View source for China

{{Short description|Country in East Asia}}
{{Redirect|People's Republic of China|the Republic of China|Taiwan}}
{{Redirect|PRC|other uses|PRC (disambiguation)|and|China (disambiguation)}}


{{Very long|date=June 2023}}
{{Use American English|date=December 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|cs1-dates=ly|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = People's Republic of China
| common_name            = China
| native_name            = {{native name|zh-Hans-CN|中华人民共和国|italic=no}}
| image_flag             = Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg
| image_coat             = National Emblem of the People's Republic of China (2).svg
| other_symbol           = 
| other_symbol_type      = 
| symbol_type            = [[National Emblem of the People's Republic of China|National Emblem]]
| motto                  = <!-- The PRC does not have an official motto, please do NOT add its unofficial motto to this parameter as it's unsourced on whether it's official or not. Please see the talk page for the specifics. -->
| national_anthem        = <br />{{lang|zh-Hans-CN|义勇军进行曲}}<br />{{transliteration|zh|Yìyǒngjūn Jìnxíngqǔ}}<br />"[[March of the Volunteers]]"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:March of the Volunteers instrumental.ogg]]}}
| image_map              = 
| map_width              = 250px
| map_caption            = Territory controlled by the People's Republic of China is shown in dark green; [[Territorial disputes of the People's Republic of China|territory claimed but not controlled]] is shown in light green.
| capital                = [[Beijing]]
| coordinates            = {{Coord|39|55|N|116|23|E|type:city(21,000,000_region:CN-BJ)}}
| largest_settlement     = [[Shanghai]]
| largest_settlement_type = city<br />{{nobold|by [[List of cities in China by population|urban population]]}}
| official_languages     = [[Standard Chinese]]{{efn|Chinese and [[English language|English]] are the official languages in [[Hong Kong]] only. Chinese and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] are the official languages in [[Macau]] only.}}
| languages_type         = [[Official script]]
| languages              = [[Simplified Chinese characters|Simplified Chinese]]{{efn|{{Bulleted list|In [[Hong Kong]], [[Traditional Chinese characters]] and the [[English alphabet]] are used.|In [[Macau]], [[Traditional Chinese characters]] and [[Portuguese orthography]] are used.|In [[Inner Mongolia]], the [[Mongolian script]] is used alongside simplified Chinese.|In [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]], the [[Tibetan script]] is used alongside simplified Chinese.|In [[Xinjiang]], the [[Uyghur Arabic alphabet]] is used alongside simplified Chinese.|In [[Guangxi]] and [[Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture|Wenshan Prefecture]], the [[Latin alphabet]] is used alongside simplified Chinese.|In [[Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture|Yanbian Prefecture]], [[Chosŏn'gŭl]] ([[Hangul]]) is used alongside simplified Chinese.}}}}
| religion               = {{ublist|item_style=white-space:nowrap;|74.5% [[Irreligion in China|no religion]] / [[Chinese folk religion|folk]]|18.3% [[Chinese Buddhism|Buddhism]]
|5.2% [[Christianity in China|Christianity]]|1.6% [[Islam in China|Islam]]|0.4% [[Religion in China|others]]}}
| religion_ref           = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/china#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2016|title=Chinese Religion {{pipe}} GRF|website=globalreligiousfutures.org|access-date=2023-08-19 |archive-date=2019-05-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521230415/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/china#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| recognized_regional_languages = {{hlist|[[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]|[[Uyghur language|Uyghur]]|[[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]]|[[Standard Zhuang|Zhuang]]|[[Languages of China|others]]}}
| religion_year          = 2020
| ethnic_groups          = {{ublist|item_style=white-space:nowrap;|91.1% [[Han Chinese]]|8.9% [[List of ethnic groups in China|others]]}}
| ethnic_groups_year     = 2020
| ethnic_groups_ref      = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202105/t20210510_1817185.html|title=Main Data of the Seventh National Population Census|website=Stats.gov.cn|access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref>
| demonym                = Chinese
<!---- Note: Describing the PRC's government type has been a contentious issue. Please read the archives of past discussions before making or proposing changes. ----->| government_type        = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] [[One-party state|one-party]] <!-- The Bharatpedia page for one-party state describes it as "a type of state in which one political party has the right to form the government, usually based on the existing constitution". In 2018, the Chinese government added the CCP's leadership to the constitution, which officially makes China both a de jure and a de facto one-party state. -->[[Socialist state|socialist]] [[republic]]
| leader_title1          = [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP General Secretary]]{{efn|The ''de facto'' [[Orders of precedence in China|top position]] in the People's Republic of China}}<br />[[President of the People's Republic of China|President]]{{efn|The PRC's head of state; a largely ceremonial position}}<br />[[Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)|CMC Chairman]]{{efn|[[Supreme Military Command of the People's Republic of China|Supreme Commander]] of the Armed Forces}}
| leader_name1           = [[Xi Jinping]]
| leader_title2          = [[Vice President of the People's Republic of China|Vice President]]
| leader_name2           = [[Han Zheng]]
| leader_title3          = [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|Premier]]
| leader_name3           = [[Li Qiang]]
| leader_title4          = [[Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress|Congress Chairman]]
| leader_name4           = [[Zhao Leji]]
| leader_title5          = [[Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference|CPPCC Chairman]]{{efn|Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference}}
| leader_name5           = [[Wang Huning]]
| leader_title6          = 1st [[Secretariat of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP Secretariat's Member]]
| legislature            = [[National People's Congress]]
| sovereignty_type       = [[History of China|Formation]]
| established_event1     = [[Xia dynasty|First pre-imperial dynasty]]
| established_date1      = {{c.|2070&nbsp;BCE}}
| established_event2     = [[Qin dynasty|First imperial dynasty]]
| established_date2      = 221&nbsp;BCE
| established_event3     = [[1911 Revolution|Establishment of the Republic of China]]
| established_date3      = 1 January 1912
| established_event4     = [[Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|Proclamation of the People's Republic]]
| established_date4      = 1 October 1949
| established_event5     = [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|First constitution]]
| established_date5      = 20 September 1954
| established_event6     = [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|Current constitution]]
| established_date6      = 4 December 1982
| established_event7     = [[Macau|Most recent polity]] [[Transfer of sovereignty over Macau|admitted]]
| established_date7      = 20 December 1999
| area_km2               = 9,596,961
| area_footnote          = {{efn|The area given is the official United Nations figure for [[Mainland China|the mainland]] and excludes [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]] and [[Taiwan]].<ref name="UN Stat">{{cite web|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2007/Table03.pdf|title=Demographic Yearbook—Table 3: Population by sex, rate of population increase, surface area and density|publisher=UN Statistics|year=2007|access-date=31 July 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224063215/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2007/Table03.pdf|archive-date=24 December 2010}}</ref> It also excludes the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]] ({{cvt|5180|km2}}), [[Aksai Chin]] ({{cvt|38000|km2}}) and other territories in dispute with India. The total area of China is listed as {{cvt|9572900|km2}} by the ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/111803/China|title=China|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=16 November 2012}}</ref> For further information, see [[Territorial changes of the People's Republic of China]].}}{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}
| area_rank              = 3rd / 4th
| area_sq_mi             = 3,705,407 <!-- Do not remove per [[Project:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]] -->
| percent_water          = 2.8{{efn|This figure was calculated using data from the CIA World Factbook.<ref name="CIA" />}}
| population_estimate    = {{decreaseNeutral}} 1,411,750,000<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-17 |title=China's first population fall since 1961 creates 'bleaker' outlook for country |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/17/chinas-population-falls-for-first-time-in-more-than-60-years |access-date=2023-01-21 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2023
| population_estimate_rank = 2nd
| population_census_year = 2020
| population_census_rank = 2nd
| population_density_km2 = 145<ref>{{cite web|title=Population density (people per km<sup>2</sup> of land area)|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.POP.DNST|publisher=IMF|access-date=16 May 2015}}</ref>
| population_density_sq_mi = 373 <!-- Do not remove per [[Project:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]] -->
| population_density_rank = 83rd
| GDP_PPP                = {{increase}} $32.897 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.CN">{{Cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=924,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (China) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |date=10 October 2023 |access-date=10 October 2023}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year           = 2023
| GDP_PPP_rank           = 1st
| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = {{increase}} $23,308<ref name="IMFWEO.CN" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 73rd
| GDP_nominal            = {{decrease}} $17.700 trillion{{Efn|GDP figures exclude [[Taiwan]], and the [[Special administrative regions of China|special administrative regions]] of [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]].}}<ref name="IMFWEO.CN" />
| GDP_nominal_year       = 2023
| GDP_nominal_rank       = 2nd
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{decrease}} $12,541<ref name="IMFWEO.CN" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 71st
| Gini                   = 38.2 <!-- number only -->
| Gini_year              = 2019
| Gini_change            = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| Gini_ref               = <ref name="GINI">{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=CN&most_recent_year_desc=true|title=Gini index – China|publisher=World Bank|access-date=24 May 2022}}</ref>
| Gini_rank              = 
| HDI                    = 0.768 <!-- number only -->
| HDI_year               = 2021 <!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change             = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref                = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref>
| HDI_rank               = 79th
| currency               = [[Renminbi]] (元/¥){{efn|{{Bulleted list|[[Hong Kong dollar]] used in Hong Kong and Macau.|[[Macanese pataca]] used in Macau only.}}}}
| currency_code          = CNY
| time_zone              = [[Time in China|CST]]
| utc_offset             = [[UTC+08:00|+8]]
| utc_offset_DST         = 
| DST_note               = ''[[Daylight saving time|DST]] is not observed.''
| time_zone_DST          = 
| date_format            = {{vunblist|yyyy-mm-dd|''or'' yyyy{{lang|zh|年}}m{{lang|zh|月}}d{{lang|zh|日}}|([[Common Era|CE]]; [[Chinese calendar]])}}
| drives_on              = right ([[Mainland China|mainland]])<br />left ([[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]])
| calling_code           = [[Telephone numbers in China|+86]] (mainland)<br />[[Telephone numbers in Hong Kong|+852]] (Hong Kong)<br />[[Telephone numbers in Macau|+853]] (Macau)
| cctld                  = {{hlist|[[.cn]]|[[.中国]]|[[.中國]] (mainland)}}{{hlist|[[.hk]]|[[.香港]] (Hong Kong)}}{{hlist|[[.mo]]|[[.澳门]]|[[.澳門]] (Macau)}}
}}

'''China''' ({{zh|s=中国<!--Do NOT add Traditional Chinese. Simplified Chinese is the official script in China-->|p=Zhōngguó}}), officially the '''People's Republic of China''' ('''PRC'''),{{efn|{{zh|s=中华人民共和国<!--Do NOT add Traditional Chinese. Simplified Chinese is the official script in China-->|p=Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó}}}} is a country in [[East Asia]]. It is the world's [[List of countries by population (United Nations)|second-most populous country]] with [[Population of China|a population]] exceeding 1.4 billion. China spans the equivalent of five [[time zones]] and [[Borders of China|borders]] fourteen countries by land,{{Efn|China's border with Pakistan is disputed by India, which claims the entire [[Kashmir]] region as its territory.}} tied with [[Russia]] as having the [[List of countries and territories by number of land borders|most of any country]] in the world. With an area of nearly {{Convert|9.6|e6sqkm|sqmi|sp=us}}, it is the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|third largest country]] by total land area.{{efn|The total area ranking relative to the [[United States]] depends on the measurement of the total areas of both countries. See [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] for more information.

The following two primary sources (non-mirrored) represent the range (min./max.) of estimates of China's and the United States' total areas.

Both sources (1) ''exclude'' [[Taiwan]] from the area of China; (2) ''exclude'' China's coastal and territorial waters.

However, the CIA World Factbook ''includes'' the United States coastal and territorial waters, while Encyclopædia Britannica ''excludes'' the United States coastal and territorial waters.

{{ordered list
|1= The ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' lists China as world's third-largest country (after [[Russia]] and [[Canada]]) with a total area of 9,572,900 km<sup>2</sup>,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/China|title=China|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=4 December 2017}}</ref> and the United States as fourth-largest at 9,525,067 km<sup>2</sup>.<ref name="United States" />
|2= The [[The World Factbook|CIA World Factbook]] lists China as the fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada and the United States) with a total area of 9,596,960 km<sup>2</sup>,<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=China|access-date=3 July 2016}}</ref> and the United States as the third-largest at 9,833,517 km<sup>2</sup>.<ref>{{citation-attribution|1={{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=United States|access-date=3 July 2016}} }}</ref>}}

Notably, the Encyclopædia Britannica specifies the United States' area (excluding coastal and territorial waters) as 9,525,067 km<sup>2</sup>, which is less than either source's figure given for China's area.<ref name="United States" /> Therefore, while it can be determined that China has a larger area excluding coastal and territorial waters, it is unclear which country has a larger area including coastal and territorial waters.
----

The [[United Nations Statistics Division]]'s figure for the United States is {{cvt|9,833,517|km2}} and China is {{cvt|9,596,961|km2}}. These closely match the CIA World Factbook figures and similarly ''include'' coastal and territorial waters for the United States, but ''exclude'' coastal and territorial waters for China.

