>Friedrich Schipper: "Bildersturm: Die globalen Normen zum Schutz von Kulturgut greifen nicht" (German – The global norms for the protection of cultural property do not apply), In: Der Standard, 6 March 2015.</ref>

The president of Blue Shield International, [[Karl von Habsburg]], said during a cultural property protection mission in Lebanon in April 2019 with the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon: "Cultural assets are part of the identity of the people who live in a certain place. If you destroy their culture, you also destroy their identity. Many people are uprooted, often have no prospects anymore and subsequently flee from their homeland."<ref name="unifil.unmissions.org">{{Cite web |url=https://unifil.unmissions.org/action-plan-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict |title=Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict |date=12 April 2019 |website=UNIFIL |access-date=7 May 2020 |archive-date=26 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726081110/https://unifil.unmissions.org/action-plan-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Popular views of archaeology ==
[[File:Beit shean1.jpg|thumb|right|Extensive excavations at [[Beit She'an]], [[Israel]]]]
[[File:Exhibition in a multi-storey car park on archological discoveries having been made during construction.JPG|thumb|Permanent exhibition in a German [[multi-storey car park]], explaining the archaeological discoveries made during the construction of this building]]

Early archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacular artifacts and features, or to explore vast and mysterious abandoned cities and was mostly done by upper class, scholarly men. This general tendency laid the foundation for the modern popular view of archaeology and archaeologists. Many of the public view archaeology as something only available to a narrow demographic. The job of archaeologist is depicted as a "romantic adventurist occupation",<ref name="McGeough 2006 174–185">{{cite journal |last=McGeough |first=Kevin |year=2006 |title=Heroes, mummies, and treasure: Near Eastern archaeology in the movies |journal=Near Eastern Archaeology |volume=69 |issue=3–4 |pages=174–185 |doi=10.1086/NEA25067670 |s2cid=166381712}}</ref> and as a hobby more than a job in the scientific community. Cinema audiences form a notion of "who archaeologists are, why they do what they do, and how relationships to the past are constituted",<ref name="McGeough 2006 174–185" /> and is often under the impression that all archaeology takes place in a distant and foreign land, only to collect monetarily or spiritually priceless artifacts. The modern depiction of archaeology has incorrectly formed the public's perception of what archaeology is.

Much thorough and productive research has indeed been conducted in dramatic locales such as [[Copán]] and the [[Valley of the Kings]], but the bulk of activities and finds of modern archaeology are not so sensational. Archaeological adventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in carrying out modern surveys, [[Excavation (archaeology)|excavations]], and data processing. Some archaeologists refer to such off-the-mark portrayals as "pseudoarchaeology".<ref name="Romancing the Past-Archaeology" />
Archaeologists are also very much reliant on public support; the question of for whom they are working is often discussed.<ref name="Denning2004" />

== Current issues and controversy ==
=== Public archaeology ===
Motivated by a desire to halt looting, curb pseudoarchaeology, and to help preserve archaeological sites through education and fostering public appreciation for the importance of archaeological heritage, archaeologists are mounting public-outreach campaigns.<ref name="Anthropological Studies Center (ASC)" /> They seek to stop looting by combatting people who illegally take artifacts from protected sites, and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting. Common methods of public outreach include press releases, the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation by professional archaeologists, and making reports and publications accessible outside of academia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marwick |first1=Ben |last2=Pham |first2=Thanh Son |last3=Ko |first3=May Su |title=Over-research and ethics dumping in international archaeology |journal=SPAFA Journal |date=15 December 2020 |volume=4 |doi=10.26721/spafajournal.v4i0.625 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marwick |first1=Ben |title=Open Access to Publications to Expand Participation in Archaeology |journal=Norwegian Archaeological Review |date=29 October 2020 |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=163–169 |doi=10.1080/00293652.2020.1837233 |s2cid=228961066 |url=http://osf.io/v9kfy/ |access-date=16 March 2021 |archive-date=3 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503155227/https://osf.io/v9kfy/ |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Public appreciation of the significance of archaeology and archaeological sites often leads to improved protection from encroaching development or other threats.

One audience for archaeologists' work is the public. Archaeologists increasingly realize that their work can benefit audiences outside the field and academia, and that they have a responsibility to educate and inform the public about archaeology. Local heritage awareness is aimed at increasing civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation programs and better public presentations of archaeological sites and knowledge.{{Citation needed|date=October 2007}} The U.S. Department of Agriculture, [[US Forest Service|Forest Service]] (USFS) operates a volunteer archaeology and historic preservation program called the Passport in Time (PIT). Volunteers work with professional USFS archaeologists and historians on national forests throughout the U.S. Volunteers are involved in all aspects of professional archaeology under expert supervision.<ref name="rapidcityjournal" />

Television programs, web videos and social media can also bring an understanding of underwater archaeology to a broad audience. The ''Mardi Gras'' Shipwreck Project<ref>{{cite web |title=Mardi Gras Shipwreck |url=http://uwf.edu/jkent/fpan_preCMS/mardigras/ |website=uwf.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150516045935/http://uwf.edu/jkent/fpan_preCMS/mardigras/ |archive-date=16 May 2015}}</ref> integrated a one-hour HD documentary,<ref name="Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck">{{cite AV media |title=Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck |medium=video documentary |publisher=Nautilus Productions |url=http://nautilusproductions.com/projects/mystery-mardi-gras-shipwreck-documentary |access-date=8 March 2016 |archive-date=13 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613054648/http://nautilusproductions.com/projects/mystery-mardi-gras-shipwreck-documentary |url-status=live}}</ref> short videos for public viewing and video updates during the expedition as part of the educational outreach. Webcasting is also another tool for educational outreach. For one week in 2000 and 2001, live [[Underwater videography|underwater video]] of the ''[[Queen Anne's Revenge]]'' Shipwreck Project was [[webcast]] to the [[Internet]] as a part of the ''QAR DiveLive''<ref>{{cite web |title=Live from Morehead City, it's Queen Anne's Revenge |series=State Publications |url=http://digital.ncdcr.gov/cdm/ref/collection/p249901coll22/id/695248 |access-date=8 March 2016 |archive-date=15 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200115221718/http://digital.ncdcr.gov/cdm/ref/collection/p249901coll22/id/695248 |url-status=live}}</ref> educational program that reached thousands of children around the world. {{cite conference |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/4760 |title=Diving on the Queen Anne's Revenge |last1=Southerly |first1=C. |last2=Gillman-Bryan |first2=J. |date=19 February 2009 |publisher=The American Academy of Underwater Sciences |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090219004153/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/4760 |archive-date=19 February 2009}} Created and co-produced by [[Nautilus Productions]] and Marine Grafics, this project enabled students to talk to scientists and learn about methods and technologies used by the underwater archaeology team.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Apple, QuickTime help with underwater diving trip |date=October 2001 |magazine=Macworld |url=http://www.macworld.com/article/1019428/quicktime.html |access-date=8 March 2016 |archive-date=3 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403065527/http://www.macworld.com/article/1019428/quicktime.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Blackbeard's glowing shipwreck |website=P3 Update |url=http://www.p3update.com/events/67-lighting/blackbeard-s-glowing-shipwreck |access-date=8 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402173605/http://www.p3update.com/events/67-lighting/blackbeard-s-glowing-shipwreck |archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref>

