View source for Asian palm civet

{{short description|Species of viverrid}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Asian palm civet
| image = Asian Palm Civet Over A Tree.jpg
| image_caption =
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |title=''Paradoxurus hermaphroditus'' |name-list-style=amp |author=Duckworth, J.W. |author2=Timmins, R.J. |author3=Choudhury, A. |author4=Chutipong, W. |author5=Willcox, D.H.A. |author6=Mudappa, D. |author7=Rahman, H. |author8=Widmann, P. |author9=Wilting, A. |author10=Xu, W. |date=2016 |page=e.T41693A45217835 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T41693A45217835.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Paradoxurus
| species = hermaphroditus<ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Wozencraft |id=14000317 |heading=Species ''Paradoxurus hermaphroditus''}}</ref>
| authority = ([[Peter Simon Pallas|Pallas]], 1777)
| range_map = Asian Palm Civet area.png
| range_map_caption = Asian palm civet range: native in green, introduced in red
}}

The '''Asian palm civet''' ('''''Paradoxurus hermaphroditus'''''), also called '''common palm civet''', '''toddy cat''' and '''musang''', is a [[Viverridae|viverrid]] native to [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. Since 2008, it is [[IUCN Red List]]ed as [[Least Concern]] as it accommodates to a broad range of [[habitat]]s. It is widely distributed with large populations that in 2008 were thought unlikely to be declining.<ref name=iucn />
In [[Indonesia]], it is threatened by [[poaching]] and [[illegal wildlife trade]]; buyers use it for the increasing production of [[kopi luwak]].<ref name=Shepherd2012>{{cite journal |last=Shepherd |first=C. |title=Observations of small carnivores in Jakarta wildlife markets, Indonesia, with notes on trade in Javan Ferret Badger ''Melogale orientalis'' and on the increasing demand for Common Palm Civet ''Paradoxurus hermaphroditus'' for civet coffee production |journal=Small Carnivore Conservation |year=2012 |volume=47 |pages=38–41 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259781537}}</ref>

== Characteristics ==
[[File:Himalay Palm Civet.jpg|thumb|Close up of an Asian palm civet]]
[[File:Paradoxureskull.png|thumb|Illustration of skull and dentition, by [[Paul Gervais|Gervais]] in {{Lang|fr|Histoire naturelle des mammifères}}]]
The Asian palm civet's long, stocky body is covered with coarse, shaggy hair that is usually greyish in colour. It has a white mask across the forehead, a small white patch under each eye, a white spot on each side of the nostrils, and a narrow dark line between the eyes. The muzzle, ears, lower legs, and distal half of the tail are black, with three rows of black markings on the body. Its head-to-body length is about {{convert|53|cm|in|abbr=on}} with a {{convert|48|cm|in|abbr=on}} long unringed tail. It weighs {{convert|2|to|5|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}}. Its anal [[scent glands]] emit a [[nausea]]ting secretion as a [[chemical defense]] when threatened or upset.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Lēkhakun, B. |author2=McNeely, J. A. |year=1977 |title=Mammals of Thailand |publisher=Association for the Conservation of Wildlife |location=Bangkok}}</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==
The Asian palm civet is native to [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Bhutan]], [[Myanmar]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Thailand]], [[Singapore]], [[Peninsular Malaysia]], [[Sabah]], [[Sarawak]], [[Brunei Darussalam]], [[Lao People's Democratic Republic|Laos]], [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[China]], the [[Philippines]], and the [[Indonesia]]n islands of [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Kalimantan]], [[Bawean]], and [[Siberut]]. It was introduced to [[Irian Jaya]], the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]], [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]], and [[Sulawesi]]. Its presence in [[Papua New Guinea]] is uncertain.<ref name=iucn />

It usually inhabits [[primary forest]]s, but also occurs at lower densities in secondary and selectively logged forest.<ref name="grassman98">{{cite journal |author=Grassman, L.I. Jr. |year=1998 |title=Movements and fruit selection of two ''Paradoxurinae'' species in a dry evergreen forest in Southern Thailand |journal=Small Carnivore Conservation |issue=19 |pages=25–29}}</ref>

It is also present in parks and suburban [[garden]]s with mature fruit trees, [[Ficus|fig]] trees, and undisturbed vegetation. Its sharp claws allow climbing of trees and house gutters. In most parts of Sri Lanka, palm civets are considered a nuisance since they litter in ceilings and attics of common households, and make loud noises fighting and moving about at night.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