----

Further explanation of disputed ranking: The dispute about which is the world's third-largest country arose from the inclusion of coastal and territorial waters for the United States. This discrepancy was deduced from comparing the CIA World Factbook and its previous iterations against the information for United States in ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', particularly its footnote section.<ref name="United States">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States|title=United States|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=4 December 2017}}</ref> In sum, according to older versions of the CIA World Factbook (from 1982 to 1996), the U.S. was listed as the world's fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada, and China) with a total area of {{cvt|9,372,610|km2}}. However, in the 1997 edition, the U.S. added coastal waters to its total area (increasing it to {{cvt|9629091|km2}}). And then again in 2007, U.S. added territorial water to its total area (increasing it to {{cvt|9833517|km2}}). During this time, China's total area remained unchanged. In other words, ''no'' coastal or territorial water area was added to China's total area figure. The United States has a coastal water area of {{cvt|109362|km2}}, and a territorial water area of {{cvt|195213|km2}}, for a total of {{cvt|304575|km2}} of additional water space. This is larger than entire countries like [[Italy]], [[New Zealand]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. Adding this figure to the U.S. will boost it over China in ranking since China's coastal and territorial water figures are currently unknown (no official publication) and thus cannot be added into China's total area figure.}} The country is divided into 22 [[provinces of China|provinces]],{{efn|The PRC claims the territories controlled by the [[Republic of China|ROC]] ([[Free area of the Republic of China|Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu]]), which it does not control, as its disputed 23rd province, [[Taiwan Province, People's Republic of China|Taiwan Province]]. See {{section link||Administrative divisions}} for more details.|name=}} five [[autonomous regions of China|autonomous regions]], four [[direct-administered municipalities of China|municipalities]], and two semi-autonomous [[Special administrative regions of China|special administrative regions]]. The national capital is [[Beijing]], and the [[List of cities in China by population|most populous]] city and largest [[financial center]] is [[Shanghai]].

The region that is now China has been inhabited since the [[Paleolithic era]]. The earliest [[Dynasties in Chinese history|Chinese dynastic states]], such as the [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]], emerged in the basin of the [[Yellow River]] before the late second millennium BCE. The eighth to third centuries BCE saw a breakdown in Zhou authority and significant conflict, as well as the emergence of [[Chinese classics|Classical Chinese literature]] and [[Chinese philosophy|philosophy]]. In 221 BCE, China was unified under [[Emperor of China|an emperor]], ushering in more than two millennia in which China was governed by one or more imperial dynasties, such as the [[Han dynasty|Han]], [[Tang dynasty|Tang]], [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]]. Some of China's most notable achievements, such as the invention of [[gunpowder]] and [[History of paper#Paper in China|paper]], the establishment of the [[Silk Road]], and the building of the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]], occurred during this period. The [[Chinese culture]], including languages, traditions, architecture, philosophy and more, has [[Sinosphere|heavily influenced East Asia]] during this imperial period.

In 1912, the Chinese monarchy [[1911 Revolution|was overthrown]] and the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] established. The Republic saw consistent conflict for most of the mid-20th century, including [[Chinese Civil War|a civil war]] between the [[Kuomintang]] government and the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP), which began in 1927, as well as the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] that began in 1937 and continued until 1945, therefore becoming involved in [[World War II]]. The latter led to a temporary stop in the civil war and numerous Japanese atrocities such as the [[Nanjing Massacre]], which continue to influence [[China-Japan relations]]. In 1949, the CCP established control over China as [[Kuomintang's retreat to Taiwan|the Kuomintang fled]] to [[Taiwan]]. Early communist rule saw two major projects: the [[Great Leap Forward]], which resulted in a sharp economic decline and [[Great Chinese Famine|massive famine]]; and the [[Cultural Revolution]], a movement to purge all non-communist elements of Chinese society that led to mass violence and persecution. Beginning in 1978, the Chinese government began [[Chinese economic reform|economic reforms]] that moved the country away from [[Planned economy|planned economics]], but political reforms were cut short by the [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests]], which ended in a massacre. Despite the event, the economic reform continued to strengthen the nation's economy in the following decades while raising China's standard of living significantly.

China is a [[Unitary state|unitary]] [[One-party state|one-party]] [[socialist state|socialist]] [[republic]] led by the CCP. It is one of the five [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent members]] of the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] and a founding member of several multilateral and regional organizations such as the [[Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank]], the [[Silk Road Fund]], the [[New Development Bank]], and the [[Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership|RCEP]]. It is also a member of the [[BRICS]], the [[G20]], [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]], and the [[East Asia Summit]]. China [[International rankings of China|ranks poorly]] in measures of [[Democracy in China|democracy]], [[Corruption in China|transparency]], and [[Human rights in China|human rights]], including for [[Freedom of the press in China|press freedom]], [[Freedom of religion in China|religious freedom]], and [[Racism in China|ethnic equality]]. Making up around one-fifth of the [[world economy]], China is the world's [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|largest economy by GDP]] at [[purchasing power parity]], the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|second-largest economy by nominal GDP]], and the [[List of countries by total wealth#Total wealth by country|second-wealthiest country]]. The country is one of the [[List of countries by real GDP growth rate|fastest-growing]] major economies and is the world's [[List of countries by manufacturing output|largest manufacturer]] and [[List of countries by exports|exporter]], as well as the [[List of countries by imports|second-largest importer]]. China is a [[List of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear-weapon state]] with the world's [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|largest standing army by military personnel]] and the [[List of countries by military expenditures|second-largest defense budget]].

{{TOC limit|4}}
{{anchor|Etymology|Name}}

== Etymology ==

{{Main|Names of China}}
[[File:CEM-09-Asiae-Nova-Descriptio-China-2510.jpg|thumb|''China'' (today's [[Guangdong]]), ''Mangi'' (inland of ''[[Shandong|Xanton]]''), and ''Cataio'' (inland of ''China'' and ''[[Zhejiang|Chequan]]'', and including the capital ''[[Khanbaliq|Cambalu]]'', ''[[Shangdu|Xandu]]'', and a [[Marco Polo Bridge|marble bridge]]) are all shown as separate regions on this 1570 map by [[Abraham Ortelius]].]]

The word "China" has been used in English since the 16th century; however, it was not a word used by the Chinese themselves during this period. Its origin has been traced through [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]], and [[Persian people|Persian]] back to the [[Sanskrit]] word ''Cīna'', used in [[ancient India]].<ref name=OED>{{cite web|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/31735?|title= China|work= Oxford English Dictionary }}{{ISBN|0-19-957315-8}}</ref> "China" appears in [[Richard Eden (translator)|Richard Eden]]'s 1555 translation{{efn|"...{{nbsp}}Next into this, is found the great China, whose king is thought to be the greatest prince in the world, and is named Santoa Raia".<ref>[[Richard Eden (translator)|Eden, Richard]] (1555), ''Decades of the New World'', [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo/a20032.0001.001/511?page=root;size=125;vid=4616;view=text p. 230].</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Western Views of China and the Far East, Volume 1|publisher=Asian Research Service|year=1984|page=34|first=Henry Allen|last=Myers}}</ref>}} of the 1516 journal of the [[Portuguese empire|Portuguese]] [[Portuguese exploration|explorer]] [[Duarte Barbosa]].{{efn|"...{{nbsp}}The Very Great Kingdom of China".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=edzW9fuOF-cC&pg=PA211|page=211|title=The Book of Duarte Barbosa |volume=II |last=Barbosa|first=Duarte|editor-last=Dames |editor-first=Mansel Longworth|location=London|year=1918 |isbn=978-81-206-0451-3 |publisher=Asian Educational Services}}</ref> ({{lang-pt|...{{nbsp}}O Grande Reino da China{{nbsp}}...}}).<ref>{{citation|first=Duarte|last=Barbosa|title=Livro em que dá Relação do que Viu e Ouviu no Oriente|editor=Augusto Reis Machado|location=Lisbon|year=1946|url=http://purl.pt/435|url-status=dead |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20081022202824/http://purl.pt/435|archive-date= 22 October 2008}}. {{in lang|pt}}</ref>}}<ref name="OED" /> Barbosa's usage was derived from [[Persian language|Persian]] ''Chīn'' ({{lang|fa|{{linktext|چین}}}}), which was in turn derived from Sanskrit ''[[Chinas|Cīna]]'' ({{lang|sa|{{linktext|चीन}}}}).<ref name="AmHer">"[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/China?qsrc=2888 China]". ''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language'' (2000). Boston and New York: Houghton-Mifflin.</ref> ''Cīna'' was first used in early [[Hindu]] scripture, including the ''[[Mahābhārata]]'' (5th century&nbsp;BCE) and the ''[[Manusmṛti|Laws of Manu]]'' (2nd century&nbsp;BCE).<ref name="wade">Wade, Geoff. "[http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp188_yelang_china.pdf The Polity of Yelang and the Origin of the Name 'China']". ''[[Sino-Platonic Papers]]'', No. 188, May 2009, p. 20.</ref> In 1655, [[Martino Martini]] suggested that the word China is derived ultimately from the name of the [[Qin dynasty]] (221–206 BCE).<ref name="Martini">Martino, Martin, ''Novus Atlas Sinensis'', Vienna 1655, Preface, p. 2.</ref><ref name="wade" /> Although usage in Indian sources precedes this dynasty, this derivation is still given in various sources.<ref name="Bodde-1978">{{cite book|last=Bodde |first= Derk|editor=Denis Twitchett|editor2= Michael Loewe|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=A2HKxK5N2sAC&pg=PA20|title = The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC – AD 220|page = 20|isbn = 978-0-521-24327-8|year=1978 |publisher= Cambridge University Press}}</ref> The origin of the Sanskrit word is a matter of debate, according to the ''Oxford English Dictionary''.<ref name="OED" />

Alternative suggestions include the names for [[Yelang]] and the [[Chu (state)|Jing]] or Chu state.<ref name="wade" /><ref name="Yule-1866">{{cite book|last=Yule |first= Henry|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SAqgAb41ifIC&pg=PA3|title = Cathay and the Way Thither|pages= 3–7|isbn = 978-81-206-1966-1|year = 1866 |publisher= Asian Educational Services}}</ref>
The official name of the modern state is the "People's Republic of China" ({{zh|s={{linktext|中华人民共和国}}|p={{linktext|Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó}}|c=|t={{linktext|中華人民共和國}}
<!--Do NOT remove Traditional. Simplified is the official script in China but Traditional is found in [[Xiandai Hanyu Cidian]],
[[Table of General Standard Chinese Characters]], and other important CCP documents, as well as being the official script in Hong Kong, Macao and today's Republic of China (Taiwan). Traditional characters are an important though secondary part of mainland China's script system.-->}}). The shorter form is "China" ''{{linktext|Zhōngguó}}'' ({{zh|s={{linktext|中国}}|p=|c=|t={{linktext|中國}}
<!--Do NOT remove Traditional. Simplified is the official script in China but Traditional is found in [[Xiandai Hanyu Cidian]],
[[Table of General Standard Chinese Characters]], and other important CCP documents, as well as being the official script in Hong Kong, Macao, and today's Republic of China (Taiwan). Traditional characters are an important though secondary part of mainland China's script system.-->
<!--Do NOT remove Traditional. Simplified is the official script in China but Traditional is found in [[Xiandai Hanyu Cidian]],
[[Table of General Standard Chinese Characters]], and other important CCP documents, as well as being the official script in Hong Kong, Macao and today's Republic of China (Taiwan). Traditional characters are an important though secondary part of mainland China's script system.-->|labels=no}}) from ''{{transliteration|zh|zhōng}}'' ("central") and ''{{transliteration|zh|guó}}'' ("state"),{{efn|Although this is the present meaning of ''{{transliteration|zh|guó}}'', in [[Old Chinese]] (when its pronunciation was something like {{nowrap|/*qʷˤək/}})<ref name=bs>[[Reconstructions of Old Chinese|Baxter–Sagart]].</ref> it meant the walled city of the Chinese and the areas they could control from them.<ref name=wilx />}} a term which developed under the [[Western Zhou]] dynasty in reference to its [[demesne|royal demesne]].{{efn|Its earliest extant use is on the [[ritual bronze]] vessel [[He zun]], where it apparently refers to only the [[Shang dynasty|Shang]]'s immediate demesne conquered by the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhi |first=Chen |date=9 November 2004 |title=From Exclusive Xia to Inclusive Zhu-Xia: The Conceptualisation of Chinese Identity in Early China |journal=[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]] |language=en |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=185–205 |doi=10.1017/S135618630400389X |s2cid=162643600 |issn=1356-1863}}</ref>}}{{efn|Its meaning "Zhou's royal demesne" is attested from the 6th-century BC [[Classic of History]], which states "[[Tian (god)|Huangtian]] bestowed the lands and the peoples of the central state to the ancestors" ({{lang|zh|皇天既付中國民越厥疆土于先王}}).<ref>{{lang|zh|[[:s:zh:尚書|《尚書》]], [[:s:zh:尚書/梓材|梓材]].}} {{in lang|zh}}</ref>}} It was then applied to the area around [[Luoyi]] (present-day Luoyang) during the [[Eastern Zhou]] and then to China's [[Central Plain (China)|Central Plain]] before being used in official documents as an synonym for the state under the [[Qing dynasty|Qing]].<ref name="wilx">{{citation|last=Wilkinson|first=Endymion|title=Chinese History: A Manual|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERnrQq0bsPYC&pg=PA132|year=2000|location=Cambridge|publisher=Harvard University Asia Center|series=Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph No. 52|page=132|isbn=978-0-674-00249-4}}</ref> It was sometimes also used as a cultural concept to distinguish the [[Huaxia]] people from [[Hua-Yi distinction|perceived "barbarians"]].<ref name="wilx" /> The name ''Zhongguo'' is also translated as {{nowrap|"Middle Kingdom"}} in English.<ref name="Tang-2010">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4n8u0HG-iYEC&pg=PA52|title=Greater China in an Era of Globalization|last1=Tang|first1=Xiaoyang|last2=Guo|first2=Sujian|last3=Guo|first3=Baogang|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2010|isbn=978-0-7391-3534-1|location=Lanham, MD|pages=52–53}}</ref> China (PRC) is sometimes referred to as [[Mainland China|the Mainland]] when distinguishing the [[Republic of China|ROC]] from the PRC.<ref>{{cite news|title=Two "Chinese" flags in Chinatown 美國唐人街兩面「中國」國旗之爭|publisher=BBC|url=https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/simp/world-49585512}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Chou Hsi-wei on Conflict Zone|publisher=Deutsche Welle|url=https://www.dw.com/en/chou-hsi-wei-on-conflict-zone/av-49624866|quote=So-called 'China', we call it 'Mainland', we are 'Taiwan'. Together we are 'China'.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=China-Taiwan Relations|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/china-taiwan-relations|publisher=Council on Foreign Relations}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=What's behind the China-Taiwan divide?|publisher=BBC|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-34729538}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of China}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of Chinese history}}