In the UK, popular archaeology programs such as ''[[Time Team]]'' and ''[[Meet the Ancestors]]'' have resulted in a huge upsurge in public interest.{{Citation needed|date=October 2007}} Where possible, archaeologists now make more provisions for public involvement and outreach in larger projects than they once did,<ref name = internet>{{cite journal |doi=10.11141/ia.57.10 |issue=57 |title=Prehistory, Playhouses and the Public: London's Planning Archaeology |year=2021 |journal=Internet Archaeology |last1=Single |first1=Adam |last2=Davies |first2=Louise |doi-access=free}}</ref> and many local archaeological organizations operate within the [[Community archaeology]] framework<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.11141/ia.57.18 |issue=57 |title=Social Impact Archaeology: Pontefract Castle and the Gatehouse Project |year=2021 |journal=Internet Archaeology |last1=Wilkins |first1=Brendon |doi-access=free}}</ref> to expand public involvement in smaller-scale, more local projects. Archaeological excavation, however, is best undertaken by well-trained staff that can work quickly and accurately. Often this requires observing the necessary [[health and safety]] and indemnity insurance issues involved in working on a modern [[construction|building site]] with tight deadlines. Certain charities and [[local government]] bodies sometimes offer places on research projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project.{{Citation needed|date=October 2007}} There is also a flourishing industry selling places on commercial [[training excavations]] and archaeological holiday tours.{{Citation needed|date=October 2007}}

Archaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies, which is one reason why [[Community archaeology]] projects are starting to become more common. Often archaeologists are assisted by the public in the locating of archaeological sites, which professional archaeologists have neither the funding, nor the time to do.

Archaeological Legacy Institute (ALI), is a registered 501[c] [3] non-profit, media and education corporation registered in Oregon in 1999. ALI founded a website, [http://archaeologychannel.org/ The Archaeology Channel] to support the organization's mission "to nurturing and bringing attention to the human cultural heritage, by using media in the most efficient and effective ways possible."<ref name="The Archaeology Channel and About Us: Archaeological Legacy Institute" />

There is a considerable international body of research focused on archaeology and public value and tangible benefits of archaeology include<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.11141/ia.57.17 |issue=57 |title=Making the Case for the Public Benefits of Development-led Archaeology |year=2021 |journal=Internet Archaeology |last1=Sloane |first1=Barney |doi-access=free}}</ref> helping to counteract racism, documenting accomplishments of ignored communities, providing time-depth as a response to short-termism of the modern age, and contributing to human ecology, independent evidence base, historic context development and tourism.<ref>{{cite journal |issue=5 |title=Answering the skeptic's question |year=2006 |journal=The Society for American Archaeology Archaeological Record |last1=Minnis |first1=P. E. |last2=Kelly |first2=D. S. |last3=Sebastian |first3=L. |last4=Ingram |first4=S. E. |last5=Spielmann |first5=K. A. |volume=6}}</ref> The delivery of public benefits through archaeology can be summarised as follows: through making a contribution to a shared history,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.11141/ia.57.11 |issue=57 |title=Archaeology and the History of the Lithuanian Resistance in the 19th and 20th Centuries: in search of the public benefit |year=2021 |journal=Internet Archaeology |last1=Dediala |first1=Ričardas |doi-access=free}}</ref> artistic and cultural treasures, local values, place-making and social cohesion, educational benefits, contribution to science and innovation, health and wellbeing, and added economic value to developers.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.11141/ia.57.8 |issue=57 |title=No More Polluter Pays Principle: opportunities and challenges of public benefit provision in UK development-led archaeology |year=2021 |journal=Internet Archaeology |last1=Aitchison |first1=Kenneth |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="internet" />

=== Pseudoarchaeology ===
{{Main|Pseudoarchaeology}}

Pseudoarchaeology is an umbrella term for all activities that falsely claim to be archaeological but in fact violate commonly accepted and scientific archaeological practices. It includes much fictional archaeological work (discussed above), as well as some actual activity. Many non-fiction authors have ignored the scientific methods of processual archaeology, or the specific critiques of it contained in [[Post-processual archaeology|post-processualism]].{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

An example of this type is the writing of [[Erich von Däniken]]. His 1968 book, ''[[Chariots of the Gods?]]'', together with many subsequent lesser-known works, expounds a theory of ancient contacts between human civilization on Earth and more technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilizations. This theory, known as [[palaeocontact theory]], or [[Ancient astronaut theory]], is not exclusively Däniken's, nor did the idea originate with him. Works of this nature are usually marked by the renunciation of well-established theories on the basis of limited evidence, and the interpretation of evidence with a preconceived theory in mind.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

=== Looting ===
[[File:Looting rontoy2007.jpg|thumb|right|A looter's pit on the morning following its excavation, taken at Rontoy, Huaura Valley, [[Peru]] in June 2007. Several small holes left by looters' prospecting probes can be seen, as well as their footprints.]]

[[Archaeological looting|Looting of archaeological sites]] is an ancient problem. For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian [[pharaoh]]s were looted during [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]].<ref name="civilizations" /> Archaeology stimulates interest in ancient objects, and people in search of artifacts or treasure cause damage to archaeological sites. The commercial and academic demand for artifacts contributes directly to the [[illicit antiquities]] trade. Smuggling of antiquities abroad to private collectors has caused great cultural and economic damage in many countries whose governments lack the resources and or the will to deter it. Looters damage and destroy archaeological sites, denying future generations information about their ethnic and cultural heritage. Indigenous peoples especially lose access to and control over their 'cultural resources', ultimately denying them the opportunity to know their past.<ref name="autogenerated2" />

In 1937, W. F. Hodge the director of the [[Southwest Museum]] released a statement that the museum would no longer purchase or accept collections from looted contexts.<ref name="Hodge1937" /> The first conviction of the transport of artifacts illegally removed from private property under the [[Archaeological Resources Protection Act]] was in 1992 in the State of Indiana.<ref name="Munson_et_al1995" />