=== Evolution ===
Palawan and Borneo specimens are genetically close, so the Asian palm civet on Palawan island might have dispersed from [[Borneo]] during the [[Pleistocene]]. It is possible that people later introduced Asian palm civet into other Philippines islands.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Patou, M.L. |author2=Wilting, A. |author3=Gaubert, P. |author4=Esselstyn, J.A. |author5=Cruaud, C. |author6=Jennings, A.P. |author7=Fickel, J. |author8=Veron, G. |name-list-style=amp |year=2010 |title=Evolutionary history of the ''Paradoxurus'' palm civets – a new model for Asian biogeography |journal=Journal of Biogeography |volume=37 |issue=11 |pages=2092–2093 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2010.02364.x|s2cid=2705179 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Piper, P.J. |author2=Ochoa, J. |author3=Robles, E.C. |author4=Lewis, H. |author5=Paz, V. |name-list-style=amp |year=2011 |title=Palaeozoology of Palawan Island, Philippines |journal=Quaternary International |volume=233 |issue=2 |pages=142−158 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2010.07.009|bibcode=2011QuInt.233..142P }}</ref>

==Behaviour and ecology==
[[File:Common Palm Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) (7781509830).jpg|thumb|Asian palm civet in [[Khao Yai National Park]], Thailand]]
[[File:Asian Palm Civet with pups Baranagar Kolkata West Bengal India.jpg|thumb|Asian palm civet with pups in an urban area at [[Baranagar]], [[Kolkata]], India]]
The Asian palm civet is thought to lead a [[solitary animal|solitary]] lifestyle, except for brief periods during [[mating]]. It is both terrestrial and arboreal, showing a [[nocturnal]] activity pattern with peaks between late evening until after midnight.<ref name="grassman98"/> It is usually active between dawn and 4:00 in the morning, but less active during nights when the moon is brightest.<ref name=joshi>{{cite journal |author1=Joshi, A.R. |author2=Smith, J.L.D. |author3=Cuthbert, F.J. |title=Influence of food distribution and predation pressure on spacing behavior in palm civets |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=76 |issue=4 |pages=1205–1212 |publisher=American Society of Mammalogists |year=1995 |doi=10.2307/1382613 |jstor=1382613}}</ref>

[[Scent marking]] behaviour and [[olfactory]] response to various excretions such as urine, feces, and secretion of the [[anal gland|perineal gland]] differs in males and females. Scent marking by dragging the perineal gland and leaving the secretion on the substrate was most commonly observed in animals of both sexes. The duration of the olfactory response varied and depended both on the sex and excretion type. The palm civet can distinguish animal species, sex, familiar and unfamiliar individuals by the odor of the perineal gland secretion.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Rozhnov, V. V. |author2=Rozhnov, Y. V. |title = Roles of Different Types of Excretions in Mediated Communication by Scent Marks of the Common Palm Civet, ''Paradoxurus hermaphroditus'' Pallas, 1777 (Mammalia, Carnivora) |journal=Biology Bulletin |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=584–590 |publisher=MAIK Nauka/Interperiodica |year=2003 |doi=10.1023/B:BIBU.0000007715.24555.ed|s2cid=19102865 }}</ref>

===Feeding and diet===
The Asian palm civet is an [[omnivore]] feeding foremost on fruits such as berries and pulpy fruits. It thus helps to maintain [[tropical forest]] ecosystems via seed dispersal.<ref name="grassman98"/> It eats [[chiku]], [[mango]], [[rambutan]], and [[Coffee bean|coffee]], but also small mammals and insects. It plays an important role in the natural regeneration of ''[[Pinanga]] kuhlii'' and ''P. zavana'' palms at [[Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park]].<ref>{{cite conference |author1=Thohari, M. |author2=Santosa, Y. |year=1986 |title=A preliminary study on the role of civet (''Paradoxurus hermaphroditus'') in the natural regeneration of palms (''Pinanga kuhlii'' and ''P. zavana'') at Gunung Gede-Pangrango National Park, West Java (Indonesia) |pages=151–153 |conference=Symposium on Forest Regeneration in Southeast Asia, 9–11 May 1984 |publisher=Biotrop Special Publication}}</ref>
It also feeds on [[Borassus|palm flower]] sap, which when fermented becomes [[palm wine]], a sweet liquor ("toddy"). Because of this habit, it is called the ''toddy cat''.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}

