View source for Centre-left politics

{{Short description|Political orientation}}
{{Redirect|Left of centre|the political ideology in Turkey|Left of Center (Turkey)|other uses|Left of center (disambiguation){{!}}Left of center}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=July 2021}}
{{Party politics|political spectrum}}
'''Centre-left politics''' is the range of [[left-wing]] political [[ideologies]] that lean closer to the [[political centre]]. Ideologies commonly associated with it include [[social democracy]], [[social liberalism]], [[progressivism]], and [[green politics]]. Ideas commonly supported by the centre-left include [[welfare capitalism]], [[social justice]], [[liberal internationalism]], and [[multiculturalism]]. Economically, the centre-left supports a [[mixed economy]] in a [[democratic capitalist]] system, often including [[economic interventionism]], [[progressive taxation]], and the [[right to unionize]]. Centre-left politics are contrasted with [[far-left politics]] that reject [[capitalism]] or advocate [[revolution]].

The centre-left developed with the rest of the [[left–right political spectrum]] in 18th and 19th century France, where the centre-left included those who supported transfer of powers from the [[French monarchy|monarchy]] to parliament or endorsed [[Moderate Republicans (France, 1848–1870)|moderate republicanism]]. Early progressivism and left liberalism evolved in the late-19th and early-20th centuries in Western Europe and the United States, while social democracy split from [[revolutionary socialism]], which became associated with [[communism]], and advocated [[reformist socialist]] positions. Social democracy became the dominant ideology in Western Europe during the [[post–World War II economic expansion]] and it spread to Africa after [[Decolonisation of Africa|decolonization]].

Centre-left economics declined in popularity following the [[1973–1975 recession]] and was replaced by [[neoliberalism]]. In the 1990s, [[Third Way]] politics emerged as a centrist variant of social democracy in Europe, and centre-left politics spread to Latin America during the [[pink tide]]. In the 21st century, centre-left politics are challenged by the developments of the [[Digital Revolution]], the subsumption of the lower class into the middle class in developed nations, and an increase in support for [[populism]].

== Ideologies ==
The ideologies of the centre-left include [[social democracy]],{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=3}}<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Ostrowski |first=Marius S. |date=2 January 2023 |title=The ideological morphology of left–centre–right |journal=Journal of Political Ideologies |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1080/13569317.2022.2163770 |s2cid=256033370 |issn=1356-9317|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[social liberalism]],{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=3}}<ref name=":6" /> [[progressivism]],{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=3}}<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ostrowski |first=Marius S. |date=2021 |title=How (Not) to Form a Progressive Alliance: Lessons from the History of Left Cooperation |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-923X.12939 |journal=The Political Quarterly |language=en |volume=92 |issue=1 |pages=23–31 |doi=10.1111/1467-923X.12939 |issn=0032-3179 |s2cid=229437666|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and [[green politics]].{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=3}}<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":9" /> Centre-left politics often incorporate elements of [[libertarianism]] and occasionally favour limited state intervention.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=3}} As with all political alignments, the exact boundaries of centre-left versus far-left or centrist politics are not clearly defined and can vary depending on context.<ref name=":6" /> Centre-left ideologies are common in stable political systems, which typically allow for political debate with an ideological centre.{{Sfn|Woshinsky|2007|p=112}}

=== Social democracy ===
{{Main|Social democracy}}
[[File:2019-09-10 SPD Regionalkonferenz Nieder-Olm by OlafKosinsky MG 0464.jpg|thumb|2019 regional conference of the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]] in [[Nieder-Olm]]]]
Social democracy is a [[reformist]] offshoot of [[socialism]] that supports the modification of capitalist economies rather than their total abolition.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=1}} It seeks to regulate capitalism to protect [[social equality]],{{Sfn|Menz|2022|p=3}} advocating reforms that benefit the entire people and the [[common good]] while rejecting the Marxist position of aligning specifically with the working class.{{Sfn|Berman|2011|p=35}}<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Berman |first=Sheri |date=2010 |title=What Happened to the European Left? |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/dissent/v057/57.3.berman.html |journal=Dissent |language=en |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=23–29 |doi=10.1353/dss.0.0158 |s2cid=144099065 |issn=1946-0910|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Liberty under social democracy is defined as a collective concept based in equality rather than an individualist concept.{{Sfn|Keman|2017|pp=55–56}} [[Democratization]], the [[welfare state]], [[public education]], and [[Keynesian economics]] are all major components of social democratic politics.{{Sfn|Granadino|Nygård|Stadius|2022|p=2}}