Archaeologists trying to protect artifacts may be placed in danger by looters or locals trying to protect the artifacts from archaeologists who are viewed as looters by the locals.<ref>{{cite news |first=Mark |last=Strauss |date=20 August 2015 |title=Archaeologist's execution highlights risks to history's guardians |website=National Geographic News |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/08/150820-syria-archaeologist-isis-protecting-artifacts/ |access-date=21 August 2015 |archive-date=22 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150822051936/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/08/150820-syria-archaeologist-isis-protecting-artifacts/ }}</ref>

Some historical archaeology sites are subjected to looting by [[metal detector]] hobbyists who search for artifacts using increasingly advanced technology. Efforts are underway among all major Archaeological organizations to increase education and legitimate cooperation between amateurs and professionals in the metal detecting community.<ref>{{cite web |title=Open minds, clearer signals – metal detectorist and archaeologist cooperation takes another step |website=sha.org |publisher=The Society for Historical Archaeology |date=10 April 2013 |type=blog |url=https://sha.org/blog/2013/04/open-minds-clearer-signals-metal-detectorist-and-archaeologist-cooperation-takes-another-step/ |access-date=4 September 2019 |archive-date=22 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222003415/https://sha.org/blog/2013/04/open-minds-clearer-signals-metal-detectorist-and-archaeologist-cooperation-takes-another-step/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

While most looting is deliberate, accidental looting can occur when amateurs, who are unaware of the importance of Archaeological rigor, collect artifacts from sites and place them into private collections.

=== Descendant peoples ===
{{unreferenced section|date=August 2025}}
In the United States, examples such as the case of [[Kennewick Man]] have illustrated the tensions between [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] and archaeologists, which can be summarized as a conflict between a need to remain respectful toward sacred burial sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artifacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present.

As a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the [[Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act]] (NAGPRA, 1990), which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of [[postprocessualism]], some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of [[indigenous peoples]] likely to be descended from those under study.

Archaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study.

While this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their finds. There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession.

==== Repatriation ====
{{See also|Repatriation and reburial of human remains}}
A new trend in the heated controversy between [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] groups and scientists is the [[repatriation]] of native artifacts to the original descendants.{{clarify|what is an original descendant? How does it differ from a descendant?|date=April 2021}} An example of this occurred on 21 June 2005, when community members and elders from a number of the 10 [[Algonquian peoples|Algonquian]] nations in the [[Ottawa]] area convened on the [[Kitigan Zibi]] reservation near [[Maniwaki, Quebec]], to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods—some dating back 6,000 years. It was not determined, however, if the remains were directly related to the [[Algonquin people]] who now inhabit the region. The remains may be of Iroquoian ancestry, since Iroquoian people inhabited the area before the Algonquin. Moreover, the oldest of these remains might have no relation at all to the Algonquin or Iroquois, and belong to an earlier culture who previously inhabited the area.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

The remains and artifacts, including [[jewelry]], [[tool]]s and [[weapons]], were originally excavated from various sites in the [[Ottawa Valley]], including [[Morrison Island|Morrison]] and the [[Allumette Island]]s. They had been part of the [[Canadian Museum of Civilization]]'s research collection for decades, some since the late 19th century. Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional [[Juniperus virginiana|red cedar]] and [[birch bark]] boxes lined with red cedar chips, [[muskrat]] and [[Beaver#Commercial use|beaver pelts]].{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

An inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 80 boxes of various sizes are buried. Because of this reburial, no further scientific study is possible. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement.<ref name="Canadian Geographic Online" />

=== African diaspora archaeology ===
{{Main|African diaspora archaeology}}
African Diaspora Archaeology is an area of study within the subfield of historical archaeology that studies those that have been forcibly transported through the [[Atlantic slave trade|Atlantic Slave Trade]], the [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|Trans-Saharan Slave Trade]], and the [[Indian Ocean slave trade|Indian Ocean Slave Trade]], as well as their descendants. Although of global relevance, most research has been conducted in the Americas and Africa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singleton |first=Theresa |title=The African Diaspora and The Disciplines |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-253-35464-8 |editor-last=Olaniyan |editor-first=Tejumola |location=Bloomington |pages=119–134 |chapter=African Diaspora in Archaeology |editor-last2=Sweet |editor-first2=James}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fennell |first=Christopher |title=Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology |publisher=Springer Cham |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-030-30018-0 |edition=2nd |pages=58–59 |chapter=African Diaspora Archaeology}}</ref>