=== Reproduction ===
[[File:Paradox hermaph 060924 ltn.jpg|thumb|Juvenile Asian palm civet]]
Due to its solitary and nocturnal habits, little is known about its reproductive processes and behaviour.<ref>{{cite book |author=Prater, S. H. |year=1980 |title=The book of Indian animals |edition=Second |publisher=Bombay Natural History Society |location=Bombay, India}}</ref> In March 2010, a pair of palm civets was observed when attempting to mate. The pair copulated on the tree branch for about five minutes. During that period, the male mounted the female 4–5 times. After each mounting, the pair separated for a few moments and repeated the same procedure. After completion of mating, the pair frolicked around for some time, moving from branch to branch on the tree. The animals separated after about six minutes and moved off to different branches and rested there.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Borah, J. |author2=Deka, K. |year=2011 |title=An observation of Common Palm Civet ''Paradoxurus hermaphroditus'' mating |journal=Small Carnivore Conservation |volume= 44 |pages= 32–33 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275976514}}</ref>

==Threats==
===Hunting===
In some parts of its range Asian palm civets are hunted for [[bushmeat]] and the pet trade.<ref name=Nijman2014>{{cite journal |last1=Nijman |first1=V. |last2= Spaan |first2=D. |last3=Rode-Margono |first3=E. J. |last4=Roberts |first4=P. D. |last5=Wirdateti |last6=Nekaris, K. A. I. |year=2014 |title=Trade in common palm civet ''Paradoxurus hermaphroditus'' in Javan and Balinese markets, Indonesia |journal=Small Carnivore Conservation |issue=51 |pages=11−17 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273671173}}</ref> In southern China it is extensively hunted and trapped. Dead individuals were found with local tribes where it is killed for its meat, in [[Coimbatore]], [[Tamil Nadu]], and [[Agra]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], between 1998 and 2003 in India.<ref name=iucn />

The oil extracted from small pieces of the meat, kept in [[linseed oil]] in a closed earthen pot and regularly sunned, is used indigenously as a cure for [[scabies]].<ref name=Singh>{{cite journal |author=Singh, L.A.K. |year=1982 |title=Stomach contents of a common palm civet, ''Paradoxurus hermaphroditus'' (Pallas) |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=403–404 |url=https://archive.org/details/journalofbombay791982bomb/page/402/mode/2up}}</ref>

=== Kopi luwak ===
[[File:Luwak (civet cat) in cage.jpg|thumb|right|Asian palm civet housed in a cage for the production of kopi luwak coffee]]
[[Kopi luwak]] is [[coffee]] prepared using coffee beans that have been subjected to ingestion and [[Fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] in the [[gastrointestinal tract]] of the Asian palm civet, which is called ''luwak'' in Indonesia. [[Caffeine]] content in both [[Arabica coffee|Arabica]] and [[Robusta coffee|Robusta]] luwak coffee is lower than in unfermented coffee.<ref>{{cite book |author=Mahendradatta, M. |author2=Tawali, A. B. |year=2012 |url=http://repository.unhas.ac.id/bitstream/handle/123456789/2560/Meta%20Mahendradatta.pdf?sequence=1 |title=Comparison of chemical characteristics and sensory value between ''luwak'' coffee and original coffee from Arabica (''Coffea arabica'' L) and Robusta (''Coffea canephora'' L) varieties |publisher=Food Science and Technology Study Program, Department of Agricultural Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Hasanuddin University |location=Makassar |access-date=2012-12-14 |archive-date=2013-10-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017050403/http://repository.unhas.ac.id/bitstream/handle/123456789/2560/Meta%20Mahendradatta.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Large deformation mechanical [[rheology]] testing revealed that civet coffee beans are harder and more brittle in nature than their control counterparts indicating that [[digestive juice]]s enter into the beans and modify the micro-structural properties of these beans. [[Proteolytic enzyme]]s cause substantial breakdown of storage [[protein]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Marcone, M. F. |title=Composition and properties of Indonesian palm civet coffee (kopi luwak) and Ethiopian civet coffee|journal=Food Research International |volume=37 |issue=9 |pages=901–912 |doi=10.1016/j.foodres.2004.05.008 |year=2004}}</ref>