Social democracy has influenced the politics of nearly every major democracy;{{Sfn|Keman|2017|p=1}} however, it has historically been most successful in the [[European Union]],{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=10}} where it was the predominant ideology from 1945 to 1973.{{Sfn|Granadino|Nygård|Stadius|2022|p=2}} Sweden in particular has historically been closely associated with social democracy, as it was the first country to be led by a social democratic party,{{Sfn|Berman|2011|p=35}} and social democrats in Sweden continued to be relevant even after the ideology lost influence in other countries during the 1970s.{{Sfn|Berman|2011|p=44}} Social democracy also became a popular ideology in many African governments after the [[decolonisation of Africa]].<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Abbey |first=Michael |date=7 November 2022 |title=The state of African social democracy |url=https://www.ips-journal.eu/topics/future-of-social-democracy/the-state-of-african-social-democracy-6030/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221120023556/https://www.ips-journal.eu/topics/future-of-social-democracy/the-state-of-african-social-democracy-6030/ |archive-date=20 November 2022 |access-date=10 April 2023 |website=IPS |language=en-GB}}</ref>

=== Social liberalism ===
{{Main|Social liberalism}}
Social liberalism, or left liberalism, overlaps significantly with social democracy.{{Sfn|Woshinsky|2007|p=142}} This form of liberalism argues in favour of capitalism and the benefits it provides for society, but it also advocates regulations to reduce [[wealth inequality]]. It rejects the idea that the [[upper class]] seeks to harm or exploit members of society, instead arguing that these are unintentional effects of [[laissez-faire]] economics.{{Sfn|Woshinsky|2007|pp=142–143}} Left liberalism supports [[Liberalism|liberal]] [[capitalism]] and a [[mixed economy]], which have been adopted by virtually all liberal nations.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last=Cahoone |first=Lawrence |date=2023 |title=The End of Enlightenment Liberalism? |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/2/article/877110 |journal=The Journal of Speculative Philosophy |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=81–98 |doi=10.5325/jspecphil.37.1.0081 |s2cid=255049487 |issn=1527-9383|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|Political pluralism]] and strong social [[institution]]s are prioritized by liberalism.<ref name=":11" />{{Sfn|Dahrendorf|1991|p=389}}

Social liberalism was developed in the United Kingdom in the mid-20th century,{{Sfn|Dahrendorf|1991|p=388}} where it took the form of [[New liberalism (ideology)|new liberalism]].<ref name=":11" /> The identification of centre-left ideologies as "liberal" is most common to the United States.{{Sfn|Woshinsky|2007|p=111}} Liberalism is less common in regions such as Africa and Asia, where there is no [[individualist]] or [[liberal democratic]] tradition.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sindima |first=Harvey |date=1990 |title=Liberalism and African Culture |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/002193479002100205 |journal=Journal of Black Studies |language=en |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=190–209 |doi=10.1177/002193479002100205 |s2cid=142905098 |issn=0021-9347|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Teson |first=Fernando |date=1999 |title=A defence of liberal democracy for Africa |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09557579908400270 |journal=Cambridge Review of International Affairs |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=29–40 |doi=10.1080/09557579908400270 |issn=0955-7571|url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{Sfn|Bell|2006|pp=1–4}}

=== Progressivism ===
{{Main|Progressivism}}
Progressivism is the support of continuous [[social reform]] to improve society [[Gradualism|gradually]], opposing [[revolutionary]] or [[Conservatism|conservative]] politics.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Freeden |first=Michael |date=2014 |title=Progress and Progressivism: Thoughts on an Elusive Term |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/1478-9302.12042 |journal=Political Studies Review |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=68–74 |doi=10.1111/1478-9302.12042 |issn=1478-9299 |s2cid=145271709|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It is typically associated with the centre-left ideologies of social liberalism and social democracy, though communist and centrist ideologies have sometimes been involved in progressive politics.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=3}}<ref name=":1" /> There is great divergence within the progressive movement, with disagreement in what reforms should be attempted and how they can be implemented,<ref name=":1" /> though [[Redistribution of income and wealth|redistributive]] policies are a common theme within progressivism.<ref name=":0" /> Progressivism first developed in the United Kingdom and the United States during the 19th century.<ref name=":0" />