=== Prehistory ===
[[File:National Museum of China 2014.02.01 14-43-38.jpg|thumb|10,000-year-old pottery, [[Xianren Cave]] culture (18000–7000 BCE)]]

China is regarded as one of the world's oldest civilizations.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Q.V. Nguyen |last2=Peter Core |date=September 2000 |title=Pickled and Dried Asian Vegetables |url=https://www.agrifutures.com.au/wp-content/uploads/publications/00-045.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221009012921/https://www.agrifutures.com.au/wp-content/uploads/publications/00-045.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |website=[[AgriFutures Australia]] |page=100|author2-link=Peter Core }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kurlansky |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Kurlansky |date=2002-02-24 |title='Salt' |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/24/books/chapters/salt.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410174445/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/24/books/chapters/salt.html |archive-date=2021-04-10 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> [[Archaeological excavation|Archaeological evidence]] suggests that early [[Hominidae|hominids]] inhabited the country 2.25 million years ago.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.archaeology.org/0001/newsbriefs/china.html|title=Early Homo erectus Tools in China|last1=Ciochon|first1=Russell|last2=Larick|first2=Roy|date=1 January 2000|work=[[Archaeology (magazine)|Archaeology]]|access-date=30 November 2012}}</ref> The hominid fossils of [[Peking Man]], a ''[[Homo erectus]]'' who [[Control of fire by early humans|used fire]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/ext/field/beijing/whc/pkm-site.htm |title=The Peking Man World Heritage Site at Zhoukoudian|publisher=UNESCO|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623160018/http://www.unesco.org/ext/field/beijing/whc/pkm-site.htm|archive-date=23 June 2016|access-date=6 March 2013}}</ref> were discovered in a cave at [[Zhoukoudian]] near [[Beijing]]; they have been dated to between 680,000 and 780,000 [[Before Present|years ago]].<ref name="autogenerated198">{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/nature07741 |date=March 2009|last1=Shen |first1= G.|last2=Gao |first2= X.|last3=Gao |first3= B.|last4=Granger |first4= De|title=Age of Zhoukoudian Homo erectus determined with (26)Al/(10)Be burial dating|volume=458|issue=7235|pages=198–200|issn=0028-0836 |pmid=19279636|journal=Nature|bibcode=2009Natur.458..198S|s2cid=19264385|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/d502c36487e27d90c7962fc60d28c48ab16c8f0e}}</ref> The fossilized teeth of ''Homo sapiens'' (dated to 125,000–80,000 years ago) have been discovered in [[Fuyan Cave]] in [[Dao County]], [[Hunan]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-34531861 |title=Fossil teeth place humans in Asia '20,000 years early'|last=Rincon|first=Paul|date=14 October 2015|work=BBC News|access-date=14 October 2015}}</ref> Chinese [[proto-writing]] existed in [[Jiahu]] around 6600 BCE,<ref name="earliest writing">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2956925.stm|title='Earliest writing' found in China|last=Rincon|first=Paul |date=17 April 2003|work=BBC News|access-date=14 January 2020}}</ref> at [[Damaidi]] around 6000 BCE,<ref>[[Qiu Xigui]] (2000) ''Chinese Writing'' English translation of {{lang|zh-Hant|文字學概論}} by Gilbert L. Mattos and [[Jerry Norman (sinologist)|Jerry Norman]] Early China Special Monograph Series No. 4. Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. {{ISBN|978-1-55729-071-7}}</ref> [[Dadiwan culture|Dadiwan]] from 5800 to 5400 BCE, and [[Banpo]] dating from the 5th millennium BCE. Some scholars have suggested that the [[Jiahu symbols]] (7th millennium BCE) constituted the earliest Chinese writing system.<ref name="earliest writing" />

=== Early dynastic rule ===
{{Further|Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors|Xia dynasty|Shang dynasty|Zhou dynasty|Spring and Autumn period|Warring States period}}
[[File:甲骨文发现地 - panoramio.jpg|thumb|[[Yinxu]], the ruins of the capital of the late [[Shang dynasty]] (14th century BCE)]]

According to Chinese tradition, the [[list of Chinese dynasties|first dynasty]] was the [[Xia dynasty|Xia]], which emerged around 2100 BCE.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tanner|first=Harold M.|title=China: A History|year=2009|publisher=Hackett Publishing|pages=35–36|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&pg=PA35|isbn=978-0-87220-915-2}}</ref> The Xia dynasty marked the beginning of China's political system based on hereditary monarchies, or [[Dynasties in Chinese history|dynasties]], which lasted for a millennium.<ref>[[Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project]] by People's Republic of China</ref> The Xia dynasty was considered [[Chinese mythology|mythical]] by historians until scientific excavations found early [[Bronze Age]] sites at [[Erlitou culture|Erlitou]], Henan in 1959.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/chbro_bron.shtm|title=Bronze Age China|publisher=National Gallery of Art|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725062916/http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/chbro_bron.shtm |archive-date=25 July 2013|access-date=11 July 2013}}</ref> It remains unclear whether these sites are the remains of the Xia dynasty or of another culture from the same period.<ref>{{cite book|title=China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization |year=2007|publisher=City University of HK Press|page=25|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z-fAxn_9f8wC&pg=PA25|isbn=978-962-937-140-1}}</ref> The succeeding [[Shang dynasty]] is the earliest to be confirmed by contemporary records.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pletcher|first=Kenneth|title=The History of China|year=2011|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|page=35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A1nwvKNPMWkC&pg=PA35|isbn=978-1-61530-181-2}}</ref> The Shang ruled the plain of the [[Yellow River]] in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fowler|first1=Jeaneane D. |first2=Merv|last2=Fowler|title=Chinese Religions: Beliefs and Practices|year=2008|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|page=17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpJNfIAZltoC&pg=PA17|isbn=978-1-84519-172-6}}</ref> Their [[oracle bone script]] (from {{c.|lk=no|1500}} BCE)<ref>William G. Boltz, Early Chinese Writing, World Archaeology, Vol. 17, No. 3, Early Writing Systems (February 1986) pp. 420–436 (436)</ref><ref>David N. Keightley, "Art, Ancestors, and the Origins of Writing in China", ''Representations'' No. 56, Special Issue: The New Erudition. (Autumn 1996), pp.68–95 [68]</ref> represents the oldest form of Chinese writing yet found<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC&pg=PA904|page=904 |first=Pam|last=Hollister|title=Zhengzhou|encyclopedia=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania|editor1-first=Paul E.|editor1-last=Schellinger|editor2-first=Robert M.|editor2-last=Salkin|publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers |year=1996|isbn=978-1-884964-04-6}}</ref> and is a direct ancestor of modern [[Chinese characters]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BzfRFmlN2ZAC&pg=PA4|title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics|last=Allan |first=Keith|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-958584-7|page=4}}</ref>

The Shang was conquered by the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]], who ruled between the 11th and 5th centuries&nbsp;BCE, though centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Some principalities eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou, no longer fully obeyed the Zhou king, and continually waged war with each other during the 300-year [[Spring and Autumn period]]. By the time of the [[Warring States period]] of the 5th–3rd centuries&nbsp;BCE, there were seven major powerful states left.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Warring States|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Warring-States|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=15 September 2023}}</ref>

=== Imperial China ===
[[File:Badaling China Great-Wall-of-China-01.jpg|thumb|China's first emperor, [[Qin Shi Huang]], is famed for having united the [[Warring States]]' walls to form the [[Great Wall of China]]. Most of the present structure, however, dates to the [[Ming dynasty]].]]

The Warring States period ended in 221&nbsp;BCE after the [[Qin (state)|state of Qin]] conquered the other six kingdoms, reunited China and established the dominant order of [[autocracy]]. [[King Zheng of Qin]] proclaimed himself the [[First Emperor]] of the [[Qin dynasty]]. He enacted Qin's [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|legalist]] reforms throughout China, notably the forced standardization of [[Han characters|Chinese character]]s, [[Chinese units|measurements]], road widths (i.e., the cart axles' length), and [[history of Chinese currency|currency]]. His dynasty also [[Qin's campaign against the Yue tribes|conquered the Yue tribes]] in [[Guangxi]], [[Guangdong]], and [[Northern Vietnam]].<ref>Sima Qian, Translated by Burton Watson. ''Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty I'', pp. 11–12. {{ISBN|0-231-08165-0}}.</ref> The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after the First Emperor's death, as his harsh authoritarian policies led to widespread rebellion.<ref name="Bodde1986">Bodde, Derk. (1986). "The State and Empire of Ch'in", in ''The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220''. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-24327-0}}.</ref><ref name="Lewis2007">{{cite book|title=The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han|first=Mark Edward|last=Lewis|publisher=Belknap Press|location=London|year=2007|isbn=978-0-674-02477-9|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofimperia00broo}}</ref>

Following a [[Chu–Han Contention|widespread civil war]] during which the imperial library at [[Xianyang]] [[List of destroyed libraries#Human action|was burned]],{{efn|Owing to Qin Shi Huang's earlier policy involving the "[[burning of books and burying of scholars]]", the destruction of the confiscated copies at Xianyang was an event similar to the [[destruction of the Library of Alexandria|destructions]] of the [[Library of Alexandria]] in the west. Even those texts that did survive had to be painstakingly reconstructed from memory, luck, or forgery.<ref>{{citation|last=Cotterell|first=Arthur|title=The Imperial Capitals of China|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bZI764AEfcsC&pg=PA35 35–36]|publisher=Pimlico|year=2011 }}</ref> The [[Old Texts]] of the [[Five Classics]] were said to have been found hidden in a wall at the Kong residence in [[Qufu]]. [[Mei Ze]]'s "rediscovered" edition of the [[Book of Documents]] was [[Yan Ruoqu|only shown to be a forgery in the Qing dynasty]].}} the [[Han dynasty]] emerged to rule China between 206&nbsp;BCE and CE&nbsp;220, creating a cultural identity among its populace still remembered in the ethnonym of the modern [[Han Chinese]].<ref name="Bodde1986" /><ref name="Lewis2007" /> The Han [[History of the Han dynasty|expanded the empire's territory considerably]], with military campaigns reaching [[Han–Xiongnu War|Central Asia, Mongolia]], [[Gojoseon–Han War|South Korea]], and [[Han campaigns against Dian|Yunnan]], and the [[Southward expansion of the Han dynasty|recovery of Guangdong and northern Vietnam]] from [[Nanyue]]. Han involvement in Central Asia and [[Sogdia]] helped establish the land route of the [[Silk Road]], replacing the earlier path over the [[Himalayas]] to India. Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED460052|title=Dahlman, Carl J; Aubert, Jean-Eric. ''China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st century''|publisher=World Bank Publications via Eric.ed.gov|access-date=22 October 2012}}</ref> Despite the Han's initial decentralization and the official abandonment of the Qin philosophy of Legalism in favor of [[Confucianism]], Qin's legalist institutions and policies continued to be employed by the Han government and its successors.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Candice|last1=Goucher|first2= Linda|last2=Walton|title=World History: Journeys from Past to Present – Volume 1: From Human Origins to 1500 CE|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|page=108|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zdwpAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA108|isbn=978-1-135-08822-4}}</ref>
[[File:Han Expansion.png|thumb|Map showing the [[Southward expansion of the Han dynasty|expansion]] of [[Han dynasty]] in the 2nd century BC]]
After the [[end of the Han dynasty]], a period of strife known as [[Three Kingdoms]] followed,<ref>Whiting, Marvin C. (2002). ''Imperial Chinese Military History''. iUniverse. p. 214</ref> whose central figures were later immortalized in [[Romance of the Three Kingdoms|one]] of the [[Four Classics]] of [[Chinese literature]]. At its end, [[Cao Wei|Wei]] was swiftly overthrown by the [[Jin dynasty (265–420)|Jin dynasty]]. The Jin fell to [[War of the Eight Princes|civil war]] upon the ascension of a [[Emperor Hui of Jin|developmentally disabled emperor]]; the [[Five Barbarians]] then [[uprising of the Five Barbarians|invaded]] and ruled northern China as the [[Sixteen Kingdoms|Sixteen States]]. The [[Xianbei]] unified them as the [[Northern Wei]], whose [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei|Emperor Xiaowen]] reversed his predecessors' apartheid policies and [[Northern dynasties|enforced a drastic sinification on his subjects]], largely integrating them into Chinese culture. In the south, the general [[Emperor Wu of Liu Song|Liu Yu]] secured the abdication of the Jin in favor of the [[Liu Song]]. The various successors of these states became known as the [[Northern and Southern dynasties]], with the two areas finally reunited by the [[Sui dynasty|Sui]] in 581. The Sui restored the Han to power through China, reformed its agriculture, economy and [[imperial examination]] system, constructed the [[Grand Canal of China|Grand Canal]], and patronized [[Buddhism in China|Buddhism]]. However, they fell quickly when their conscription for public works and a [[Goguryeo–Sui War|failed war]] in [[Goguryeo|northern Korea]] provoked widespread unrest.<ref>Ki-Baik Lee (1984). ''A new history of Korea.'' Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-674-61576-2}}. p.47.</ref><ref>David Andrew Graff (2002). ''Medieval Chinese warfare, 300–900.'' Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-23955-9}}. p.13.</ref>