Kopi luwak is traditionally made from the faeces of wild civets, however, due to it becoming a trendy drink, civets are being increasingly captured from the wild and fed [[coffee bean]]s to mass-produce this blend. Many of these civets are housed in [[battery cage]] systems which have been criticised on animal welfare grounds.<ref name="Milman">{{cite news |last=Milman |first=O. |title=World's most expensive coffee tainted by 'horrific' civet abuse |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/nov/19/civet-coffee-abuse-campaigners |newspaper=The Guardian |date=11 November 2012 |access-date=25 November 2012 |location=London |archive-date=4 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170604151210/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/nov/19/civet-coffee-abuse-campaigners |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Penha |first=J. |title=Excreted by imprisoned Civets, Kopi Luwak no longer a personal favorite |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/talkback/excreted-by-imprisoned-civets-kopi-luwak-no-longer-a-personal-favorite/535098 |work=The Jakarta Globe |date=4 August 2012 |access-date=17 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116084659/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/talkback/excreted-by-imprisoned-civets-kopi-luwak-no-longer-a-personal-favorite/535098 |archive-date=16 January 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The impact of the demand for this fashionable coffee on wild palm civet populations is yet unknown but may constitute a significant threat. In Indonesia, the demand for Asian palm civets appears to be in violation of the quota set for pets.<ref name=Shepherd2012/>

== Conservation ==
''Paradoxurus hermaphroditus'' is listed on [[CITES Appendix III]].<ref name=iucn /> There is a quota in place in Indonesia, precluding trade from certain areas, setting a cap on the number of civets that can be taken from the wild, and allowing only 10% of those removed from the wild to be sold domestically. This quota is largely ignored by hunters and traders and is not enforced by authorities.<ref>Shepherd, C. R. (2008). [http://smallcarnivoreconservation.org/sccwiki/images/4/47/SCC38_Shepherd.pdf ''Civets in trade in Medan, North Sumatra, Indonesia (1997–2001) with notes on legal protection''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129163719/http://smallcarnivoreconservation.org/sccwiki/images/4/47/SCC38_Shepherd.pdf |date=January 29, 2015 }}. Small Carnivore Conservation 38: 34–36.</ref> This species has become popular as a pet in Indonesia in recent years, causing a rise in the numbers found in markets in Java and Bali. The majority of the animals sold as pets originate from the wild. The high numbers of animals seen, lack of adherence to the quota and lack of enforcement of the laws are causes for conservation concern.<ref name="Nijman2014" />