=== Green politics ===
{{Main|Green politics}}
Green politics is an ideological movement that advocates a political focus on [[ecology]] and [[nonviolence]].{{Sfn|Talshir|2002|pp=33–34}} It challenges modern [[industrialisation]] and institutions through a lens of [[social justice]]{{Sfn|Talshir|2002|p=268}} while rejecting traditional political philosophy and organization.{{Sfn|Price-Thomas|2016|p=281}} Definitions of the scope of green politics may vary; it may be limited to explicitly environmentalist parties, or it may broadly cover political movements descended from [[New Left]] or [[Left-libertarianism|left-libertarian]] ideas.{{Sfn|Price-Thomas|2016|pp=281–282}} Besides environmentalism, green politics often includes support for [[disarmament]],<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Rüdig |first=Wolfgang |date=2002 |title=Between Ecotopia Disillusionment: Green Parties in European Government |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00139150209605605 |journal=Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development |language=en |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=20–33 |doi=10.1080/00139150209605605 |bibcode=2002ESPSD..44c..20R |s2cid=218496440 |issn=0013-9157|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Anti-nuclear movement|ending nuclear power]],<ref name=":12" /> [[Decentralization|decentralized]] democracy,{{Sfn|Price-Thomas|2016|p=286}} [[feminism]],{{Sfn|Price-Thomas|2016|p=288}} and [[immigration]].{{Sfn|Price-Thomas|2016|p=289}}

Green politics developed from various left-wing ideologies, including social democracy and Marxism, in the 1970s.{{Sfn|Talshir|2002|pp=19–20}} It was initially developed in Australia and New Zealand,<ref name=":12" /> and it first gained influence in Germany as a response to the [[Cold War]] and [[Environmentalism|environmental issues]].{{Sfn|Talshir|2002|pp=33–34}} The presence of green politics in national government is mostly limited to Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, though green political parties briefly held influence during the [[postcommunist]] period of Eastern Europe.<ref name=":12" /> Green political parties have been most successful in Belgium, Finland, France, and Germany, where they integrated into the national party system.{{Sfn|van Haute|2016|p=1}}

=== Related ideologies ===
In addition to the most common centre-left ideologies, other ideologies are sometimes described as centre-left or have centre-left variants.<ref name=":6" /> [[Democratic socialism]] supports the abolition of capitalism in favour of socialism, though it opposes the creation of a [[communist state]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=March |first=Luke |url=https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/id/ipa/05818.pdf |title=Contemporary Far Left Parties in Europe: From Marxism to the Mainstream? |date=2008 |publisher=Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, Internat. Policy Analysis, Division for Internat. Dialogue |isbn=978-3-86872-000-6 |pages=3 |language=en}}</ref> It was historically seen as a centre-left position,<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=McIntyre |first=Richard |date=2 November 2022 |title=Democratic Socialism |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08935696.2022.2127726 |journal=Rethinking Marxism |language=en |volume=35 |pages=24–35 |doi=10.1080/08935696.2022.2127726 |issn=0893-5696 |s2cid=253291157|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and may sometimes be described as such;{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=3}} however, modern democratic socialism is typically considered [[Radical politics|radical]] in nature and distinct from centre-left ideologies.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> The [[Third Way]] is a variation of social democratic politics that gained prominence in the 1990s after the decline of traditional social democracy. It advocates reform of the social democratic model to emphasize [[equal opportunity]] over [[equality of outcome]].{{Sfn|Keman|2017|pp=171–173}} To accomplish this, it supports heavy [[deregulation]] and [[privatization]] for the purpose of increasing [[economic growth]] to fund [[Public good (economics)|public goods]] such as education, healthcare, and pensions.{{Sfn|Pierson|2018|p=177}} The Third Way may be defined as centre-left or as [[centrist]].{{Sfn|Keman|2017|pp=175–177}}

[[Christian democracy]] is an ideology that incorporates [[Catholic social teaching]] into a [[secular]] political philosophy.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last1=Kalyvas |first1=Stathis N. |last2=van Kersbergen |first2=Kees |date=1 May 2010 |title=Christian Democracy |journal=Annual Review of Political Science |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=183–209 |doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.021406.172506 |issn=1094-2939|doi-access=free }}</ref> Though most enduring Christian democratic parties are centrist,{{Sfn|Sigmund|2003|p=75}} those in Latin America have historically ranged across the political spectrum, with centre-left and centre-right variants both being common.{{Sfn|Mainwaring|Scully|2003|p=53}} Christian democrats often support the welfare state,<ref name=":13" /> and social justice has been a frequent theme among Christian democracy parties in Latin America.{{Sfn|Mainwaring|Scully|2003|p=43}} Christian democracy in Europe is not usually associated with the centre-left, instead favouring the centre-right.{{Sfn|Sigmund|2003|p=75}}