Under the succeeding [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] and [[Song dynasty|Song dynasties]], Chinese economy, technology, and culture entered a golden age.<ref>Adshead, S. A. M. (2004). ''T'ang China: The Rise of the East in World History''. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 54</ref> The Tang dynasty retained control of the [[Western Regions]] and the Silk Road,<ref>{{citation |last=Nishijima |first=Sadao |editor1-last=Twitchett |editor1-first=Denis |editor2-last=Loewe |editor2-first=Michael |chapter=The Economic and Social History of Former Han |title=Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220 |year=1986 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-24327-8 |pages=545–607}}</ref> which brought traders to as far as [[Mesopotamia]] and the [[Horn of Africa]],<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/columbiachronolo00john |title=Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture|last=Bowman|first=John S.|publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2000|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/columbiachronolo00john/page/104 104–105]|url-access=registration}}</ref> and made the capital [[Chang'an]] a cosmopolitan urban center. However, it was devastated and weakened by the [[An Lushan Rebellion]] in the 8th century.<ref>{{cite book|publisher=City University of HK Press|year=2007|title=China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization|isbn=978-962-937-140-1|page=71}}</ref> In 907, the Tang disintegrated completely when the local military governors became ungovernable. The Song dynasty ended the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period|separatist situation]] in 960, leading to a balance of power between the Song and [[Khitan Liao]]. The Song was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese [[polity]] to establish a permanent standing navy which was supported by the developed shipbuilding industry along with the sea trade.<ref>Paludan, Ann (1998). ''Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors''. London: Thames & Hudson. {{ISBN|0-500-05090-2}}. p. 136.</ref>
[[File:Tang Protectorates.png|thumb|The Tang dynasty at its greatest extent and Tang's [[Administrative divisions of the Tang dynasty#Protectorates|protectorates]]]]

Between the 10th and 11th century CE, the population of China doubled in size to around 100 million people, mostly because of the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song dynasty also saw a [[Neo-Confucianism|revival of Confucianism]], in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang,<ref>{{cite book|title=Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods|year=1999|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|page=3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sjzPPg8eK7sC&pg=PA3|isbn=978-0-313-26449-8}}</ref> and a flourishing of philosophy and the arts, as [[landscape art]] and [[porcelain]] were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity.<ref>{{cite web|title=Northern Song dynasty (960–1127)|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/nsong/hd_nsong.htm|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=27 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://d.wanfangdata.com.cn/Thesis_Y1795153.aspx|script-title=zh:从汝窑、修内司窑和郊坛窑的技术传承看宋代瓷业的发展|website=wanfangdata.com.cn|date=15 February 2011|access-date=15 August 2015}}</ref> However, the military weakness of the Song army was observed by the [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]]. In 1127, [[Emperor Huizong of Song]] and the capital [[Bianjing]] were captured during the [[Jin–Song Wars]]. The remnants of the Song retreated to [[Northern and southern China|southern China]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276|year=1962|publisher=Stanford University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinchina00gern/page/22 22]|url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinchina00gern/page/22|isbn=978-0-8047-0720-6}}</ref>

The [[Mongol conquest of China]] began in 1205 with the [[Mongol conquest of Western Xia|gradual conquest]] of [[Western Xia]] by [[Genghis Khan]],<ref>{{citation|last=May|first=Timothy|title=The Mongol Conquests in World History|year=2012|publisher=[[Reaktion Books]]|location=London|isbn=978-1-86189-971-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRIt9sZaTREC|page=1211}}</ref> who also [[Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty|invaded Jin territories]].<ref>{{citation|last=Weatherford|first=Jack|title=Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World|publisher=[[Random House]]/[[Three Rivers Press]]|place=New York|year=2004|isbn=978-0-609-80964-8 |chapter=2: Tale of Three Rivers |title-link=Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World|page=95}}</ref> In 1271, the [[Mongols|Mongol]] [[Khagan|leader]] [[Kublai Khan]] established the [[Yuan dynasty]], which [[Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty|conquered the last remnant of the Song dynasty]] in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300.<ref>Ping-ti Ho. "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in ''Études Song'', Series 1, No 1, (1970). pp. 33–53.</ref> A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang [[Red Turban Rebellions|led a rebellion]] that overthrew the Yuan in 1368 and founded the [[Ming dynasty]] as the [[Hongwu Emperor]]. Under the Ming dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that admiral [[Zheng He]] led the [[Ming treasure voyages]] throughout the [[Indian Ocean]], reaching as far as [[East Africa]].<ref>{{cite news|url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jul/25/kenya-china|title=Chinese archaeologists' African quest for sunken ship of Ming admiral|last=Rice|first=Xan|date=25 July 2010|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref>
[[File:Qing Empire circa 1820 EN.svg|thumb|The [[Qing conquest of the Ming]] and expansion of the empire]]

In the early years of the Ming dynasty, China's capital was moved from [[Nanjing]] to Beijing. With the budding of capitalism, philosophers such as [[Wang Yangming]] further critiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts of [[individualism]] and equality of [[four occupations]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Wang Yangming (1472–1529)|url = https://www.iep.utm.edu/wangyang/|encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=9 December 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109100108/http://www.iep.utm.edu/wangyang/|archive-date=9 November 2013}}</ref> The [[scholar-official]] stratum became a supporting force of industry and commerce in the tax boycott movements, which, together with the famines and defense against [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)]] and [[Later Jin (1616–1636)|Later Jin]] incursions led to an exhausted treasury.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.docin.com/p-378667223.html|script-title=zh:论明末士人阶层与资本主义萌芽的关系|website=docin.com|date=8 April 2012|access-date=2 September 2015 }}</ref> In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition of [[Late Ming peasant rebellions|peasant rebel]] forces led by [[Li Zicheng]]. The [[Chongzhen Emperor]] committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu [[Qing dynasty]], then allied with Ming dynasty general [[Wu Sangui]], overthrew Li's short-lived [[Shun dynasty]] and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Qing dynasty {{!}} Definition, History, Map, Time Period, Emperors, Achievements, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Qing-dynasty |access-date=2022-11-10 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The Qing dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China. The [[Transition from Ming to Qing|Ming-Qing transition]] (1618–1683) cost 25 million lives in total, but the Qing appeared to have restored China's imperial power and inaugurate another flowering of the arts.<ref>John M. Roberts (1997) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3QZXvUhGwhAC A Short History of the World]'' Oxford University Press p. 272 {{ISBN|0-19-511504-X}}</ref> After the [[Southern Ming]] ended, the further conquest of the [[Dzungar Khanate]] added Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang to the empire.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 10, Part 1 |author=John K. Fairbank |page=37}}{{full citation needed|date=June 2023}}</ref> Meanwhile, China's population growth resumed and shortly began to accelerate. It is commonly agreed that pre-modern China's population experienced two growth spurts, one during the [[Northern Song]] period (960-1127), and other during the Qing period (around 1700–1830).<ref>{{cite book | first = Kent | last = Deng | title = China's Population Expansion and Its Causes during the Qing Period, 1644–1911 | year = 2015 | pages = 1 |url=https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/64492/1/WP219.pdf |access-date=August 28, 2023 }}</ref> By the [[High Qing era]] China was possibly the most commercialized country in the world, and imperial China experienced a second commercial revolution in the [[Economic history of China before 1912|economic history of China]] by the end of the 18th century.<ref>{{citation |last = Rowe |first = William |title = China's Last Empire - The Great Qing | year = 2010 | publisher = Harvard University Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KN7Awmzx2PAC | page=123 | access-date=August 28, 2023| isbn = 9780674054554}}</ref> On the other hand, the centralized autocracy was strengthened in part to suppress [[anti-Qing sentiment]] with the policy of valuing agriculture and restraining commerce, like the ''[[Haijin]]'' during the early Qing period and ideological control as represented by the [[literary inquisition]], causing some social and technological stagnation.<ref>{{cite book|script-title=zh:中国通史·明清史|year=2010|publisher=九州出版社|pages=104–112|isbn=978-7-5108-0062-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|script-title=zh:中华通史·第十卷|year=1996|publisher=花城出版社|page=71|isbn=978-7-5360-2320-8}}</ref>

=== Fall of the Qing dynasty ===
{{Further|Century of humiliation|Opium Wars|First Sino-Japanese War|Boxer Rebellion}}
[[File:EightNationsCrime02.jpg|thumb|The [[Eight-Nation Alliance]] invaded China to defeat the anti-foreign [[Boxer Rebellion|Boxers]] and their Qing backers. The image shows a celebration ceremony inside the Chinese imperial palace, the [[Forbidden City]] after the signing of the [[Boxer Protocol]] in 1901.]]
In the mid-19th century, the Qing dynasty experienced Western imperialism in the [[Opium Wars]] with Britain and [[France]]. China was forced to pay compensation, open treaty ports, allow [[extraterritoriality]] for foreign nationals, and cede [[Hong Kong]] to the British<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Embree |first1=Ainslie |url=https://archive.org/details/asiainwesternwor00ains |title=Asia in Western and World History: A Guide for Teaching |last2=Gluck |first2=Carol |publisher=[[M.E. Sharpe]] |year=1997 |isbn=1-56324-265-6 |page=597 |author-link=Ainslie Embree |author-link2=Carol Gluck |url-access=limited}}</ref> under the 1842 [[Treaty of Nanking]], the first of the [[Unequal Treaties]]. The [[First Sino-Japanese War]] (1894–1895) resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the [[Korean Peninsula]], as well as the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki|cession of Taiwan]] to [[Empire of Japan|Japan]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/546176/Sino-Japanese-War |access-date=16 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920171344/https://www.britannica.com/event/First-Sino-Japanese-War-1894-1895 |archive-date=20 September 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Qing dynasty also began experiencing [[Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions|internal unrest]] in which tens of millions of people died, especially in the [[White Lotus Rebellion]], the failed [[Taiping Rebellion]] that ravaged southern China in the 1850s and 1860s and the [[Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)]] in the northwest. The initial success of the [[Self-Strengthening Movement]] of the 1860s was frustrated by a series of military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s.<ref name="Lee2004">{{cite book|author=李恩涵|title=近代中國外交史事新研| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cA8OBkr-JmMC&pg=PA78| year=2004|publisher=臺灣商務印書館| isbn=978-957-05-1891-7| page=78}}</ref>

In the 19th century, the great [[Chinese emigration|Chinese diaspora]] began. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the [[Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879]], in which between 9 and 13 million people died.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/3/U8480E/U8480E05.htm |title=Dimensions of need – People and populations at risk |year=1995 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)|access-date=3 July 2013}}</ref> The [[Guangxu Emperor]] drafted a [[Hundred Days' Reform|reform plan]] in 1898 to establish a modern [[constitutional monarchy]], but these plans were thwarted by the [[Empress Dowager Cixi]]. The ill-fated anti-foreign [[Boxer Rebellion]] of 1899–1901 further weakened the dynasty. Although Cixi sponsored a program of reforms known as the [[late Qing reforms]], the [[Xinhai Revolution]] of 1911–1912 brought an end to the Qing dynasty and established the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]].<ref name="xb1">Li, Xiaobing. [2007] (2007). ''A History of the Modern Chinese Army''. University Press of Kentucky. {{ISBN|0-8131-2438-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8131-2438-4}}. pp. 13, 26–27.</ref> [[Puyi]], the last Emperor of China, abdicated in 1912.<ref>{{cite web|date=4 June 2013|title=The abdication decree of Emperor Puyi (1912)|website=Chinese Revolution |language=en-US |url=https://alphahistory.com/chineserevolution/abdication-emperor-puyi-1912/ |access-date=22 May 2021}}</ref>

=== Establishment of the Republic and World War II ===
{{Main|Republic of China (1912–1949)}}{{Further|1911 Revolution|Second Sino-Japanese War|Chinese Civil War|Chinese Communist Revolution}}
[[File:孙中山肖像.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Sun Yat-sen]], key figure of the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]]'s establishment]]
On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and [[Sun Yat-sen]] of the [[Kuomintang]] (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president.<ref>Eileen Tamura (1997) ''China: Understanding Its Past.'' Volume 1. University of Hawaii Press {{ISBN|0-8248-1923-3}} p.146</ref> On 12 February 1912, [[regent]] [[Empress Dowager Longyu]] sealed the [[Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor|imperial abdication decree]] on behalf of 4 year old [[Puyi]], the last emperor of China, ending 5,000 years of [[Monarchy of China|monarchy in China]].<ref>{{cite web|date=4 June 2013|title=The abdication decree of Emperor Puyi (1912)|url=https://alphahistory.com/chineserevolution/abdication-emperor-puyi-1912/|access-date=29 May 2021|website=Chinese Revolution|language=en-US}}</ref> In March 1912, the presidency was given to [[Yuan Shikai]], a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself [[Empire of China (1915–1916)|Emperor of China]]. In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own [[Beiyang Army]], he was forced to abdicate and re-establish the republic in 1916.<ref>[[Stephen G. Haw|Stephen Haw]] (2006) Beijing: A Concise History. Taylor & Francis, {{ISBN|0-415-39906-8}} p.143</ref>