In the United States, Similar to the experience of Native Americans, the history of African diaspora archaeology is one of controversies over [[Whiteness theory|Whiteness]] in archaeology and anthropology, a lack of inclusion of the African descendant community,<ref>Archaeology under the Blinding Light of Race. Michael L. Blakey in ''Current Anthropology'' 2020 61:S22, S183-S197</ref> and possession of human remains in the collections of universities and museums.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/racist-scientist-built-collection-human-skulls-should-we-still-study-them |website=Science |publisher=AAAS |date=8 Jul 2021 |first1=Lizzie |last1=Wade |title=A racist scientist built a collection of human skulls. Should we still study them? |access-date=15 December 2021 |archive-date=15 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215024303/https://www.science.org/content/article/racist-scientist-built-collection-human-skulls-should-we-still-study-them |url-status=live}}</ref> In the 1990s, anthropologist [[Michael Blakey (anthropologist)|Michael Blakey]] was the director of research during the [[African Burial Ground National Monument|New York African Burial Ground Project]] where he initiated a protocol for collaborating with the African descendant community. In 2011, the [[Society of Black Archaeologists]] was created in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.societyofblackarchaeologists.com/about |website=Society of Black Archaeologists |title=About |access-date=15 December 2021 |archive-date=2 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202224055/https://www.societyofblackarchaeologists.com/about |url-status=live}}</ref> Co-founders [[Ayana Omilade Flewellen]], archaeologist at the [[University of California, Riverside]] and Justin Dunnavant, archaeologist and assistant professor of anthropology at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]] intend to build a restorative justice-based structure in archaeology. They suggest to define descendants not only in genealogical terms, but also to welcome input of African Americans whose ancestors had a shared historical experience in enslavement.<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=When Black history is unearthed, who gets to speak for the dead? |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |date=24 September 2021 |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/10/04/when-black-history-is-unearthed-who-gets-to-speak-for-the-dead |first1=Jill |last1=Lepore |access-date=15 December 2021 |archive-date=31 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731065147/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/10/04/when-black-history-is-unearthed-who-gets-to-speak-for-the-dead |url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[United States Senate]] unanimously passed a bill<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/1179/all-info |website=Congress.gov |title=All Info – H.R.1179 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): African-American Burial Grounds Network Act |date=22 May 2019 |access-date=15 December 2021 |archive-date=15 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215024307/https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/1179/all-info |url-status=live}}</ref> in December 2020 that centers African American cemeteries at risk in South Carolina. The bill is made to better protect historic African burial grounds and can lead to the creation of an [[African American Burial Grounds Network]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/legislation-protect-african-american-burial-grounds-passes-senate-180976642/ |website=Smithsonian Magazine |date=December 29, 2020 |first1=Nora |last1=McGreevy |title=New Legislation Seeks to Protect the U.S.' Historic Black Cemeteries |access-date=15 December 2021 |archive-date=15 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215024305/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/legislation-protect-african-american-burial-grounds-passes-senate-180976642/ |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Barbados]], eight days after becoming a [[republic]] on November 30, 2021, announced plans for the construction of the ''Newton Enslaved Burial Ground Memorial'' as well as a museum dedicated to the history of the [[Atlantic slave trade]].<ref name="smithsonianmag.com">{{Cite web |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/barbados-announces-new-heritage-district-documenting-slavery-180979175/ |website=Smithsonian Magazine |date=December 8, 2021 |first1=Livia |last1=Gershon |title=After Breaking Ties with Britain, Barbados Announces Heritage District Tracing Slavery's Toll |access-date=15 December 2021 |archive-date=8 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208170930/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/barbados-announces-new-heritage-district-documenting-slavery-180979175/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The Ghanaian-British architect [[David Adjaye]] is to lead the project that is to commemorate an estimated 570 West Africans buried in unmarked graves at the site of the former Newton sugar plantation.<ref name="smithsonianmag.com" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GCq11ioozDA |date=Dec 6, 2021 |author1=Architects' Journal |title=Adjaye Associates' proposed Newton Enslaved Burial Ground Memorial, Barbados |website=[[YouTube]] |access-date=15 December 2021 |archive-date=15 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215024306/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GCq11ioozDA&gl=US&hl=en |url-status=live}}</ref> Barbados can be seen as a good example of respectful preservation of an African burial ground. Throughout the [[Americas]] however the burial grounds are in danger of being destroyed or human remains are being excavated without the descendant community being involved.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.flatbushafricanburialground.org/ |title=Flatbush African Burial Ground Coalition |publisher=flatbushafricanburialground.org |access-date=13 January 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114035009/https://www.flatbushafricanburialground.org/ |archive-date=14 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/historic-black-cemeteries-at-risk-can-they-be-preserved |title=The fight to save America's historic Black cemeteries |website=[[National Geographic Society]] |date=19 August 2020 |first1=Austyn |last1=Gaffney |access-date=15 December 2021 |archive-date=15 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215024321/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/historic-black-cemeteries-at-risk-can-they-be-preserved }}</ref><ref>marjolijn kok, 2022. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358128992_A_Future_That_Does_Not_Forget_Collaborative_Archaeology_in_the_Colonial_Context_of_Sint_Eustatius_Dutch_Caribbean A Future That Does Not Forget: Collaborative Archaeology in the Colonial Context of Sint Eustatius (Dutch Caribbean).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322201324/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358128992_A_Future_That_Does_Not_Forget_Collaborative_Archaeology_in_the_Colonial_Context_of_Sint_Eustatius_Dutch_Caribbean |date=22 March 2023 }} Rotterdam, Bureau Archeologie en Toekomst, BAT-report 1</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/21/olympics-media-village-sacred-grave-african-slaves-rio-games |title=Olympics media village built on 'sacred' mass grave of African slaves |work=The Guardian |date=21 July 2016 |access-date=15 December 2021 |archive-date=15 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215024310/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/21/olympics-media-village-sacred-grave-african-slaves-rio-games |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://roadsandkingdoms.com/2017/the-mass-grave-in-the-garden/ |title=The Mass Grave in the Garden |date=25 July 2017 |access-date=15 December 2021 |archive-date=15 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215024304/https://roadsandkingdoms.com/2017/the-mass-grave-in-the-garden/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2022, residents on [[Sint Eustatius]], [[Dutch Caribbean]] spoke out strongly against what they found were unethical excavations of their ancestors on the [[Godet African Burial Ground]] and the [[Golden Rock African Burial Ground]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thedailyherald.sx/islands/criticism-remains-despite-suspension-of-excavations |title=Criticism remains despite suspension of excavations |date=19 July 2021 |access-date=15 December 2021 |archive-date=15 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215024311/https://www.thedailyherald.sx/islands/criticism-remains-despite-suspension-of-excavations |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Climate change and archaeology ===
As anthropogenic [[climate change]] affects our environment, projections show that there will be changes in rainfall with increased drought and desertification, increases in intensity and frequency of rainfall, increases in temperature (winter and summer), increases in both the temperature and frequency of heatwaves, rising sea levels, and warmer seas, ocean acidification and changes in oceanic currents. These climate drivers will result in changes to flora and fauna, and changes in ground conditions (both on and below the surface) and so will also affect archaeological deposits and structures, while human responses to the climate crisis will also impact archaeological sites. The archaeologist's knowledge and skills are relevant to supporting society in adapting to a changing climate and a low carbon future.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fluck |first1=H. |last2=Guest |first2=K. |year=2022 |title=Climate Change and Archaeology. An Introduction |journal=Internet Archaeology |issue=60 |doi=10.11141/ia.60.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Woodside |first1=R. |last2=Huggett-Jones |first2=S. |year=2022 |title=Heritage Responds – Taking Positive Actions on Climate Change |journal=Internet Archaeology |issue=60 |doi=10.11141/ia.60.10 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Another effect of higher temperatures has been melting of glaciers and ice patches. This has led to the discovery of artifacts and bodies long buried in the ice, fostering the new field of [[glacial archaeology]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.popsci.com/science/melting-ice-archaeology/ |title='Dark' archaeologists scour melting ice for ancient artifacts |date=October 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.346.6206.157 |title=Racing the thaw |date=2014 |last1=Curry |first1=Andrew |journal=Science |volume=346 |issue=6206 |pages=157–159 |pmid=25301599}}</ref>