Though it is often associated with conservatism,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chan |first=Alan K.L. |date=2000 |title=Confucian Ethics and the Critique of Ideology |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09552360020011286 |journal=Asian Philosophy |language=en |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=245–261 |doi=10.1080/09552360020011286 |s2cid=143410352 |issn=0955-2367|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Yan Bing |last2=Lin |first2=Mei-Chen |last3=Nonaka |first3=Akihiko |last4=Beom |first4=Khisu |date=2005 |title=Harmony, Hierarchy and Conservatism: A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Confucian Values in China, Korea, Japan, and Taiwan |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00036810500130539 |journal=Communication Research Reports |language=en |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=107–115 |doi=10.1080/00036810500130539 |hdl=1808/6818 |s2cid=33020343 |issn=0882-4096|hdl-access=free }}</ref> some elements of [[Confucianism]] invoke ideas that are associated with the centre-left in Western countries. Promotion of general welfare, supporting members of the family, and the ideal of the [[Harmonious Society]] all have implications for centre-left politics.{{Sfn|Bell|2006|pp=236–237}} The welfare state of East Asian countries such as Japan, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan are sometimes described as Confucian.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Abrahamson |first=Peter |date=2 January 2017 |title=East Asian welfare regime: obsolete ideal-type or diversified reality |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17516234.2016.1258524 |journal=Journal of Asian Public Policy |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=93–94 |doi=10.1080/17516234.2016.1258524 |s2cid=157114983 |issn=1751-6234|url-access=subscription }}</ref> These welfare systems have been influenced by Confucian [[familialism]], which shifts some of the burden of welfare from the state to the family.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Dayoon |date=2018 |title=The evolution of family policy in South Korea: From Confucian familism to Neo-familism |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aswp.12137 |journal=Asian Social Work and Policy Review |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=46–53 |doi=10.1111/aswp.12137|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Positions ==
Centre-left politics seeks [[equal opportunity]] in society.{{Sfn|Woshinsky|2007|p=143}} Centre-left groups are more likely to prioritize issues of long-term or abstract importance than other ideological groups. These include environmentalism, the arts, science, [[social equality]], and [[foreign aid]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last1=Abou-Chadi |first1=Tarik |last2=Kayser |first2=Mark A. |date=2017 |title=It's not easy being green: Why voters punish parties for environmental policies during economic downturns |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0261379416302293 |journal=Electoral Studies |language=en |volume=45 |pages=202 |doi=10.1016/j.electstud.2016.10.009|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Advocates of centre-left politics typically support laws and government programs to support [[Social exclusion|marginalized]] groups such as the elderly, disabled, and  unemployed. Measures to this effect include financial assistance and [[anti-discrimination law]]s.{{Sfn|Woshinsky|2007|p=143}}

[[Liberal internationalism]] is associated with the centre-left through its [[Idealism in international relations|idealism]], [[Constructivism (international relations)|constructivism]], and progressivism.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Rathbun |first=Brian |date=2012 |title=Politics and Paradigm Preferences: The Implicit Ideology of International Relations Scholars1: Politics and Paradigm Preferences |journal=International Studies Quarterly |language=en |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=607–622 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2478.2012.00749.x|doi-access=free }}</ref> Liberal internationalists seek cooperation between nations,<ref name=":7" /> often including support for common security and [[arms control]] between nations to facilitate peace.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Risse-Kappen |first=Thomas |date=1994 |title=Ideas do not float freely: transnational coalitions, domestic structures, and the end of the cold war |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0020818300028162/type/journal_article |journal=International Organization |language=en |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=185–214 |doi=10.1017/S0020818300028162 |issn=0020-8183 |s2cid=154420496|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The centre-left, along with the centre-right, [[Liberal international order|implemented this foreign policy]] in Europe during the Cold War, but it has become less prominent due to the rise of [[anti-globalist]] far-right parties.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Trubowitz |first1=Peter |last2=Burgoon |first2=Brian |date=2022 |title=The Retreat of the West |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1537592720001218/type/journal_article |journal=Perspectives on Politics |language=en |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=102–122 |doi=10.1017/S1537592720001218 |issn=1537-5927 |s2cid=216203061|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The immigration policies of centre-left groups vary depending on the political circumstances of a given country, and they may seek to greatly expand or greatly restrict immigration.{{Sfn|Pérez|2011|pp=265–266}} In principle, centre-left parties generally believe in [[multiculturalism]] and support high immigration.{{Sfn|Menz|2022|p=2}} The key issue of centre-left immigration policy is the balance between [[egalitarianism]] and pragmatism.{{Sfn|Pérez|2011|p=265}} The centre-left often faces pressures from [[working class]] voters to restrict immigration to prevent competition over jobs and public services.{{Sfn|Pérez|2011|p=267}} Other centre-left policies can also be negatively impacted by immigration, as a large increase in low-skilled workers can raise concerns about the increased price of public services, prompting spending cuts and roll-backs of centre-left welfare policies.{{Sfn|Pérez|2011|p=268}}