After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory.<ref>Bruce Elleman (2001) ''Modern Chinese Warfare'' Routledge {{ISBN|0-415-21474-2}} p.149</ref><ref>Graham Hutchings (2003) ''Modern China: A Guide to a Century of Change'' Harvard University Press {{ISBN|0-674-01240-2}} p.459</ref> In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang under [[Chiang Kai-shek]], the then Principal of the [[Republic of China Military Academy]], was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political maneuverings, known collectively as the [[Northern Expedition]].<ref>Peter Zarrow (2005) ''China in War and Revolution, 1895–1949'' Routledge {{ISBN|0-415-36447-7}} p.230</ref><ref>M. Leutner (2002) ''The Chinese Revolution in the 1920s: Between Triumph and Disaster'' Routledge {{ISBN|0-7007-1690-4}} p.129</ref> The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital to [[Nanjing]] and implemented "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's [[San-min Doctrine|San-min]] program for transforming China into a modern democratic state.<ref>Hung-Mao Tien (1972) ''Government and Politics in Kuomintang China, 1927–1937 (Volume 53)'' Stanford University Press {{ISBN|0-8047-0812-6}} pp. 60–72</ref><ref>[[Suisheng Zhao]] (2000) ''China and Democracy: Reconsidering the Prospects for a Democratic China'' Routledge {{ISBN|0-415-92694-7}} p.43</ref> The [[List of warlords and military cliques in the Warlord Era|political division]] in China made it difficult for Chiang to battle the [[Chinese Communists|communist]]-led [[People's Liberation Army]] (PLA), against whom the Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the [[Chinese Civil War]]. This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang, especially after the PLA retreated in the [[Long March]], until Japanese aggression and the 1936 [[Xi'an Incident]] forced Chiang to confront [[Imperial Japan]].<ref>David Ernest Apter, Tony Saich (1994) ''Revolutionary Discourse in Mao's Republic'' Harvard University Press {{ISBN|0-674-76780-2}} p.198</ref>

[[File:1945 Mao and Chiang.jpg|thumb|[[Chiang Kai-shek]] and [[Mao Zedong]] toasting together in 1945 following the [[End of World War II in Asia|end of World War II]]]]

The [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] (1937–1945), a [[Theater (warfare)|theater]] of [[World War II]], forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the Communists. Japanese forces committed numerous [[Japanese war crimes|war atrocities]] against the civilian population; in all, as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/nuclear_01.shtml "Nuclear Power: The End of the War Against Japan"]. BBC&nbsp;— History. Retrieved 14 July 2013.</ref> An estimated 40,000 to 300,000 Chinese [[Nanking Massacre|were massacred]] in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation.<ref>[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/IMTFE/IMTFE-8.html "Judgement: International Military Tribunal for the Far East"]. ''Chapter VIII: Conventional War Crimes (Atrocities).'' November 1948. Retrieved 4 February 2013.</ref> During the war, China, along with the UK, the United States, and the [[Soviet Union]], were referred to as "trusteeship of the powerful"<ref name=Justus>{{cite book|last1=Doenecke|first1=Justus D.|last2=Stoler|first2=Mark A.|title=Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's Foreign Policies, 1933–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62|year=2005|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8476-9416-7}}</ref> and were recognized as the Allied "[[Four Policemen|Big Four]]" in the [[Declaration by United Nations]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Yearbook of the United Nations 1946–1947|date=1947|publisher=United Nations|location=Lake Success, NY|oclc=243471225|page=3|chapter-url=http://www.unmultimedia.org/searchers/yearbook/page.jsp?volume=1946-47&page=38 |access-date=25 April 2015|chapter=The Moscow Declaration on general security}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/sections/history-united-nations-charter/1942-declaration-united-nations/|title=Declaration by United Nations|publisher=United Nations|access-date=20 June 2015}}</ref> Along with the other three great powers, China was one of the four major [[Allies of World War II]], and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war.<ref>Hoopes, Townsend, and Douglas Brinkley ''FDR and the Creation of the U.N.'' (Yale University Press, 1997)</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=John Lewis |last=Gaddis |title=The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947 |year=1972|publisher=Columbia University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd |url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-231-12239-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd/page/24 24]–25}}</ref> After the [[surrender of Japan]] in 1945, Taiwan, including the [[Pescadores]], was [[Retrocession Day|handed over to Chinese control]]. However, the validity of this handover is controversial, in that whether Taiwan's sovereignty was legally transferred and whether China is a legitimate recipient, due to complex issues that arose from the handling of Japan's surrender. China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war. Constitutional rule was established in 1947, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the [[Constitution of the Republic of China|ROC constitution]] were never implemented in mainland China.<ref>{{cite book |title=Constitutional Reform and the Future of the Republic of China|chapter=The Constitutional Conundrum and the Need for Reform|year=1991|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|page=3|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xCxMn-2msr8C&pg=PA3 |first=Hung-mao|last=Tien|editor-first=Harvey|editor-last=Feldman |isbn=978-0-87332-880-7}}</ref>

=== Civil War and the People's Republic ===
{{Main|History of the People's Republic of China}}
{{Further|Chinese Soviet Republic|Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan|Taiwan, China|Cultural Revolution}}
Before the existence of the People's Republic, the CCP had declared [[Communist-controlled China (1927–1949)|several areas of the country]] as the [[Chinese Soviet Republic]] (Jiangxi Soviet), a predecessor state to the PRC, in November 1931 in [[Ruijin]], [[Jiangxi]]. The Jiangxi Soviet was [[Encirclement campaigns|wiped out]] by the KMT armies in 1934 and was relocated to [[Yan'an]] in [[Shaanxi]] where the [[Long March]] concluded in 1935.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Waller |first1=Derek J. |title=The Kiangsi Soviet Republic: Mao and the National Congresses of 1931 and 1934 |date=1973 |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |url=https://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/ieas/IEAS_10_0001.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/ieas/IEAS_10_0001.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=April 2022}} It would be the base of the communists before major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949. Afterwards, the CCP took control of most of mainland China, and the [[Kuomintang's retreat to Taiwan|Kuomintang retreating offshore to Taiwan]], reducing its territory to only Taiwan, [[Hainan]], and their surrounding islands.
[[File:Mao Proclaiming New China.JPG|thumb|[[Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|The founding ceremony of the People's Republic of China]] was held at 3:00 pm on October 1, 1949. The picture above shows [[Mao Zedong]]'s announcement of the founding of the People's Republic of China in [[Tiananmen Square]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=李丹青 |title=What's behind the founding ceremony of the PRC? |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201909/30/WS5d9d4f5aa310cf3e3556f681.html |access-date=2023-02-18 |website=www.chinadaily.com.cn}}</ref>]]
On 1 October 1949, [[Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP Chairman]] [[Mao Zedong]] formally [[Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China]] at the new nation's founding ceremony and inaugural military parade in [[Tiananmen Square]], Beijing.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Ben Westcott|author2=Lily Lee|date=30 September 2019|title=They were born at the start of Communist China. 70 years later, their country is unrecognizable |publisher=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/29/asia/china-beijing-mao-october-1-70-intl-hnk/index.html}}</ref> In 1950, the People's Liberation Army [[Battle of Hainan Island|captured Hainan]] from the ROC<ref>{{cite news |date=9 May 1950|title=Red Capture of Hainan Island |newspaper=[[The Tuscaloosa News]] |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1817&dat=19500509&id=FUw_AAAAIBAJ&pg=3627,3301880 |access-date=20 July 2013}}</ref> and [[Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China|annexed Tibet]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Tibetans |url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/ir/cews/database/Tibet/tibet.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016102314/http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/ir/cews/database/Tibet/tibet.pdf|archive-date=16 October 2013|access-date=20 July 2013|publisher=[[University of Southern California]]}}</ref> However, remaining Kuomintang forces continued to wage [[Kuomintang Islamic insurgency|an insurgency in western China]] throughout the 1950s.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNCghCIbyVAC&q=C.I.A%20%20Ma%20bufang&pg=PA169|title=The Sino-American alliance: Nationalist China and American Cold War strategy in Asia|author=John W. Garver|year=1997 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-7656-0025-7|page=169 |access-date=20 July 2013}}</ref>

The government consolidated its popularity among the peasants through the [[Land Reform Movement (China)|Land Reform Movement]], which included the execution of between 1 and 2 million landlords.<ref>Busky, Donald F. (2002) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Q6b0j1VINWgC Communism in History and Theory]'' [[Greenwood Publishing Group]]. p.11</ref> China developed an independent industrial system and [[China and weapons of mass destruction|its own nuclear weapons]].<ref>{{cite web|title=A Country Study: China|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/87600493/|website=loc.gov|access-date=3 October 2017}}</ref> The Chinese population increased from 550 million in 1950 to 900 million in 1974.<ref>{{cite book|author=Madelyn Holmes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lJK-GRriJAoC |title=Students and teachers of the new China: thirteen interviews|publisher=McFarland|access-date=7 November 2011 |year=2008|page=185|isbn=978-0-7864-3288-2}}</ref> However, the [[Great Leap Forward]], an idealistic massive [[Industrialisation|industrialization]] project, resulted in [[Great Chinese Famine|an estimated 15 to 55 million deaths]] between 1959 and 1961, mostly from starvation.<ref name="nyt">{{cite news |last=Mirsky |first=Jonathan |date=9 December 2012 |title=Unnatural Disaster|newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/09/books/review/tombstone-the-great-chinese-famine-1958-1962-by-yang-jisheng.html?nl=books&emc=edit_bk_20121207|access-date=7 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Holmes |first=Leslie |title=Communism: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-955154-5 |page=32 |quote=Most estimates of the number of Chinese dead are in the range of 15 to 30 million.}}</ref> In 1964, China's first atomic bomb exploded successfully.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1964: China's first atomic bomb explodes |website=www.china.org.cn |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/congress/228244.htm |access-date=2023-02-18}}</ref> In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the [[Cultural Revolution]], sparking a decade of political recrimination and social upheaval that lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRC [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758|replaced the Republic of China]] in the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council.<ref>{{cite book |author=Michael Y.M. Kao |chapter=Taiwan's and Beijing's Campaigns for Unification |editor1=Harvey Feldman |author2=Michael Y. M. Kao |year=1988 |title=Taiwan in a Time of Transition |place=New York |publisher=Paragon House |page=188}}</ref> This UN action also created the problem of the [[political status of Taiwan]] and the [[Two Chinas]] issue.

=== Reforms and contemporary history ===
{{Further|Chinese economic reform}}

[[File:Události na náměstí Tian an men, Čína 1989, foto Jiří Tondl.jpg|thumb|The [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests]] was ended by a military-led massacre which brought condemnations and sanctions against the Chinese government from various foreign countries.]]

After Mao's death, the [[Gang of Four]] was quickly arrested by [[Hua Guofeng]] and held responsible for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution. [[Deng Xiaoping]] took power in 1978, and instituted large-scale [[Boluan Fanzheng|political]] and [[Chinese economic reform|economic reforms]], together with the "[[Eight Elders]]", CCP members who held huge influence during this time. The CCP loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives, and the [[People's commune|communes]] were gradually disbanded in favor of working contracted to households. The Cultural Revolution was also rebuked, with millions of its victims being rehabilitated.<ref name="Hamrin-1995">{{Cite book |last1=Hamrin |first1=Carol Lee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MySp8yumuJ4C&q=boluan+fanzheng&pg=PA32 |title=Decision-making in Deng's China: Perspectives from Insiders |last2=Zhao |first2=Suisheng |date=1995-01-15 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |isbn=978-0-7656-3694-2 |language=en}}</ref> [[Collective farming|Agricultural collectivization]] was dismantled and farmlands privatized, while foreign trade became a major new focus, leading to the creation of [[special economic zone]]s (SEZs). Inefficient [[State-owned enterprises of China|state-owned enterprises]] (SOEs) were restructured and unprofitable ones were closed outright, resulting in massive job losses.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}} This marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open-market environment.<ref name="Ref_e">{{cite book |last1=Hart-Landsberg |first1=Martin |last2=Burkett |first2=Paul |date=March 2005 |title=China and Socialism: Market Reforms and Class Struggle |publisher=Monthly Review Press |isbn=9781583671238}}
* {{cite journal |title=Review |journal=[[Monthly Review]] |url=http://www.monthlyreview.org/chinaandsocialism.htm |access-date=30 October 2008}}</ref> China adopted its current [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|constitution]] on 4 December 1982.