Archaeological sites can be seen as habitats that support ecosystems and fulfil biodiversity goals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kadakas |first1=U. |year=2022 |title=Archaeological Heritage as a Sustainer of Biodiversity |journal=Internet Archaeology |issue=60 |doi=10.11141/ia.60.9 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== AI in archaeology ====
As [[artificial intelligence (AI)]] continues to influence scientific research, its application in archaeological studies has become increasingly significant. For instance, AI models have been utilized to identify archaeological remains in [[the Empty Quarter]] of the [[Arabian Peninsula]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cairns |first=Rebecca |date=2024-09-25 |title=Artificial intelligence is detecting new archaeological sites in the desert |url=https://edition.cnn.com/science/artificial-intelligence-archaeological-sites-sar-spc/index.html |access-date=2024-09-25 |work=CNN |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925131016/https://edition.cnn.com/science/artificial-intelligence-archaeological-sites-sar-spc/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Laurel |first1=Capitol Technology University 11301 Springfield Road |last2=Md 20708 888.522.7486 |title=AI in Archeology: How New Technology is Revolutionizing Historical Studies |url=https://www.captechu.edu/blog/how-ai-and-technology-is-revolutionizing-archeology |access-date=2024-09-25 |website=Capitol Technology University}}</ref> Additionally, AI technology has facilitated the discovery of 303 new geoglyphs in Nazca.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sakai |first1=Masato |last2=Sakurai |first2=Akihisa |last3=Lu |first3=Siyuan |last4=Olano |first4=Jorge |last5=Albrecht |first5=Conrad M. |last6=Hamann |first6=Hendrik F. |last7=Freitag |first7=Marcus |title=AI-accelerated Nazca survey nearly doubles the number of known figurative geoglyphs and sheds light on their purpose |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=2024 |volume=121 |issue=40 |article-number=e2407652121 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2407652121 |doi-access=free |pmid=39312651 |pmc=11459208 |bibcode=2024PNAS..12107652S}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* {{annotated link|Aerial archaeology}}
* {{annotated link|Anthropology}}
* {{annotated link|Archaeoastronomy}}
* {{annotated link|Archaeobiology}}
* {{annotated link|Archaeogenetics}}
* {{annotated link|Archaeological science}}
* {{annotated link|Archaeology and racism}}
* {{annotated link|Archaeology of religion and ritual}}
* {{annotated link|Archival research}}
* {{annotated link|Area of archaeological potential}}
* {{annotated link|Bioarchaeology}}
* {{annotated link|Chronological dating}}
* {{annotated link|Classical archaeology}}
* {{annotated link|Computational archaeology}}
* {{annotated link|Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites}}
* {{annotated link|Digital archaeology}}
* {{annotated link|Disturbance (archaeology)}}
* {{annotated link|Dump digging}}
* {{annotated link|Environmental archaeology}}
* {{annotated link|Environmental history}}
* {{annotated link|Geophysical survey (archaeology)}}
* {{annotated link|GIS in archaeology}}
* {{annotated link|Glossary of archaeology}}
* {{annotated link|Harris matrix}}
* {{annotated link|Human ecology}}
* {{annotated link|Intellectual Property Issues in Cultural Heritage project}}
* {{annotated link|Landscape archaeology}}
* {{annotated link|Landscape history}}
* {{annotated link|Magnetic survey (archaeology)}}
* {{annotated link|Maritime archaeology}}
* {{annotated link|Nationalism and archaeology}}
* {{annotated link|Paleoanthropology|Palaeoanthropology}}
* {{annotated link|Remote sensing in archaeology}}
* {{annotated link|Urban archaeology}}
* {{annotated link|Zooarchaeology}}

'''Lists'''
* [[List of archaeological excavations by date]]
* [[List of archaeological periods]]
* [[List of archaeological sites by country]]
* [[List of archaeologists]]
* [[List of archaeology awards]]
* [[List of paleoethnobotanists]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist|refs=
{{efn|name=spelling|{{Etymology|grc|''ἀρχαῖος'' (archaios)|ancient||''λογία'' (logia)|study of}}.<ref>{{Cite OED|archaeology}}</ref> Although [[American and British English spelling differences#ae and oe|American English usually does not use -ae spellings]], ''archaeology'' is the standard spelling across the English-speaking world, including the United States.<ref name="HirstSpelling">{{cite web |last1=Hirst |first1=K. Kris |date=2018-03-24 |title=Archeology: Why Is There an Alternative Way to Spell Archaeology? |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/archaeology-spelling-169591 |website=ThoughtCo |access-date=18 February 2021 |language=en |archive-date=27 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227011505/https://www.thoughtco.com/archaeology-spelling-169591 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Archaeology vs. archeology |series=Correct spelling |url=https://grammarist.com/spelling/archaeology-archeology/ |website=Grammarist |date=9 February 2012 |access-date=18 February 2021 |archive-date=15 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115184622/https://grammarist.com/spelling/archaeology-archeology/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Some US government bodies and university presses use ''archeology'' in accordance with the [[GPO Style Manual]].<ref name="Society for American Archaeology" /> Another uncommon variant is ''archæology'', using the archaic [[Orthographic ligature|ligature]] ''[[æ]]''.<ref name="HirstSpelling" />}}
}}

== References ==
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<ref name="Anthropological Studies Center (ASC)">{{cite web |website=Anthropological Studies Center (ASC) |publisher=Sonoma.edu |url=https://asc.sonoma.edu/outreach/public-educationoutreach |access-date=18 October 2022 |title=Public Education/Outreach |date=17 April 2018 |archive-date=18 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018234959/https://asc.sonoma.edu/outreach/public-educationoutreach |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="archaeological">{{cite journal |author=Schiffer, M. B. |year=1972 |title=Archaeological context and systemic context |journal=American Antiquity |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=156–165 |doi=10.2307/278203 |jstor=278203 |s2cid=162342729}}</ref>

<ref name="Ascher1961">Ascher (1961)</ref>

<ref name="autogenerated1">Trigger (1989)</ref>

<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite journal |last=Sheets |first=P. D. |year=1973 |title=The Pillage of Prehistory |journal=[[American Antiquity]] |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=317–20 |doi=10.2307/279718 |jstor=279718 |s2cid=163319469}}</ref>

<ref name="Billmand_Feinman1999">Billman and Feinman (1999)</ref>

<ref name="Binford1962">Binford (1962)</ref>

<ref name="Built Environment">{{cite web |title=Built Environment |publisher=ehsni.gov.uk |url=http://www.ehsni.gov.uk/built.htm |access-date=5 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225132821/http://www.ehsni.gov.uk/built.htm |archive-date=25 December 2007}}</ref>

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<ref name="Canadian Geographic Online">{{cite magazine |title=Bones of contention |last=Wallace |first=Katie |magazine=Canadian Geographic Online |url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/SO05/indepth/archaeology.asp |date= |access-date=4 October 2005 |archive-date=18 February 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060218100935/http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/SO05/indepth/archaeology.asp |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="civilizations">{{cite AV media |series=Time Life Lost Civilizations |title=Ramses&nbsp;II: Magnificence on the Nile |year=1993 |medium=TV documentary}}</ref>