Though positions on environmentalism are not consistent across centre-left parties, they are more likely to support environmentalist policies than centre-right parties.<ref name=":9" /> Centre-left parties are popularly associated with environmental policies in the minds of voters, which earns them support in good economic conditions but loses them support in poor economic conditions.<ref name=":10" /> Environmentalism is a major component of green politics.{{Sfn|Talshir|2002|pp=33–34}}

=== Economics ===
[[File:John Maynard Keynes (1929).jpg|thumb|The economic thought of [[John Maynard Keynes]] (pictured in 1929) has been influential on centre-left politics]]
Centre-left groups generally support a [[mixed economy]] with moderate [[economic interventionism]]. [[Keynesian economics]] has historically seen support among the centre-left.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=3}} This is an interventionist economic philosophy that emphasizes income rather than pricing.{{Sfn|Eatwell|1991|p=367}} These ideas have since declined in popularity in favour of [[balanced budget]]s and low government spending.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=3}} Closely related to centre-left politics are concepts of the welfare state and regulated [[Labour economics|labour markets]].{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|pp=343–344}} In the 20th century, [[trade union]]s and their working class constituency were closely associated with social democratic and labour parties, especially in Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, and former British colonies in the Pacific.{{Sfn|Allern|Bale|2017|pp=1–2}} These associations generally lessened by the end of the century as union membership declined and centre-left parties shifted toward Third Way politics,{{Sfn|Allern|Bale|2017|pp=2–3}} which introduced elements of neoliberalism into centre-left politics, increasing the focus on free markets.{{Sfn|Pierson|2018|p=177}} Labour-government relations and the [[right to unionize]] have been less prominent ideas in East Asia.{{Sfn|Bell|2006|p=263}}

Centre-left politics often involve [[transfer payment]] systems, such as welfare and [[early childhood education]], with the goal of creating higher employment while avoiding a [[welfare trap]].{{Sfn|Jenson|2011|pp=243–244}} Closely associated with this is the implementation of a [[progressive tax]], in which higher earnings are taxed at higher rates.{{Sfn|Woshinsky|2007|p=143}} Some early centre-left groups supported gradual reform toward socialism, but this position is not supported by the centre-left in the 21st century.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=3}} The modern centre-left distinguishes between just and unjust capitalism, advocating for welfare state policies to create what it considers to be just capitalism.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=8}} Through the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the centre-left has been more likely to benefit electorally during periods of economic growth and suffer electorally in economic downturn.<ref name=":10" />

The core objective underlying centre-left economic policies, [[democratic capitalism]], has largely been achieved within many economies, with further policies seeking to merely reform or improve upon this system. These may include measures to reduce poverty or to support lower-wage workers.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=352}} One common dispute within the centre-left is the extent to which centre-left parties should reform markets versus regulating pre-existing markets.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=353}} Centre-left parties in Europe and the United States have supported [[corporate governance]] reform to protect the investments of [[shareholders]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cioffi |first1=John W. |last2=Höpner |first2=Martin |date=2006 |title=The Political Paradox of Finance Capitalism: Interests, Preferences, and Center-Left Party Politics in Corporate Governance Reform |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0032329206293642 |journal=Politics & Society |language=en |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=463–502 |doi=10.1177/0032329206293642 |s2cid=154465433 |issn=0032-3292|hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0012-4B42-1 |hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The [[Nordic model|economies of Nordic countries]] such as Denmark and Sweden are often upheld by proponents of centre-left economic policies as successful applications of these policies.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=14}} These economies heavily emphasize [[international trade]] as well as [[Tripartism|collaboration]] between government, industry, and labour.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=345}} In post-war Europe, [[West Germany]] established the socioeconomic model of a [[social market economy]], a [[regulated market]] economic system that promoted [[free market]]s and [[fair competition]] with regulation for social policies and a [[welfare state]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tietmeyer |first=Hans |url=http://archive.org/details/socialmarketecon0000tiet |title=The social market economy and monetary stability |date=1999 |publisher=London : Economica |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-1-902282-06-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Glossner |first=Christian Ludwig |url=http://archive.org/details/makingofgermanpo0000glos |title=The making of the German post-war economy : political communication and public reception of the social market economy after World War II |date=2010 |publisher=London; New York : Tauris Academic Studies |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-1-4416-7695-5}}</ref>

== History ==
{{see also|Social democracy#History|Social liberalism#Origins|Progressivism#History|Democratic socialism#History|Green politics#History}}