In 1989, the country saw large pro-democracy protests, eventually leading to the [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre|Tiananmen Square massacre]] by the leadership, bringing condemnations and sanctions against the Chinese government from various foreign countries, though the effect on external relations was short-lived.<ref>{{cite web|last=Harding|first=Harry |date=December 1990|title=The Impact of Tiananmen on China's Foreign Policy |url=http://www.nbr.org/publications/element.aspx?id=73 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140404193656/http://www.nbr.org/publications/element.aspx?id=73 |archive-date=4 April 2014|access-date=28 November 2013|publisher=[[National Bureau of Asian Research]]}}</ref> [[Jiang Zemin]], Party secretary of Shanghai at the time, was selected to replace [[Zhao Ziyang]] as the CCP general secretary; Zhao was put under house arrest for his sympathies to the protests. Jiang later additionally took the presidency and [[Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)|Central Military Commission chairmanship]] posts, effectively becoming China's top leader. [[Li Peng]], who was instrumental in the crackdown, remained premier until 1998, after which [[Zhu Rongji]] became the premier. Under their administration, China continued economic reforms,<ref>{{cite book |last=Vogel |first=Ezra |title=Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China |date=2011 |publisher=Belknap Press |isbn=978-0-674-72586-7 |page=682 |author-link=Ezra Vogel}}</ref> further closing many SOEs and massively trimming down "[[iron rice bowl]]"; occupations with guaranteed job security.<ref name="APs-2022">{{cite news |date=30 November 2022 |title=Jiang Zemin, who guided China's economic rise, dies |language=en |work=[[Associated Press]] |url=https://apnews.com/article/china-beijing-hong-kong-obituaries-jiang-zemin-4ee4c5dcaf567e02efa3c5c7186af30a |access-date=30 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=13 September 1997 |title=China Gets Down to Business at Party Congress |language=en-US |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1997-sep-13-mn-31787-story.html |url-status=live |access-date=12 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018190108/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1997-sep-13-mn-31787-story.html |archive-date=18 October 2022}}</ref> During Jiang's rule, China's economy grew sevenfold,<ref name="APs-2022" /> and its performance pulled an estimated{{By whom|date=October 2021}} 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.<ref>{{Cite news|url= http://en.people.cn/english/200003/01/eng20000301X115.html |title=China's Average Economic Growth in 90s Ranked 1st in World|date=1 March 2000|newspaper=People's Daily|access-date=10 July 2013}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=October 2021}} [[British Hong Kong]] and [[Portuguese Macau]] returned to China in [[Handover of Hong Kong|1997]] and [[Transfer of sovereignty over Macau|1999]], respectively, as the Hong Kong and [[Macau]] [[Special administrative regions of China|special administrative regions]] under the principle of [[one country, two systems]]. The country joined the [[World Trade Organization]] in 2001.<ref name="APs-2022" />

Between 2002 and 2003, [[Hu Jintao]] and [[Wen Jiabao]] succeeded Jiang and Zhu as paramount leader and premier respectively; Jiang attempted to remain CMC chairman for longer before giving up the post entirely between 2004 and 2005.<ref name="APs-2022" /> Under Hu and Wen, China maintained its high rate of economic growth, overtaking the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Japan to become the world's second-largest economy.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Orlik |first=Tom |date=16 November 2012 |title=Charting China's Economy: A Decade Under Hu Jintao |language=en-US |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=http://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2012/11/16/charting-chinas-economy-10-years-under-hu-jintao/ |access-date=16 May 2023 |issn=0099-9660}}</ref> However, the growth also severely impacted the country's resources and environment,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2007/08/26/world/asia/20070826_CHINA_GRAPHIC.html|title=China's Environmental Crisis|last1=Carter|first1=Shan|date=26 August 2007|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=16 May 2012|last2=Cox|first2=Amanda|last3=Burgess|first3=Joe|last4=Aigner|first4=Erin}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4913622.stm|title=China worried over pace of growth|last=Griffiths|first=Daniel|date=16 April 2004|work=BBC News|access-date=16 April 2006}}</ref> and caused major social displacement.<ref name="Ref_k">[https://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=3166 ''China: Migrants, Students, Taiwan''] [[UC Davis]] Migration News January 2006</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/27/AR2006012701588.html|title=In Face of Rural Unrest, China Rolls Out Reforms|last=Cody|first=Edward|date=28 January 2006|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=18 January 2020|issn=0190-8286}}</ref> Hu and Wen also took a relatively more conservative approach towards economic reform, expanding support for SOEs.<ref name="Marquis-2022a">{{Cite book |last1=Marquis |first1=Christopher |url= |title=Mao and markets the communist roots of Chinese enterprise |last2=Qiao |first2=Kunyuan |date=2022 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-26883-6 |location=New Haven |oclc=1348572572 |author-link=Christopher Marquis}}</ref>{{Rp|page=217}}Additionally under Hu, China hosted the [[2008 Summer Olympics|Beijing Olympics]] in 2008.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McDonell |first=Stephen |date=22 October 2022 |title=Hu Jintao: The mysterious exit of China's former leader from party congress |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-63358627 |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref>
[[File:One-belt-one-road.svg|thumb|[[Belt and Road Initiative]] and related projects]]
[[Xi Jinping]] and [[Li Keqiang]] succeeded Hu and Wen as paramount leader and premier respectively between 2012 and 2013; Li Keqiang was later succeeded by [[Li Qiang]] in 2023. Shortly after his ascension to power, Xi launched a vast [[Anti-corruption campaign under Xi Jinping|anti-corruption crackdown]],<ref>{{cite news |date=20 March 2018 |title=China's anti-corruption campaign expands with new agency |work=[[BBC News]] |publisher= |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-43453769 |url-status=live |access-date=13 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190924060145/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-43453769 |archive-date=24 September 2019}}</ref> that prosecuted more than 2 million officials by 2022.<ref name="Marquis-2022b">{{Cite book |last1=Marquis |first1=Christopher |title=Mao and Markets: The Communist Roots of Chinese Enterprise |last2=Qiao |first2=Kunyuan |date=2022-11-15 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-26883-6 |pages= |doi=10.2307/j.ctv3006z6k |jstor=j.ctv3006z6k |author-link=Christopher Marquis |s2cid=253067190}}</ref>{{Rp|page=171}} Leading many new [[Leading Small Group|Central Leading Groups]] to bypass traditional bureaucracy, Xi consolidated power further than his predecessors.<ref name="PhillipsGuardian2">{{Cite news |last=Phillips |first=Tom |date=24 October 2017 |title=Xi Jinping becomes most powerful leader since Mao with China's change to constitution |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/24/xi-jinping-mao-thought-on-socialism-china-constitution |url-status=live |access-date=24 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024053607/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/24/xi-jinping-mao-thought-on-socialism-china-constitution |archive-date=24 October 2017 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref name="keck2">{{cite news |last1=Keck |first1=Zachary |date=7 January 2014 |title=Is Li Keqiang Being Marginalized? |work=[[The Diplomat]] |url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/01/is-li-keqiang-being-marginalized/ |url-status=live |access-date=7 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181029152046/https://thediplomat.com/2014/01/is-li-keqiang-being-marginalized/ |archive-date=29 October 2018}}</ref> Xi has also pursued changes to China's economy, supporting SOEs<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Wang |first1=Orange |last2=Leng |first2=Sidney |date=28 September 2018 |title=Chinese President Xi Jinping's show of support for state-owned firms 'no surprise', analysts say |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/2166261/chinese-president-xi-jinpings-show-support-state-owned-firms |access-date=31 January 2020}}</ref> and making eradicating extreme poverty through "[[Targeted Poverty Alleviation|targeted poverty alleviation]]" a key goal.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 February 2021 |title=Xi Puts His Personal Stamp on China's Fight Against Poverty |language=en |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-02-25/china-s-xi-puts-personal-stamp-on-nation-s-fight-against-poverty |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> In 2013, Xi launched the [[Belt and Road Initiative]], a global infrastructure investment project.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tan |first=Huileng |date=31 October 2017 |title=China wrote Belt and Road Initiative into the party constitution. That makes it riskier than ever |work=[[CNBC]] |publisher= |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/10/31/china-wrote-belt-and-road-initiative-into-the-party-constitution.html |access-date=11 January 2020}}</ref> Xi has also taken a more assertive stance on foreign and security issues.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barrass |first1=Gordon |last2=Inkster |first2=Nigel |date=2 January 2018 |title=Xi Jinping: The Strategist Behind the Dream |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2018.1427363 |journal=Survival |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=41–68 |doi=10.1080/00396338.2018.1427363 |issn=0039-6338 |s2cid=158856300}}</ref> Since 2017, the Chinese government has been engaged in a [[Uyghur genocide|harsh crackdown]] in Xinjiang, with an estimated one million people, mostly [[Uyghurs]], but including other ethnic and religious minorities, in internment camps.<ref name="Graham-Harrison-2019" /> The National People's Congress in 2018 amended the constitution to remove the two-term limit on holding the Presidency, allowing for a third and further terms.<ref name="BaturoElgie2019">{{cite book |author1=Alexander Baturo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncSbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA263 |title=The Politics of Presidential Term Limits |author2=Robert Elgie |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-19-883740-4 |page=263}}</ref> In 2020, the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC) passed a [[Hong Kong national security law|national security law]] that authorize the [[Government of Hong Kong|Hong Kong government]] wide-ranging tools to crack down on dissent.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-06-28 |title=Hong Kong national security law: What is it and is it worrying? |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52765838 |access-date=2022-08-12}}</ref> From December 2019 to December 2022, the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] led the government to enforce [[zero-COVID|strict public health measures]] intended to completely eradicate the virus, a goal that was eventually abandoned after [[2022 COVID-19 protests in China|protests against the policy in 2022]].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Che |first1=Chang |last2=Chien |first2=Amy Chang |last3=Stevenson |first3=Alexandra |date=2022-12-07 |title=What Has Changed About China's 'Zero Covid' Policy |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/07/world/asia/china-zero-covid-changes.html |access-date=2022-12-08 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-12-07 |title=China abandons key parts of zero-Covid strategy after protests |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-63855508 |access-date=2023-06-30}}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of China}}
[[File:East Asia topographic map.png|thumb|China topographic map with East Asian countries]]
China's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from the [[Gobi Desert|Gobi]] and [[Taklamakan Desert]]s in the arid north to the [[subtropical]] forests in the wetter south. The [[Himalaya]], [[Karakoram]], [[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]] and [[Tian Shan]] mountain ranges separate China from much of [[South Asia|South]] and [[Central Asia]]. The [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]] and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, respectively, run from the [[Tibetan Plateau]] to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the [[Pacific Ocean]] is {{cvt|14500|km}} long and is bounded by the [[Bohai Sea|Bohai]], [[Yellow Sea|Yellow]], [[East China Sea|East China]] and [[South China Sea|South China]] seas. China connects through the Kazakh border to the [[Eurasian Steppe]] which has been an artery of communication between East and West since the Neolithic through the [[Steppe Route]] – the ancestor of the terrestrial [[Silk Roads: the Routes Network of Chang'an-Tianshan Corridor|Silk Road]](s).{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}}

The territory of China lies between [[latitude]]s [[18th parallel north|18°]] and [[54th parallel north|54° N]], and [[longitude]]s [[73rd meridian east|73°]] and [[135th meridian east|135° E]]. The [[geographical center]] of China is marked by the Center of the Country Monument at {{coord|35|50|40.9|N|103|27|7.5|E|region:CN-62_type:landmark|name=Geographical center of China}}. China's landscapes vary significantly across its vast territory. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated [[alluvium|alluvial plains]], while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broad [[grassland]]s predominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the [[river delta|deltas]] of China's two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. Other major rivers include the [[Xi River|Xi]], [[Mekong]], [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]] and [[Amur River|Amur]]. To the west sit major mountain ranges, most notably the Himalayas. High [[plateau]]s feature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. The world's highest point, [[Mount Everest]] (8,848&nbsp;m), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8608913.stm|title=Nepal and China agree on Mount Everest's height|date=8 April 2010|work=BBC News|access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref> The country's lowest point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried lake bed of [[Ayding Lake]] (−154&nbsp;m) in the [[Turpan Depression]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/deva/naturescience/lowest-places-on-earth.htm|title=Lowest Places on Earth|date=28 February 2015|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=2 December 2013}}</ref>

=== Climate ===
{{Main|Climate of China}}
{{Further|Great Green Wall (China)}}

[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map CHN present.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen-Geiger climate classification]] map for mainland China<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Beck|first1=Hylke E.|last2=Zimmermann|first2=Niklaus E.|last3=McVicar|first3=Tim R.|last4=Vergopolan|first4=Noemi|last5=Berg|first5=Alexis|author6-link=Eric Franklin Wood|last6=Wood|first6=Eric F.|title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution|journal=Scientific Data|date=30 October 2018|volume=5|page=180214|doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214|pmid=30375988|pmc=6207062|bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B}}</ref>]]
China's climate is mainly dominated by [[dry season]]s and wet [[monsoons]], which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist.<ref>{{cite book|title=Regional Climate Studies of China|year=2008|publisher=Springer|page=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SEO_RyNDJ0gC&pg=PA1|isbn=978-3-540-79242-0|bibcode=2008rcsc.book.....F}}</ref>

A major environmental issue in China is the continued [[desertification|expansion of its deserts]], particularly the Gobi Desert.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/terrywaghorn/2011/03/07/fighting-desertification/|title=Fighting Desertification|last=Waghorn|first=Terry|date=7 March 2011|newspaper=Forbes|access-date=21 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4915690.stm|title=Beijing hit by eighth sandstorm|date=17 April 2006|work=BBC News|access-date=21 January 2020}}</ref> Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of [[sandstorms]], prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in [[Asian dust|dust storms]] plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Japan and Korea. China's environmental watchdog, [[Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China|SEPA]], stated in 2007 that China is losing {{cvt|4000|km2}} per year to desertification.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/the-gathering-sandstorm-encroaching-desert-missing-water-399653.html|title=The gathering sandstorm: Encroaching desert, missing water|last=Coonan|first=Clifford|date=9 November 2007|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=23 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424052106/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/the-gathering-sandstorm-encroaching-desert-missing-water-399653.html|archive-date=24 April 2008}}</ref> Water quality, [[erosion]], and [[Pollution in China|pollution control]] have become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Melting [[glaciers]] in the Himalayas could potentially lead to [[water shortage]]s for hundreds of millions of people.<ref name="msnbc">{{cite news |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27894721|title=Himalaya glaciers melting much faster|last=Reilly|first=Michael|date=24 November 2008 |publisher=NBC News|access-date=21 September 2011}}</ref> According to academics, in order to limit [[climate change in China]] to {{cvt|1.5|C-change}} electricity generation from [[coal in China]] without [[Carbon capture and storage|carbon capture]] must be phased out by 2045.<ref>{{cite report|date=December 2020|title=China's New Growth Pathway: From the 14th Five-Year Plan to Carbon Neutrality|url=https://www.efchina.org/Attachments/Report/report-lceg-20201210/Full-Report_Synthesis-Report-2020-on-Chinas-Carbon-Neutrality_EN.pdf|page=24|publisher=Energy Foundation China|access-date=16 December 2020|archive-date=16 April 2021|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416100821/https://www.efchina.org/Attachments/Report/report-lceg-20201210/Full-Report_Synthesis-Report-2020-on-Chinas-Carbon-Neutrality_EN.pdf}}</ref> With current policies, the GHG emissions of China will probably peak in 2025, and by 2030 they will return to 2022 levels. However, such pathway still leads to 3 degree temperature rise.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lui |first1=Swithin |title=Guest post: Why China is set to significantly overachieve its 2030 climate goals |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/guest-post-why-china-is-set-to-significantly-overachieve-its-2030-climate-goals/ |website=Carbon Brief |date=19 May 2022 |access-date=24 May 2022 |archive-date=23 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523114439/https://www.carbonbrief.org/guest-post-why-china-is-set-to-significantly-overachieve-its-2030-climate-goals/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Official government statistics about Chinese agricultural productivity are considered unreliable, due to exaggeration of production at subsidiary government levels.<ref>Chow, Gregory (2006) Are Chinese Official Statistics Reliable? CESifo Economic Studies 52. 396–414. 10.1093/cesifo/ifl003.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Liu G, Wang X, Baiocchi G, Casazza M, Meng F, Cai Y, Hao Y, Wu F, Yang Z |date=October 2020 |title=On the accuracy of official Chinese crop production data: Evidence from biophysical indexes of net primary production |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=117|issue=41|pages=25434–25444 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1919850117|pmc=7568317|pmid=32978301 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11725434L |doi-access=free}}</ref> Much of China has a climate very suitable for agriculture and the country has been the world's largest producer of rice, wheat, tomatoes, eggplant, grapes, watermelon, spinach, and many other crops.<ref>{{cite web|title=Countries by commodity|website=[[FAOSTAT]] |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#rankings/countries_by_commodity|access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref>