==Taxonomy==
[[File:Asianpalmcivetheads.png|thumb|Illustrations of Asian palm civets in [[Reginald Pocock|Pocock]]'s ''The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Mammalia. – Volume 1''<ref name=pocock1939/>]]
[[File:ParadoxurusHermaphroditusPhilippinensis01.jpg|thumb|Philippine palm civet]]
''itViverra hermaphrodita'' was the [[scientific name]] proposed by [[Peter Simon Pallas]] in 1777.<ref>{{cite book |author=Pallas, P. S. |year=1778 |chapter=Das Zwitterstinkthier |page=426 |editor=Schreber, J. C. D. |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/SaYugthiereAbbiIIISchr#page/426/mode/2up |title=Die Säugethiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur, mit Beschreibungen |location=Erlangen |publisher=Wolfgang Walther}}</ref> It is the [[nominate subspecies]] and ranges in Sri Lanka and southern India as far north as the [[Narbada]] River.<ref name=pocock1939>{{cite book |author=Pocock, R. I. |year=1939 |title=The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma |volume=1. Mammalia |publisher=Taylor and Francis |location=London |chapter=''Paradoxurus hermaphroditus'' |pages=387–415 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/PocockMammalia1/pocock1#page/n471/mode/2up}}</ref>
Several [[zoological specimen]]s were described between 1820 and 1992:<ref name=msw3/>
*''Viverra bondar'' by [[Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest]] in 1820 was a specimen from [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]]<ref>{{cite book |author=Desmarest, A.G. |year=1820 |title=Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères |volume=Premiere Partie |location=Paris |publisher=Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse |page=210 |chapter=Civette Bondar |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/mammalogieoudesc01desm/page/210/mode/1up}}</ref>
*''Viverra musanga'' by [[Stamford Raffles]] in 1821 was a specimen from [[Sumatra]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Raffles |first1=S. |year=1821 |title=Descriptive Catalogue of a Zoological Collection, made on account of the Honourable East India Company, in the Island of Sumatra and its Vicinity, under the Direction of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, Lieutenant-Governor of Tort Marlborough; with additional Notices illustrative of the Natural History of those Countries |journal=Transactions of the Linnean Society of London |volume=13 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mobot31753002433594/page/239 239]–275 |url=https://archive.org/details/mobot31753002433594}}</ref>
*''Viverra musanga, var. javanica'' by [[Thomas Horsfield]] in 1824 was a specimen from Java<ref>{{cite book |author=Horsfield, T. |year=1824 |title=Zoological researches in Java, and the neighbouring islands |location=London |publisher=Kingsbury, Parbury & Allen |pages=148–151 |chapter=''Viverra musanga, var. javanica'' |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/zoologicalresear00hors/page/n147/mode/2up}}</ref>
*''Paradoxurus pallasii'' by [[John Edward Gray]] in 1832 was a specimen from India<ref>{{cite book |author=Gray, J.E. |year=1832 |title=Illustrations of Indian zoology; chiefly selected from the collection of Major-General Hardwicke |location=London |publisher=Treuttel, Wurtz, Treuttel, Jun. and Richter |pages=Plate 8 |chapter=Pallas's Paradoxurus |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/illustrationsin00gray/page/7/mode/2up}}</ref>
*''Paradoxurus philippinensis'' by [[Claude Jourdan]] in 1837 was a specimen from the [[Philippines]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jourdan, C. |year=1837 |title=Mémoire sur quelques mammifères nouveaux |journal=Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences |volume=5 |issue=15 |pages=521–524 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k2964f/f523 |access-date=2020-05-27 |archive-date=2021-02-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208040640/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k2964f/f523 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, a genetic study in 2015 reclassifies it as a separate species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Veron |first1=Géraldine |last2=Patou |first2=Marie-Lilith |last3=Tóth |first3=Mária |last4=Goonatilake |first4=Manori |last5=Jennings |first5=Andrew P. |date=2015 |title=How many species of Paradoxurus civets are there? New insights from India and Sri Lanka |journal=Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research |language=en |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=161–174 |doi=10.1111/jzs.12085|doi-access=free }}</ref>
*''P. h. setosus'' by [[Honoré Jacquinot]] and Pucheran in 1853
*''P. h. nictitans'' by Taylor in 1891 was a specimen from [[Odisha]];<ref name=pocock1939/>
*''P. h. lignicolor'' by [[Gerrit Smith Miller Jr.]] in 1903
*''P. h. minor'' by [[John Lewis Bonhote]] in 1903
*''P. h. canescens'' by Lyon in 1907
*''P. h. milleri'' by [[Cecil Boden Kloss]] in 1908
*''P. h. kangeanus'' by [[Oldfield Thomas]] in 1910
*''P. h. sumbanus'' by [[Ernst Schwarz (zoologist)|Ernst Schwarz]] in 1910
*''P. h. exitus'' by Schwarz in 1911
*''P. h. cochinensis'' by Schwarz, 1911
*''P. h. canus'' (Miller, 1913)
*''P. h. pallens'' (Miller, 1913)
*''P. h. parvus'' (Miller, 1913)
*''P. h. pugnax'' (Miller, 1913)
*''P. h. pulcher'' (Miller, 1913)
*''P. h. sacer'' (Miller, 1913)
*''P. h. senex'' (Miller, 1913)
*''P. h. simplex'' (Miller, 1913)
*''P. h. enganus'' by Lyon, 1916
*''P. h. laotum'' by [[Nils Carl Gustaf Fersen Gyldenstolpe]] in 1917 was a specimen from Chieng Hai in north-western Thailand, and ranges from Myanmar to Indochina and [[Hainan]];<ref name=pocock1939/>
*''P. h. balicus'' by Sody in 1933 was a specimen from Bali
*''P. h. scindiae'' by [[Reginald Innes Pocock|Pocock]] in 1934 was a specimen from [[Gwalior]], and ranges in central India;<ref name=pocock1939/>
*''P. h. vellerosus'' by Pocock in 1934 was a specimen from [[Kashmir]];<ref name=pocock1939/>
*''P. h. dongfangensis'' by Corbet and Hill in 1992
The taxonomic status of these subspecies has not yet been evaluated.<ref name=iucn />

==In mythology==
In [[Philippine mythology]], the [[Bagobo people]] believe a being named Lakivot was said to be a huge and powerful palm civet who can talk. Lakivot defeated various monsters, including the one-eyed monster Ogassi and the ''busaw'' beings who guarded the Tree of Gold, which had the Flower of Gold that he sought. He was eventually transformed into a handsome young man, and married the person to whom he gave the Flower of Gold.<ref>{{cite book |author=Esteban, R. C. |date=2011 |title=Folktales of Southern Philippines |place=Manila |publisher=Anvil Publishers}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==


{{Carnivora|V.}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q18764}}

[[Category:Paradoxurus|Asian palm civet]]
[[Category:Mammals of South Asia]]
[[Category:Mammals of Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:Carnivorans of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Least concern biota of Asia]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1777|Asian palm civet]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas]]