=== Origins ===
The centre-left is descended from left-wing politics, which originated in the [[French Revolution]] and in the response to early capitalism.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=1}} In France, the early centre-left was led by [[Adolphe Thiers]], head of the liberal-nationalist [[Movement Party (France)|Movement Party]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Drolet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTZaCwAAQBAJ&q=centre-left+adolphe+thiers&pg=PA14|title=Tocqueville, Democracy and Social Reform|date=11 August 2003|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|isbn=9780230509641|page=14}}</ref> The centre-left was [[Orléanist]], but supported a liberal interpretation of the [[Charter of 1830]], more power to the [[Parliament of France|Parliament]], [[manhood suffrage]] and support to [[Nationalism#19th century|rising European nationalisms]]. Thiers served as [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] for King [[Louis Philippe I]] twice (in 1836 and 1840), but he then lost the king's favour, and the centre-left rapidly fell.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Alice Primi|title=100 fiches d'histoire du XIXe siècle|author2=Sophie Kerignard|author3=Véronique Fau-Vincenti|date=2004|publisher=Bréal}}</ref> The centre-left during the [[French Second Republic|Second Republic]] and the [[French Second Empire|Second Empire]] was commonly associated with the [[Moderate Republicans (France, 1848–1870)|Moderate Republicans]]. Thiers restored the centre-left to prominence in the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]], where it was led by the liberal republican [[Opportunist Republicans|Opportunist]] faction.<ref>{{cite book |author=Unknown |title=Léon Say et le centre gauche: 1871-1896 : la grande bourgeoisie libérale dans les débuts de la Troisième République |date=1993 |page=196}}</ref>

Elsewhere in Europe, centre-left movements appeared from the 1860s, mainly in [[Spain]] and [[Italy]]. In Italy, the centre-left was born as coalition between the liberal [[Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour]] and the progressive [[Urbano Rattazzi]], the heads respectively of the [[Historical Right|Right]] and [[Historical Left|Left]] groupings in Parliament. This alliance was called "''connubio''" ("marriage") for its opportunist characteristics.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Serge Berstein|title=Histoire de l'Europe contemporaine: le XIXe siècle (1815-1919)|author2=Pierre Milza|date=1992|publisher=[[Hatier]]}}</ref> Liberalism was typically associated with the centre-right in the late 19th century,{{Sfn|Luebbert|1991|p=2}} but liberal parties in France, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom adopted left liberal policies through coalitions of middle and working class voters that survived until [[World War I]].{{Sfn|Luebbert|1991|p=7}}

Progressivism developed as a school of thought within British and American centre-left politics in the mid-19th century. Early progressive thought developed from [[modernism]] and [[humanism]], manifesting as calls for reform. It developed as a political movement in the late-19th and early-20th centuries as it was adopted by social liberal and social democratic parties.<ref name=":0" /> Unlike later social democratic movements, social democracy in the 19th century held socialist society as an eventual goal.{{Sfn|Keman|2017|p=2}} The first social democratic party was established in Germany in 1863.{{Sfn|Keman|2017|p=1}}

=== Early 20th century ===
Social democracy had developed as a major political movement in Europe by the early 20th century as a response to the strength of capitalism.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=1}} Challenging the idea that capitalism was [[Late capitalism|nearing an implosion]], reformist socialists such as [[Eduard Bernstein]] rejected Marxist ideas of [[historical materialism]] and [[class conflict]],{{Sfn|Berman|2011|p=33}}<ref name=":2" /> and social democrats established themselves as a reformist alternative to the [[revolutionary]] left, arguing that societal improvements within capitalist democracy would better serve the working class.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=1}} This philosophy became widely popular among the European left after World War I, which had convinced many contemporary leftists that [[national identity]] was more important to the working class than class [[solidarity]], which would render Marxism unviable. This was reinforced by the [[Waves of democracy|wave of democracy]] that followed, allowing socialists to participate in electoral politics.{{Sfn|Berman|2011|p=33}}

Social democrats made up the centre-left during the [[interwar period]] in Europe, advocating government regulation and intervention in opposition to the passive policies of the predominant Marxist and [[classical liberal]] parties.{{Sfn|Berman|2011|p=34}} The centre-left and the centre-right in this period were primarily divided by their stance on trade unions, with social democracy advocating greater powers for unions in collective bargaining. In Western Europe, the centre-left supported the [[Plan De Man]].{{Sfn|Berman|2011|p=34}} During the [[Great Depression]] in the 1930s, social democracy became a viable alternative to other left-wing ideologies,<ref name=":2" /> and state intervention saw popular support throughout the western world.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=6}} It was also seen as a potential means to counteract rising far-right movements that were developing in Europe.<ref name=":2" /> The centre-left was particularly strong in Sweden, which was the only country at the time to have ruling party that was explicitly social democratic, the [[Swedish Social Democratic Party]].{{Sfn|Berman|2011|p=35}} Other European countries with social democratic governments included Denmark, Norway, and Czechoslovakia.{{Sfn|Luebbert|1991|p=2}} The [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] in the United States also implemented centre-left policies with the [[New Deal]], as a lack of ties to socialist groups allowed for a stronger centre-left relative to other countries.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=17}}