=== Biodiversity ===
{{Main|Wildlife of China}}
[[File:Giant Panda Eating.jpg|thumb|A [[giant panda]], China's most famous [[List of endangered and protected species of China|endangered]] and [[endemic]] species, at the [[Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding|Chengdu Panda Base]] in [[Sichuan]]]]

China is one of 17 [[megadiverse countries]],<ref name="Ref_2009a">{{cite web |url=http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/theme-reports/biodiversity/biodiversity01-3.html|title=Biodiversity Theme Report|last=Williams|first=Jann|date=10 December 2009|website=Environment.gov.au|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811045957/http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/theme-reports/biodiversity/biodiversity01-3.html|archive-date=11 August 2011|access-date=27 April 2010}}</ref> lying in two of the world's major [[biogeographic realm]]s: the [[Palearctic realm|Palearctic]] and the [[Indomalayan realm|Indomalayan]]. By one measure, China has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, after [[Brazil]] and [[Colombia]].<ref>[http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03highest_biodiversity.htm Countries with the Highest Biological Diversity] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326060253/http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03highest_biodiversity.htm|date=26 March 2013 }}. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.</ref> The country signed the [[Rio de Janeiro]] [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] on 11 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 5 January 1993.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbd.int/countries/?country=cn|title=Country Profiles – China|website=[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] |access-date=9 December 2012}}</ref> It later produced a [[Biodiversity action plan|National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan]], with one revision that was received by the convention on 21 September 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/cn/cn-nbsap-v2-zh.pdf |title=translation: China Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan. Years 2011–2030|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/cn/cn-nbsap-v2-zh.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|language=en|website=[[Convention on Biological Diversity]]|access-date=9 December 2012}}</ref>

China is home to at least 551 species of [[List of mammals of China|mammals]] (the third-highest such number in the world),<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/mammals/analysis/geographic-patterns IUCN Initiatives – Mammals – Analysis of Data – Geographic Patterns 2012] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512150801/http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/mammals/analysis/geographic-patterns|date=12 May 2013 }}. IUCN. Retrieved 24 April 2013. Data does not include species in Taiwan.</ref> 1,221 species of birds (eighth),<ref>[http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03birds.htm Countries with the most bird species] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216152146/http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03birds.htm|date=16 February 2013 }}. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.</ref> 424 species of reptiles (seventh)<ref>[http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03reptiles.htm Countries with the most reptile species]. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.</ref> and 333 species of amphibians (seventh).<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/amphibians/analysis/geographic-patterns#diversity IUCN Initiatives – Amphibians – Analysis of Data – Geographic Patterns 2012] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512145131/http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/amphibians/analysis/geographic-patterns|date=12 May 2013 }}. IUCN. Retrieved 24 April 2013. Data does not include species in Taiwan.</ref> Wildlife in China shares habitat with, and bears acute pressure from, the world's largest population of humans. At least 840 [[List of endangered and protected species of China|animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local extinction]] in China, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur and ingredients for [[traditional Chinese medicine]].<ref>[http://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/infographic-top-20-countries-with-most-endangered-species Top 20 countries with most endangered species IUCN Red List] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424182826/http://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/infographic-top-20-countries-with-most-endangered-species|date=24 April 2013 }}. 5 March 2010. Retrieved 24 April 2013.</ref> Endangered wildlife is protected by law, and {{As of|2005|lc=y}}, the country has over 2,349 [[Protected areas of China|nature reserves]], covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percent of China's total land area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/Brief/193257.htm|title=Nature Reserves|website=[[China Internet Information Center]] |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101115063105/http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/Brief/193257.htm |archive-date=15 November 2010|access-date=2 December 2013}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=January 2021}} Most wild animals have been eliminated from the core agricultural regions of east and central China, but they have fared better in the mountainous south and west.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turvey|first1=Samuel|year=2013|title=Holocene survival of Late Pleistocene megafauna in China: a critical review of the evidence|journal=[[Quaternary Science Reviews]]|volume=76|pages=156–166|bibcode=2013QSRv...76..156T |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.06.030}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lander|first1=Brian|last2=Brunson|first2=Katherine|year=2018 |title=Wild Mammals of Ancient North China|journal=The Journal of Chinese History|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume=2|issue=2|pages=291–312|doi=10.1017/jch.2017.45|s2cid=90662935}}</ref> The [[Baiji]] was confirmed extinct on 12 December 2006.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Turvey|first1=Samuel|title=Witness to Extinction: How we failed to save the Yangtze River dolphin |date=2008|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford}}</ref>

China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants,<ref>[http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03plants.htm Countries with the most vascular plant species] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112001508/http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03plants.htm|date=12 January 2014 }}. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.</ref> and is home to a variety of forest types. Cold [[coniferous]] forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such as [[moose]] and [[Asian black bear]], along with over 120 bird species.<ref name="rough guide" /> The [[understory]] of moist [[conifer]] forests may contain thickets of [[bamboo]]. In higher [[Montane ecosystems|montane]] stands of [[juniper]] and [[taxus|yew]], the bamboo is replaced by [[rhododendron]]s. [[Subtropical]] forests, which are predominate in central and southern China, support a high density of plant species including numerous rare endemics. Tropical and seasonal [[rainforest]]s, though confined to [[Yunnan]] and [[Hainan]], contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China.<ref name="rough guide">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dA_QbQiZkB4C&pg=PA1213|title=China|publisher=[[Rough Guides]]|year=2003|isbn=978-1-84353-019-0|edition=3|page=1213}}</ref> China has over 10,000 recorded species of [[fungi]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Conservation Biology: Voices from the Tropics|year=2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|page=208|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OeqjKhDml6wC&pg=PA208|isbn=978-1-118-67981-4}}</ref> and of them, nearly 6,000 are [[higher fungi]].

=== Environment ===
{{Main|Environment of China|Environmental issues in China}}
{{See also|Renewable energy in China|Water resources of China|Energy policy of China|Climate change in China}}
[[File:ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg|thumb|The [[Three Gorges Dam]] is the largest hydroelectric dam in the world.]]
[[File:Wind power plants in Xinjiang, China.jpg|thumb|[[Wind farm]] in [[Xinjiang]]. By 2022, China's renewable energy capacity is the largest in the world, more than [[European Union]] and North America combined.<ref>{{cite web |title=Renewable capacity statistics 2023 |url=https://www.irena.org/Publications/2023/Mar/Renewable-capacity-statistics-2023 |website=International Renewable Energy Agency |access-date=13 August 2023 |date=March 2023}}</ref>]]

In the early 2000s, China has suffered from [[environmental issues in China|environmental deterioration and pollution]] due to its rapid pace of industrialization.<ref name="Ma2002">{{Cite book|last1=Ma |first1= Xiaoying|last2=Ortalano |first2= Leonard|title=Environmental Regulation in China|year=2000|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eQTbZRWgC74C&pg=PA1|page=1|isbn=978-0-8476-9399-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-21545868|title=China acknowledges 'cancer villages'|date=22 February 2013|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=23 February 2013}}</ref> Regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, though they are poorly enforced, as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in favor of rapid economic development.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-20114306|title=Riot police and protesters clash over China chemical plant|last=Soekov|first=Kimberley|date=28 October 2012|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref> China is the country with the second highest death toll because of air pollution, after [[Environmental issues in India|India]], with approximately 1 million deaths caused by exposure to ambient air pollution.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://chinapower.csis.org/air-quality/|title=Is air quality in China a social problem?|date=15 February 2016 |website=ChinaPower Project|access-date=26 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/phe/publications/air-pollution-global-assessment/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160928165031/http://www.who.int/phe/publications/air-pollution-global-assessment/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 September 2016|title=Ambient air pollution: A global assessment of exposure and burden of disease|website=[[World Health Organization]]|access-date=28 April 2018}}</ref> Although China ranks as the highest [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emitting]] country in the world,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iea-emissions-idUSBRE95908S20130610|title=Global carbon emissions hit record high in 2012 |last=Chestney|first=Nina|date=10 June 2013|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=3 November 2013|archive-date=19 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131119111939/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/06/10/us-iea-emissions-idUSBRE95908S20130610 |url-status=live}}</ref> it only emits 8 tons of [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita|CO<sub>2</sub> per capita]], significantly lower than developed countries such as the [[United States]] (16.1), Australia (16.8) and South Korea (13.6).<ref name="UCS-2020">{{cite web|date=August 2020|title=Each Country's Share of CO2 Emissions {{!}} Union of Concerned Scientists|url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/each-countrys-share-co2-emissions|access-date=30 October 2020|website=[[Union of Concerned Scientists]]}}</ref> [[Greenhouse gas emissions by China]] are the [[List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions|world's largest]].<ref name="UCS-2020" />

In recent years, China has clamped down on pollution. In March 2014, CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping "declared war" on pollution during the opening of the [[National People's Congress]].<ref name="largefines">{{cite news|title=China's polluters to face large fines under law change|author=Jennifer Duggan|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/chinas-choice/2014/apr/25/china-environment-law-fines-for-pollution|access-date=27 April 2014|date=25 April 2014|work=The Guardian}}</ref> In 2020, Xi announced that China aims to peak emissions before 2030 and go carbon-neutral by 2060 in accordance with the [[Paris Agreement]],<ref name="CAT-2020">{{cite web |date=23 September 2020 |title=China going carbon neutral before 2060 would lower warming projections by around 0.2 to 0.3 degrees C |url=https://climateactiontracker.org/press/china-carbon-neutral-before-2060-would-lower-warming-projections-by-around-2-to-3-tenths-of-a-degree/ |access-date=27 September 2020 |website=[[Climate Action Tracker]]}}</ref> which, according to [[Climate Action Tracker]], if accomplished it would lower the expected rise in global temperature by 0.2 – 0.3 degrees – "the biggest single reduction ever estimated by the Climate Action Tracker".<ref name="CAT-2020" /> In September 2021 Xi Jinping announced that China will not build "coal-fired power projects abroad". The decision can be "pivotal" in reducing emissions. The Belt and Road Initiative did not include financing such projects already in the first half of 2021.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brant |first1=Robin |title=China pledges to stop building new coal energy plants abroad |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-58647481 |access-date=29 September 2021 |publisher=BBC |date=22 September 2021}}</ref>

The country also had significant [[water pollution]] problems; only 84.8% of China's national surface water was graded between Grade I-III by the [[Ministry of Ecology and Environment]] in 2021, which indicates that they're suitable for human consumption.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2022 |title=2021 State of Ecology & Environment Report Review |url=https://www.chinawaterrisk.org/resources/analysis-reviews/2021-state-of-ecology-environment-report-review/ |access-date=19 May 2023 |website=[[China Water Risk]]}}</ref> China had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 7.14/10, ranking it 53rd globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G }}</ref> In 2020, a sweeping law was passed by the Chinese government to protect the ecology of the Yangtze River. The new laws include strengthening ecological protection rules for hydropower projects along the river, banning chemical plants within 1 kilometer of the river, relocating polluting industries, severely restricting sand mining as well as a complete fishing ban on all the natural waterways of the river, including all its major tributaries and lakes.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-environment-yangtze-idUSKBN29407F|title = China seeks better protection of Yangtze river with landmark law|work = Reuters|date = 30 December 2020}}</ref>

China is also the world's leading investor in [[renewable energy]] and [[Renewable energy commercialization|its commercialization]], with [[US$|$]]546&nbsp;billion invested in 2022;<ref name="Schonhardt-2023">{{Cite news |last=Schonhardt |first=Sara |date=30 January 2023 |title=China Invests $546 Billion in Clean Energy, Far Surpassing the U.S. |work=[[Scientific American]] |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/china-invests-546-billion-in-clean-energy-far-surpassing-the-u-s/#:~:text=The%20country%20spent%20%24546%20billion,billion%20in%20clean%20energy%20investments. |access-date=19 May 2023}}</ref> it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects.<ref>{{cite news |last=Meng |first=Meng |date=5 January 2017 |title=China to plow $361 billion into renewable fuel by 2020 |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-energy-renewables/china-to-plow-361-billion-into-renewable-fuel-by-2020-idUSKBN14P06P |access-date=28 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="Schonhardt-2023" /> In 2022, 61.2% of China's electricity came from [[Coal in China|coal]] (largest producer in the world), 14.9% from [[Hydroelectric power in Himachal Pradesh|hydroelectric power]] (largest), 9.3% from [[Wind power in China|wind]] (largest), 4.7% from [[Solar power|solar energy]] (largest), 4.7% from [[Nuclear power in China|nuclear energy]] (second-largest), 3.1% from [[Natural gas in China|natural gas]] (fifth-largest), and 1.9% from [[bioenergy]] (largest); in total, 30.8% of China's energy came from renewable energy sources.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wiatros-Motyka |first=Malgorzata |date=12 April 2023 |title=Global Electricity Review 2023 |url=https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/global-electricity-review-2023/ |access-date=19 May 2023 |website=[[Ember (non-profit organisation)|Ember]]}}</ref> Despite its emphasis on renewables, China remains deeply connected to global oil markets and next to India, has been the largest importer of Russian [[Petroleum|crude oil]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Perkins |first=Robert |date=2022-10-07 |title=Russian seaborne crude exports slide to 12-month low as EU ban, price caps loom |url=https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/market-insights/latest-news/oil/072022-russian-seaborne-crude-exports-retreat-from-three-year-highs-shipping-data |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221014053951/https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/market-insights/latest-news/oil/072022-russian-seaborne-crude-exports-retreat-from-three-year-highs-shipping-data |archive-date=2022-10-14 |website=[[S&P Global]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=International Energy Agency |author-link=International Energy Agency |date=24 February 2022 |title=Oil Market and Russian Supply – Russian supplies to global energy markets |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/russian-supplies-to-global-energy-markets/oil-market-and-russian-supply-2 |access-date=27 April 2022 |publisher=IEA |location=Paris}}</ref>