<ref name="Denning2004">{{cite journal |last=Denning |first=K. |title='The Storm of Progress' and Archaeology for an Online Public |journal=Internet Archaeology |volume=15 |issue=15 |date=28 January 2004 |doi=10.11141/ia.15.1}}</ref>

<ref name="Department for Culture Media and Sport – historic environment">{{cite web |title=Historic environment |department=Department for Culture Media and Sport |publisher=Culture.gov.uk |date=28 April 2009 |url=http://www.culture.gov.uk/what_we_do/Historic_environment/ |access-date=5 May 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521191552/http://www.culture.gov.uk/what_we_do/Historic_environment/ |archive-date=21 May 2009}}</ref>

<ref name="English Heritage – Stonehenge & the History of England: English Heritage">{{cite web |title=English Heritage – Stonehenge & the History of England: English Heritage |publisher=English Heritage |url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk |access-date=5 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090430203419/http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/ |archive-date=30 April 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Flannery1967">Flannery (1967)</ref>

<ref name="Flannery1982">Flannery (1982)</ref>

<ref name="Frison1989">{{cite journal |last=Frison |first=G. C. |year=1989 |title=Experimental Use of Clovis Weaponry and Tools on African Elephants |journal=[[American Antiquity]] |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=766–84 |doi=10.2307/280681 |jstor=280681 |s2cid=162199901 |jstor-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name="Gifford-Gonzalez_et_al1985">Gifford-Gonzalez (1985)</ref>

<ref name="GIS, critique, representation and beyond">{{cite journal |last=Hacιgüzeller |first=Piraye |year=2012 |title=GIS, critique, representation and beyond |journal=Journal of Social Archaeology |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=245–263 |doi=10.1177/1469605312439139 |s2cid=220418716}}</ref>

<ref name="Glasscock_et_al1994">Glascock et al. 1994</ref>

<ref name="Gould_Yellen1987">Gould and Yellen 1987</ref>

<ref name="Gould1971a">Gould (1971a)</ref>

<ref name="Gould1971b">Gould (1971b)</ref>

<ref name="Hinshaw2000">Hinshaw (2000)</ref>

<ref name="Hodder1982">Hodder (1982)</ref>

<ref name="Hodder1985">Hodder (1985)</ref>

<ref name="Hodder1987">Hodder (1987)</ref>

<ref name="Hodder1990">Hodder (1990)</ref>

<ref name="Hodder1991">Hodder (1991)</ref>

<ref name="Hodder1992">Hodder (1992)</ref>

<ref name="Hodge1937">Hodge (1937)</ref>

<ref name="kuznar2001">Kuznar (2001)</ref>

<ref name="Miller_etal1989">Miller et al. (1989)</ref>

<ref name="Miller_Tilley1984">Miller and Tilley1984</ref>

<ref name="mit">{{Cite web |url=http://web.mit.edu/cmrae/cmrae_mission.htm/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725154143/http://web.mit.edu/cmrae/cmrae_mission.htm/ |title=MIT Archaeological Materials and CMRAE Mission Statement |archive-date=25 July 2008}}</ref>

<ref name="Munson_et_al1995">{{Cite journal |last1=Munson |first1=C. A. |last2=Jones |first2=M. M. |last3=Fry |first3=R. E. |year=1995 |title=The GE Mound: An ARPA Case Study |journal=American Antiquity |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=131–59 |doi=10.2307/282080 |jstor=282080 |s2cid=163470391}}</ref>

<ref name="ncl">{{cite web |first=Kevin |last=Greene |title=''Archaeology – an introduction'' |publisher=Staff.ncl.ac.uk |url=http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/kevin.greene/wintro |access-date=12 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123100909/http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/kevin.greene/wintro/ |archive-date=23 January 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="Ogundele2005">Ogundele (2005)</ref>

<ref name="Pauketat2001">[[Timothy Pauketat|Pauketat, Timothy R.]] (2001)</ref>

<ref name="Planning Policy Guidance 16: Archaeology and planning – Planning, building and the environment – Communities and Local Government">{{cite web |title=Planning Policy Guidance 16: Archaeology and planning |series=Planning, building and the environment – Communities and Local Government |access-date=25 July 2009 |url=http://www.communities.gov.uk/publications/planningandbuilding/planningpolicyguidance9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080212011420/http://www.communities.gov.uk/publications/planningandbuilding/planningpolicyguidance9 |archive-date=12 February 2008}}</ref>

<ref name="rapidcityjournal">{{cite news |title=Volunteers restore antique Miller Cabin |newspaper=[[Rapid City Journal]] |place=Rapid City, SD |date=14 November 2008 |url=http://www.rapidcityjournal.com/news/local/article_3654c4d7-e241-5b5a-a624-46628d7c1f4f.html |access-date=12 August 2010 |archive-date=12 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110412143602/http://www.rapidcityjournal.com/news/local/article_3654c4d7-e241-5b5a-a624-46628d7c1f4f.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Redman1974">{{cite book |last=Redman |first=C. L. |year=1974 |title=Archaeological Sampling Strategies |location=Binghamton |publisher=[[State University of New York at Binghamton]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Renfrew_Bahn1991">Renfrew and Bahn (2004 [1991]:13)</ref>

<!--ref name="renfrew">Renfrew and Bahn (2004 [1991]:75)</ref-->

<ref name="Romancing the Past-Archaeology">{{cite press release |title=Romancing the Past-Archaeology |publisher=[[Denison University]] |url=http://www.denison.edu/campuslife/museum/romancingthepastarchaeology.html |access-date=11 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100531070750/https://www.denison.edu/campuslife/museum/romancingthepastarchaeology.html |archive-date=31 May 2010 }}</ref>

<ref name="Saraydar_Shimada1971">Saraydar and Shimada (1971)</ref>

<ref name="Saraydar_Shimada1973">Saraydar and Shimada (1973)</ref>

<ref name="Schott_Sillitoe2005">Schott and Sillitoe (2005)</ref>

<ref name="Shanks_Tilley1987">Shanks and Tilley (1987)</ref>

<ref name="Shanks_Tilley1988">Shanks and Tilley (1988)</ref>

<ref name="Shanks1991">Shanks (1991)</ref>

<ref name="Shanks1993">Shanks (1993)</ref>

<ref name="Sillet_et_al2006">Sillet et al. (2006)</ref>

<ref name="Society for American Archaeology">{{cite web |first=Barbara J. |last=Little |date=2006 |title=Why are there two different spellings: archaeology and archeology? |publisher=Society for American Archaeology |url=http://www.saa.org/ForthePublic/Resources/OtherUsefulResources/Whyaretheretwodifferentspellingsarchaeology/tabid/1078/Default.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091205105622/http://www.saa.org/ForthePublic/Resources/OtherUsefulResources/Whyaretheretwodifferentspellingsarchaeology/tabid/1078/Default.aspx |archive-date=5 December 2009}}</ref>