=== Post-war politics ===
Centre-left ideas proliferated rapidly after the Great Depression and [[World War II]]. A [[post-war consensus]] formed among policymakers in Western Europe that rejected both classical liberalism and democratic socialism in favour of social democratic ideals.{{Sfn|Berman|2011|pp=36–37}} With the end of fascism, countries in Western Europe adopted social democracy and liberal democracy.{{Sfn|Luebbert|1991|p=1}} Social democracy was widely adopted and implemented in much of Europe, both by centre-left and by traditionally centre-right parties.<ref name=":2" /> Social liberalism was developed in the United Kingdom by liberal politicians such as [[John Maynard Keynes]] and [[William Beveridge]], who advocated market restrictions to the benefit of the public.{{Sfn|Dahrendorf|1991|p=388}} [[Keynesian economics]] became the mainstream in Western Europe during the 1950s and 1960s,{{Sfn|Luebbert|1991|p=1}} while the social market economy was developed by social democrats in Germany at the same time.{{Sfn|Dahrendorf|1991|p=388}} As social democracy became influential in Europe, the [[United Nations]] considered the [[New International Economic Order]] plan that would facilitate social democratic governments in developing nations.{{Sfn|Granadino|Nygård|Stadius|2022|p=3}}

Centre-left politics were historically unpopular in Latin America,{{Sfn|Balán|Montambeault|2020|p=1}} and left-wing candidates were kept out of power through both right-wing dictatorships and through conservative victories in fair elections.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Petras |first=James |date=1997 |title=Alternatives to Neoliberalism in Latin America |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0094582X9702400105 |journal=Latin American Perspectives |language=en |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=80–91 |doi=10.1177/0094582X9702400105 |s2cid=143597298 |issn=0094-582X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In the mid-20th century, centre-left politics supported state-led development and industrialization in the region, which allowed redistributive and socially inclusive policies to be implemented. In East Asia, interventionism and developmental policy were adopted by right-wing parties rather than centre-left parties.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=da Silva |first1=Pedro Perfeito |last2=Bandeira |first2=Julia Veiga Vieira Mancio |date=9 February 2023 |title=Center-Left Parties and Developmental Regimes in Latin America: Assessing the Role of Democracy |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0094582X231153139 |journal=Latin American Perspectives |language=en |pages=0094582X2311531 |doi=10.1177/0094582X231153139 |s2cid=256805880 |issn=0094-582X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Keynesian economics declined in popularity after the end of the post-war consensus, spurred by the [[1970s energy crisis]] and the [[1973–1975 recession|subsequent recession]].{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=5}}{{Sfn|Granadino|Nygård|Stadius|2022|p=2}} The centre-left parties that had held power to that point received much of the blame for the economic crises, and support for the centre-left declined in favour of conservative [[neoliberalism]].{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=6}} At the same time, the end of several right-wing dictatorships in [[Southern Europe]] prompted support for centre-left politics among these countries in the 1970s.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=17}} A decline in the relevance of [[trade union]]s, historically a prominent voter group for social democratic parties, contributed to the limited success of centre-left politics in the 1980s.{{Sfn|Pierson|2018|p=172}} Furthermore, centre-left policies faced new challenges that necessitated a reconsideration of the welfare state, including [[population ageing]] that threatened pension programs and [[women in the workforce]] that heavily altered the [[job market]].{{Sfn|Jenson|2011|p=241}} Green political parties first became prominent in the 1980s when they became influential in European politics.{{Sfn|van Haute|2016|p=1}}

=== Late 20th century ===
Third Way politics developed as a prominent form of centre-left politics, beginning with the Australian governments of [[Bob Hawke]] and [[Paul Keating]] in the 1980s and 1990s. Similar movements developed elsewhere, including in Germany and New Zealand.{{Sfn|Pierson|2018|p=176}} Centre-left parties in Latin America also shifted from social democracy to social liberalism in a pragmatic attempt to reach voters.<ref name=":5" /> The most prominent adoption of Third Way politics was that of [[New Labour]] in the United Kingdom.{{Sfn|Pierson|2018|p=176}} Centre-left politics remained unpopular in much of [[Continental Europe]] at this time.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=15}} Third Way politics lost support among the centre-left after the early 2000s, and [[neo-Keynesianism]] regained popularity.{{Sfn|Menz|2022|p=2}}