<ref name="The Archaeology Channel and About Us: Archaeological Legacy Institute">{{cite web |title=Our organization |publisher=Archaeological Legacy Institute (ALI) |website=archaeologychannel.org |url=http://www.archaeologychannel.org/about-guide/our-organization |access-date=20 March 2018 |archive-date=21 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180321130344/http://www.archaeologychannel.org/about-guide/our-organization |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="The University of Exeter – SoGAER – Department of Archaeology">{{cite web |title=Department of Archaeology |publisher=The University of Exeter – SoGAER |website=Sogaer.ex.ac.uk |date=28 October 2008 |url=http://www.sogaer.ex.ac.uk/archaeology/modules/arc3600.shtml |access-date=5 May 2009 |archive-date=21 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621032501/http://www.sogaer.ex.ac.uk/archaeology/modules/arc3600.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Tilley1993">Tilley (1993)</ref>

<ref name="virt">{{cite journal |last=Bawaya |first=Michael |date=8 January 2010 |title=Virtual archaeologists recreate parts of ancient worlds |journal=Science |volume=327 |issue=5962 |pages=140–141 |doi=10.1126/science.327.5962.140 |pmid=20056870 |bibcode=2010Sci...327..140B |url=http://village.anth.wsu.edu/sites/village.anth.wsu.edu/files/0108-Virtual.pdf |access-date=8 April 2018 |archive-date=5 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190805064539/http://village.anth.wsu.edu/sites/village.anth.wsu.edu/files/0108-Virtual.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Willey1953">Willey (1953)</ref>