Centre-left ideologies were among those uplifted by the [[pink tide]] in Latin America in the late 1990s.{{Sfn|Balán|Montambeault|2020|p=1}} Early centre-left politics and progressivism in Latin America has focused heavily on the inclusion of previously [[Social exclusion|excluded]] groups in society through [[citizenship]] and its associated [[Legal rights|rights]].{{Sfn|Balán|Montambeault|2020|p=2}}{{Sfn|Cameron|2020|p=54}} Income inequality also became a major focus, and centre-left parties in the region promote [[Redistribution of income and wealth|redistributive policy]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Antía |first=Florencia |date=2019 |others=Translated by Margot Olavarria |title=The Political Dynamic of Redistribution in Unequal Democracies: The Center-Left Governments of Chile and Uruguay in Comparative Perspective |journal=Latin American Perspectives |language=en |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=152–166 |doi=10.1177/0094582X18806827 |s2cid=149990469 |issn=0094-582X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Liberalism in Latin America has historically been conservative and oligarchic rather than a centre-left liberalism of progressivism or egalitarianism.{{Sfn|Cameron|2020|p=46}} Several centre-left parties supported reforms toward [[economic liberalism]] in line with those supported by their right-wing counterparts, in some cases leading to backlash that saw incumbent centre-left leaders replaced by far-left populists.{{Sfn|Roberts|2020|pp=75–76}}

Ideological diversity developed in Africa after the end of the [[Decolonisation of Africa|decolonization]] period, which had been dominated by far-left politics. Most post-colonial African political parties adopted some form of socialism or social democracy, though social democratic policies have seen limited success due to the unstable nature of democracy in Africa.<ref name=":8" />

=== Early 21st century ===
By the beginning of the 21st century, the centre-left had almost entirely overtaken further left groups in politics globally, with other forms of left-wing politics seeing little support in democratic nations.{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=4}} [[Globalization]] and the [[Digital Revolution]] altered the objectives and demographics of the centre-left, as the working class has been largely subsumed by the [[middle class]] in developed nations due to increased living standards and the establishment of a [[knowledge economy]].{{Sfn|Cronin|Shoch|Ross|2011|p=9}} Of those in [[service industry]] careers, class is not a unifying or significant aspect of personal identity.{{Sfn|Menz|2022|p=2}} In particular, this shift has caused People's Parties based on [[mass mobilization]] to be less viable.{{Sfn|Cuperus|2018|p=190}} These rapid developments in society during the turn of the century caused distress among voters, including increased perceptions of social inequality and fear of change, causing voters to move away from traditional centre-left ideologies toward [[populism]].{{Sfn|Cuperus|2018|p=190}}

The [[Great Recession]] exacerbated this trend, bringing significant challenges to the rule of centre-left parties, particularly those with social democratic leanings.{{Sfn|Manwaring|Kennedy|2018|p=5}}{{Sfn|Menz|2022|p=1}} In Europe, this brought about a period of [[Pasokification]] in which social democratic parties saw large declines during the 2010s, largely being replaced by [[Far-left politics|far-left]] and [[Right-wing populism|right-wing populist]] parties.{{Sfn|Cuperus|2018|p=186}} The centre-left's stance on immigration in Europe was one of multiculturalism, further pushing working class voters from the centre-left to the far-right.{{Sfn|Menz|2022|p=8}} In some cases, centre-left and centre-right politics in these countries became less distinct as [[Cleavage (politics)|political cleavages]] shifted toward populist versus traditional politics.{{Sfn|Cuperus|2018|p=187}} The [[Arab Spring]] in the [[Middle East and North Africa]] supported ideals often associated with social democracy and the centre-left.{{Sfn|Granadino|Nygård|Stadius|2022|p=7}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Political science}}
* [[Centre-right politics]]
* [[Distributism]]
* [[Eco-capitalism]]
* [[Green liberalism]]
* [[Green libertarianism]]
* [[Green politics]]
* [[Hard left]]
* [[List of left-wing political parties]]
* [[Neoclassical liberalism]]
* [[Social democracy]]
* [[Soft left]]

== References ==
{{reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name=":9">{{cite journal |last=Carter |first=Neil |date=2013 |title=Greening the mainstream: party politics and the environment |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09644016.2013.755391 |journal=Environmental Politics |language=en |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=73–94 |doi=10.1080/09644016.2013.755391 |bibcode=2013EnvPo..22...73C |s2cid=154065471 |issn=0964-4016|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

}}

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{{Political spectrum}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Centre-Left}}
[[Category:Centre-left politics| ]]
[[Category:Centrism]]
[[Category:Left-wing politics]]
[[Category:Political spectrum]]
[[Category:Political terminology]]