<ref name="Willey1968">Willey (1968)</ref>

<ref name="Yellen1972">Yellen (1972)</ref>

<ref name="Yellen1977">Yellen (1977)</ref>

<ref name="Yellen1991">Yellen (1991)</ref>
</references>

== Bibliography ==
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* {{cite journal |author=Gould, R. |year=1971a |title=The Archaeologist as Ethnographer: A Case from the Western Desert of Australia |journal=World Archaeology |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=143–177 |doi=10.1080/00438243.1969.9979499}}
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* {{cite book |first1=William A. |last1=Haviland |first2=Harald E. L. |last2=Prins |first3=Bunny |last3=McBride |first4=Dana |last4=Walrath |year=2010 |title=Cultural Anthropology: The human challenge |edition=13th |publisher=Cengage |isbn=978-0-495-81082-7}}
* {{cite book |author=Hinshaw, J. |year=2000 |title=Ethnobotanical and Archaeobotanical Relationships: A Yuman case study |place=Salinas |publisher=Coyote Press |pages=3–7, 38–45}}
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* {{cite book |author=Hodder, I. |year=1985 |chapter=Post-processual archaeology |editor=Schiffer, M. B. |title=Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory |place=New York |publisher=Academic Press}}
* {{cite book |editor=Hodder, I. |year=1987 |title=The Archaeology of Contextual Meaning |place=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{cite book |author=Hodder, I. |year=1990 |chapter=Style as historical quality |editor=Hastorf, M. |title=The Uses of Style in Archaeology |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{cite journal |author=Hodder, I. |year=1991 |title=Interpretive Archaeology and Its Role |journal=American Antiquity |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=7–18 |jstor=280968 |s2cid=163936790 |publisher=Society for American Archaeology|doi=10.2307/280968 }}
* {{cite book |author=Hodder, I. |year=1992 |title=Theory and Practice in Archaeology |place=London, UK |publisher=Routledge}}
* {{Cite book|last=Kipfer|first=Barbara Ann|author-link=Barbara Ann Kipfer|title=Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology|year=2000|location=Boston|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BDKqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP7}}
* {{cite book |editor=Kuznar, L. |year=2001 |title=Ethnoarchaeology of Andean South America |place=Ann Arbor, MI |publisher=International Monographs in Prehistory}}
* {{cite book |author1=Miller, D. |author2=Tilley, C. |year=1984 |chapter=Ideology, power, and prehistory: An introduction |editor=Miller, D. |editor2=Tilley, C. |title=Ideology, Power, and Prehistory |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-25526-4 |oclc=241599209}}
* {{cite book |editor=Miller, D. |editor2=Rowlands, M. |editor3=Tilley, C. |year=1989 |title=Dominion and Resistance |place=New York, NY |publisher=Routledge}}
* {{cite journal |author=Ogundele, S. O. |year=2005 |title=Ethnoarchaeology of domestic space and spatial behaviour among the Tiv and Ungwai of central Nigeria |journal=African Archaeological Review |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=25–54 |doi=10.1007/s10437-005-3158-2 |s2cid=145452535}}
* {{cite journal |author=Pauketat, T. R. |author-link=Timothy Pauketat |year=2001 |title=Practice and History in Archaeology: An Emerging Paradigm |journal=Anthropological Theory |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=73–98 |doi=10.1177/14634990122228638 |doi-broken-date=11 July 2025}}
* {{cite book |author1=Renfrew, C. |author2=Bahn, P. G. |year=1991 |title=Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice |place=London |publisher=Thames and Hudson Ltd. |isbn=978-0-500-27867-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologytheor00renf_0 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Saraydar, S. C. |author2=Shimada, I. |year=1971 |title=A Quantitative Comparison of Efficiency Between A Stone Axe and A Steel Axe |journal=American Antiquity |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=216–217 |doi=10.2307/278680 |jstor=278680 |s2cid=163927190}}
* {{cite journal |author1=Saraydar, S. C. |author2=Shimada, I. |year=1973 |title=Experimental archaeology: A new outlook |journal=American Antiquity |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=344–350 |doi=10.2307/279722 |jstor=279722 |s2cid=163223665}}
* {{cite book |author=Sellet, F. |author2=Greaves, R. |author3=Yu, P.-L. |name-list-style=amp |year=2006 |title=Archaeology and Ethnoarchaeology of Mobility |place=Gainesville |publisher=University Press of Florida}}
* {{cite book |author1=Shanks, M. |author2=Tilley, C. |year=1987 |title=Reconstructing Archaeology |place=New York |publisher=Cambridge university Press}}
* {{cite book |author1=Shanks, M. |author2=Tilley, C. |year=1988 |title=Social Theory and Archaeology |place=Albuquerque |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |isbn=978-0-7456-0184-7}}
* {{cite journal |author=Shanks, M. |year=1991 |title=Some recent approaches to style and social reconstruction in classical archaeology |journal=Archaeological Review from Cambridge |volume=10 |pages=164–174}}
* {{cite journal |author=Shanks, M. |year=1993 |title=Style and the design of a perfume jar from an Archaic Greek city state |journal=Journal of European Archaeology |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=77–106 |doi=10.1179/096576693800731190}}
* {{cite journal |author1=Shott, M. J. |author2=Sillitoe, P. |year=2005 |title=Use life and curation in New Guinea experimental used flakes |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=653–663 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2004.11.012 |bibcode=2005JArSc..32..653S}}
* {{cite book |author1=Tassie, G. J. |author2=Owens, L. S. |year=2010 |title=Standards of Archaeological Excavations: A Fieldguide to the Methology, Recording Techniques and Conventions |place=London |publisher=GHP |isbn=978-1-906137-17-5}}
* {{cite book |author=Taylor, W. W. |year=1948 |title=A Study of Archaeology |place=Menasha |publisher=American Anthropological Association |isbn=978-0-906367-12-4}}
* {{cite book |editor=Tilley, Christopher |year=1993 |title=Interpretive Archaeology |place=Oxford |publisher=Berg |isbn=978-0-85496-842-8}}
* {{cite book |author=Trigger, B. G. |year=1989 |title=A History of Archaeological Thought |place=Cambridge, UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{cite book |author=Watters, M. R. |year=1992 |title=Principles of Geoarchaeology: A North American Perspective |place=Tucson |publisher=The University of Arizona Press}}
* {{cite journal |author=Watters, M. R. |year=2000 |title=Alluvial stratigraphy and geoarchaeology in the American Southwest |journal=Geoarchaeology |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=537–557 |doi=10.1002/1520-6548(200008)15:6<537::AID-GEA5>3.0.CO;2-E |bibcode=2000Gearc..15..537W}}
* {{cite book |author=Willey, G. R. |year=1953 |title=Prehistoric Settlement Patterns in the Virú Valley, Perú |place=Washington, D.C.}}
* {{cite book |author=Willey, G. |year=1968 |title=Settlement Archaeology |place=Palo Alto, CA |publisher=National Press}}
* {{cite book |author=Wylie, A. |year=1985 |chapter=The reaction against analogy |editor=Schiffer, Michael B. |title=Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory |place=Orlando, FL |pages=63–111 |publisher=Academic Press}}
* {{cite journal |author1=Yellen, J. |author2=Harpending, H. |year=1972 |title=Hunter-Gatherer Populations and Archaeological Inference |journal=World Archaeology |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=244–253 |doi=10.1080/00438243.1972.9979535 |pmid=16468220}}
* {{cite book |author=Yellen, J. |year=1977 |title=Archaeological Approaches to the Present |place=New York |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-770350-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologicalap00yell }}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Main|Bibliography of anthropology |Table of years in archaeology}}
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hodder |first1=Ian |last2=Shanks |first2=Michael |last3=Alexandri |first3=Alexandar |last4=Buchili |first4=Victor |last5=Carman |first5=John |last6=Last |first6=Jonathan |last7=Lucas |first7=Gavin |title=Interpreting Archaeology: Finding Meaning in the Past |date=2008 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |url=https://www.academia.edu/37558339 |access-date=18 June 2019 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816112849/https://www.academia.edu/37558339 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Olsen |first1=Bjørnar |last2=Shanks |first2=Michael |last3=Webmoor |first3=Timothy |last4=Witmore |first4=Christopher |title=Archaeology: The Discipline of Things |date=2012 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=978-0-520-95400-7 |url=https://www.academia.edu/36747616 |access-date=18 June 2019 |archive-date=17 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817064224/https://www.academia.edu/36747616 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Rathje |first1=William |last2=Shanks |first2=Michael |last3=Witmore |first3=Christoper |title=Archaeology in the Making |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-63480-9 |url=https://www.academia.edu/37112895 |access-date=18 June 2019 |archive-date=19 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819010429/https://www.academia.edu/37112895 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Shanks |first1=Michael |title=Experiencing the Past: On the Character of Archaeology |date=1992 |publisher=Routledge |location=London and New York |isbn=0-203-97363-1 |url=https://www.academia.edu/4016761 |access-date=18 June 2019 |archive-date=17 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817063907/https://www.academia.edu/4016761 |url-status=live}}
* [[Archaeology (magazine)|''Archaeology'']] (magazine)
* [[Lewis Binford]] – ''New Perspectives in Archaeology'' (1968) {{ISBN|0-202-33022-2}}
* [[Glyn Daniel]] – ''A Short History of Archaeology'' (1991)
* [[Kevin Greene (archaeologist)|Kevin Greene]] – ''Introduction to Archaeology'' (1983)
* Thomas Hester, Harry Shafer, and [[Kenneth L. Feder]] – ''Field Methods in Archaeology'' 7th edition (1997)
* [[Ian Hodder]] & Scott Hutson – "Reading the Past" 3rd. edition (2003)
* {{cite journal |author=Hutchings Rich, La Salle Marina |year=2014 |title=Teaching Anti-Colonial Archaeology |journal=Archaeologies |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=27–69 |doi=10.1007/s11759-014-9250-y |s2cid=154800430}}
* [[International Journal of South American Archaeology]] – IJSA (magazine)
* [[Internet Archaeology]], e-journal
* C. U. Larsen – ''Sites and Monuments'' (1992)
* Adrian Praetzellis – ''Death by Theory'', AltaMira Press (2000). {{ISBN|978-0-7425-0359-5}}
* [[Colin Renfrew]] & Paul Bahn – ''Archaeology: theories, methods and practice'', 2nd edition (1996)
* Smekalova, T. N.; Voss O.; & Smekalov S. L. (2008). "[[Magnetic survey (archaeology)|Magnetic Surveying in Archaeology]]. More than 10 years of using the Overhauser GSM-19 gradiometer". Wormianum.
* [[David Hurst Thomas]] – ''Archaeology'', 3rd. ed. (1998)
* Robert J. Sharer & Wendy Ashmore – ''Archaeology: Discovering our Past'' 2nd edition (1993)
* [[Bruce Trigger]] – "A History of Archaeological Thought" 2nd. edition (2007)
* [[Alison Wylie]] – ''Thinking From Things: Essays in the Philosophy of Archaeology'', [[University of California Press]], Berkeley CA, 2002
{{refend}}

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* [http://www.archaeology.ws/worldarchnews.html World Archaeology News – weekly update from BBC Radio archaeologist, Win Scutt]
* [http://www.archaeologychannel.org/ The Archaeology Channel]

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