=== Political geography ===
{{Main|Borders of China|Coastline of China|Territorial changes of the People's Republic of China}}
[[File:China administrative.svg|200px|thumb|Map showing the territorial claims of the PRC]]
The People's Republic of China is the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|second-largest]] country in the world by land area after [[Russia]].{{efn|China is larger than Canada and the United States in terms of land area.}}{{efn|According to the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', the total area of the United States, at {{convert|9522055|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}}, is slightly smaller than that of China. Meanwhile, the ''CIA World Factbook'' states that China's total area was greater than that of the United States until the coastal waters of the [[Great Lakes]] was added to the United States' total area in 1996. From 1989 through 1996, the total area of US was listed as {{convert|9372610|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} (land area plus inland water only). The listed total area changed to {{convert|9629091|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} in 1997 (with the Great Lakes areas and the coastal waters added), to {{convert|9631418|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} in 2004, to {{convert|9631420|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} in 2006, and to {{convert|9826630|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} in 2007 (territorial waters added).}} China's total area is generally stated as being approximately {{convert|9600000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ma|first1=Jin Shuang|last2=Liu|first2=Quan Riu|title=The Present Situation and Prospects of Plant Taxonomy in China|journal=[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]]|volume=47|number=1|date=February 1998|pages=67–74|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|doi=10.2307/1224020|jstor=1224020}}</ref> Specific area figures range from {{convert|9572900|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} according to the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'',<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States|title=United States|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|access-date=25 March 2008}}</ref> to {{convert|9596961|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} according to the ''[[Yearbook of the United Nations|UN Demographic Yearbook]]'',<ref name="UN Stat" /> and the ''[[CIA World Factbook]]''.<ref name="CIA">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=China|access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref>

China has the [[List of land border lengths|longest combined land border in the world]], measuring {{convert|22117|km|mi|abbr=on|sp=us}} and its [[Coastline of China|coastline]] covers approximately {{convert|14500|km|mi|abbr=on|sp=us}} from the mouth of the [[Yalu River]] (Amnok River) to the [[Gulf of Tonkin]].<ref name="CIA" /> China [[Borders of China|borders 14 nations]] and covers the bulk of East Asia, bordering [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], and [[Myanmar]] in Southeast Asia; [[India]], [[Bhutan]], [[Nepal]], [[Pakistan]]{{efn|China's border with Pakistan and part of its border with India falls in the disputed region of [[Kashmir]]. The area under Pakistani administration is claimed by India, while the area under Indian administration is claimed by Pakistan.}} and [[Afghanistan]] in South Asia; [[Tajikistan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]] and [[Kazakhstan]] in Central Asia; and Russia, [[Mongolia]], and [[North Korea]] in [[Inner Asia]] and [[Northeast Asia]]. It is narrowly separated from [[Bangladesh]] and [[Thailand]] to the southwest and south, and has several maritime neighbors such as [[Japan]], [[Philippines]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Indonesia]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wei|first=Yuwa|title=China and ITS Neighbors |volume=22|number=1|date=2014|pages=105–136|publisher=[[Willamette University College of Law]]|journal=Willamette Journal of International Law and Dispute Resolution|jstor=26210500}}</ref>

{{clear}}

== Politics ==
{{Main|Politics of China}}{{See also|List of current Chinese provincial leaders}}<!-- Please add new information to relevant articles of the series. -->
{{multiple image
| align             = right
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| image1            = Great Hall Of The People At Night.JPG
| caption1          = The [[Great Hall of the People]]<br />where the [[National People's Congress]] convenes
| image2            = Xinhuamen Gate of Zhongnanhai across Changan Street.JPG
| caption2          = The [[Zhongnanhai]], headquarters of the [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|Chinese government]] and [[Chinese Communist Party]]
}}
The People's Republic of China is a [[one-party state]] governed by the [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] Chinese Communist Party (CCP). This makes China one of the world's last countries governed by a communist party. The Chinese constitution states that the PRC "is a socialist state governed by a [[people's democratic dictatorship]] that is led by the working class and based on an alliance of workers and peasants," and that the state institutions "shall practice the principle of [[democratic centralism]]."<ref name="Constitution">{{cite web |date=20 November 2019 |title=Constitution of the People's Republic of China |url=http://www.npc.gov.cn/englishnpc/constitution2019/201911/1f65146fb6104dd3a2793875d19b5b29.shtml |access-date=20 March 2021 |website=[[National People's Congress]]}}</ref> The main body of the constitution also declares that "the defining feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the leadership of the Communist Party of China."<ref name="2018-amendments-translated">{{cite web |last=Wei |first=Changhao |date=11 March 2018 |title=Annotated Translation: 2018 Amendment to the P.R.C. Constitution (Version 2.0) |url=https://npcobserver.com/2018/03/11/translation-2018-amendment-to-the-p-r-c-constitution/ |access-date=22 August 2019 |website=NPC Observer}}</ref>

The PRC officially terms itself as a [[Democracy in China|democracy]], using terms such as "socialist consultative democracy",<ref>{{cite web |last=Jia |first=Qinglin |date=1 January 2013 |title=The Development of Socialist Consultative Democracy in China |url=http://english.qstheory.cn/magazine/201301/201302/t20130218_211654.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309221709/http://english.qstheory.cn/magazine/201301/201302/t20130218_211654.htm |archive-date=9 March 2017 |access-date=13 May 2018 |website=[[Qiushi]]}}</ref> and  "[[whole-process people's democracy]]".<ref name="Decoding China-2021" /> However, the country is commonly described as an authoritarian one-party state and a [[dictatorship]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Ringen |first=Stein |title=The Perfect Dictatorship: China in the 21st Century |publisher=[[Hong Kong University Press]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-9-888-20893-7 |page=3 |author-link=Stein Ringen}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/21/world/asia/china-surveillance-investigation.html|title=Four Takeaways From a Times Investigation Into China's Expanding Surveillance State|work=[[The New York Times]]|last1=Qian|first1=Isabelle|last2=Xiao|first2=Muyi|last3=Mozur|first3=Paul|last4=Cardia|first4=Alexander|date=21 June 2022|access-date=23 July 2022}}</ref> with among the heaviest restrictions worldwide in many areas, most notably against [[Freedom of the press in China|freedom of the press]], [[freedom of assembly]], [[reproductive rights]], [[Non-governmental organization|free formation of social organizations]], [[Freedom of religion in China|freedom of religion]] and [[Internet censorship in China|free access to the Internet]].<ref name="freedomhouse">{{cite news |year=2023 |title=Freedom in the World 2023: China |website=[[Freedom House]] |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/china/freedom-world/2023 |access-date=15 May 2023}}</ref> China has consistently been ranked amongst the lowest as an "authoritarian regime" by the [[Economist Intelligence Unit]]'s [[The Economist Democracy Index|Democracy Index]], ranking at 156th out of 167 countries in 2022.<ref name="Economist-2023">{{Cite news |date=1 February 2023 |title=The world's most, and least, democratic countries in 2022 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2023/02/01/the-worlds-most-and-least-democratic-countries-in-2022 |access-date=2023-02-02 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref>

=== Chinese Communist Party ===
{{Main|Chinese Communist Party}}
[[File:18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China.jpg|thumb|The [[Chinese Communist Party]] is the founding and ruling political party of the People's Republic of China.]]
According to the [[Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP constitution]], its highest body of the CCP is the [[National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party|National Congress]] held every five years.<ref name="Ruwitch-2022">{{Cite news |last=Ruwitch |first=John |date=2022-10-13 |title=China's major party congress is set to grant Xi Jinping a 3rd term. And that's not all |language=en |work=[[NPR]] |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/10/13/1124553497/china-communist-party-congress-xi-jinping |access-date=2022-10-15}}</ref> The National Congress elects the [[Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party|Central Committee]], who then elects the party's [[Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party|Politburo]], [[Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party|Politburo Standing Committee]] and the [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|general secretary]] ([[Leader of the Chinese Communist Party|party leader]]), the top leadership of the country.<ref name="Ruwitch-2022" /> The general secretary holds ultimate power and authority over state and government and serves as the informal [[paramount leader]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hernández |first=Javier C. |date=25 October 2017 |title=China's 'Chairman of Everything': Behind Xi Jinping's Many Titles |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/25/world/asia/china-xi-jinping-titles-chairman.html |url-access=limited |access-date=14 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025074641/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/25/world/asia/china-xi-jinping-titles-chairman.html |archive-date=25 October 2017 |issn=0362-4331 |quote=Mr. Xi's most important title is general secretary, the most powerful position in the Communist Party. In China's one party system, this ranking gives him virtually unchecked authority over the government.}}</ref> The current general secretary is [[Xi Jinping]], who took office on 15 November 2012.<ref name="PhillipsGuardian2"/> At the local level, the [[Chinese Communist Party Committee Secretary|secretary of the CCP committee]] of a subdivision outranks the local government level; CCP committee secretary of a provincial division outranks the governor while the CCP committee secretary of a city outranks the mayor.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lawrence |first1=Susan V. |last2=Lee |first2=Mari Y. |date=24 November 2021 |title=China's Political System in Charts: A Snapshot Before the 20th Party Congress |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46977 |access-date=20 December 2022 |website=[[Congressional Research Service]]}}</ref> The CCP is officially [[ideology of the Chinese Communist Party|guided]] by "[[socialism with Chinese characteristics]]", which is [[Chinese Marxist philosophy|Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2013-01/05/c_132082389.htm|title=Xi reiterates adherence to socialism with Chinese characteristics|date=5 January 2013|agency=[[Xinhua News Agency]]|access-date=14 January 2020|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201174945/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2013-01/05/c_132082389.htm|archive-date=1 February 2016}}</ref>

=== Government ===
{{Main|Government of China}}
{{See also|List of national leaders of the People's Republic of China}}
{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| align             = right
| direction         = horizontal
| caption_align     = center
| image1            = 习近平 Xi Jinping 20221023 02.jpg
| caption1          = [[Xi Jinping]]<br /><small>[[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP General Secretary]]
and [[President of the People's Republic of China|President]]</small>
| width1            = 120
| image2            = 李强 Li Qiang 20221023.jpg
| caption2          = [[Li Qiang]]<br /><small>[[Premier of the People's Republic of China|Premier]]</small>
| width2            = 120
| image3            = 赵乐际 Zhao Leji 20221023.jpg
| caption3          = [[Zhao Leji]]<br /><small>[[Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress|Congress Chairman]]</small>
| width3            = 122
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| image4            = 王沪宁 Wang Huning 20221023.jpg
| width4            = 122
| caption4          = [[Wang Huning]]<br /><small>[[Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference|CPPCC Chairman]]</small>
}}

The government in China is under the sole control of the CCP, with the CCP constitution outlining the party as the "highest force for political leadership".<ref name=":12">{{Cite news |last=Ma |first=Josephine |date=17 May 2021 |title=Party-state relations under China's Communist Party: separation of powers, control over government and reforms |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3133672/why-chinas-communist-party-inseparable-state |access-date=23 June 2023}}</ref> The CCP controls appointments in government bodies, with most senior government officials being CCP members.<ref name=":12" />

The [[National People's Congress]] (NPC), the nearly 3,000 member legislature, is constitutionally the "highest state organ of power",<ref name="Constitution" /> though it has been also described as a "[[rubber stamp (politics)|rubber stamp]]" body.<ref name="BBC News-2009">{{cite news |title=How China is Ruled: National People's Congress |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/in_depth/china_politics/government/html/7.stm |access-date=14 July 2009}}</ref> The NPC meets annually, while the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress|NPC Standing Committee]], around 150 member body elected from NPC delegates, meets every couple of months.<ref name="BBC News-2009" /> Elections are indirect and not pluralistic, with nominations at all levels being controlled by the CCP.<ref name="Decoding China-2021">{{Cite web |date=4 February 2021 |title=Democracy |url=https://decodingchina.eu/democracy/ |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=Decoding China |publisher=[[Heidelberg University]] |language=en-US}}</ref> The NPC is dominated by the CCP, with another [[List of political parties in China|eight minor parties]] having nominal representation under the condition of upholding CCP leadership.<ref name="HRW-2021">{{Cite web |title=China: Nipped In The Bud – Background |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2000/china/china009-01.htm |access-date=2021-03-18 |website=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref>

The [[President of the People's Republic of China|president]] is the ceremonial [[head of state]], elected by the NPC. The incumbent president is Xi Jinping, who is also the general secretary of the CCP and the [[Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)|chairman of the Central Military Commission]], making him China's [[paramount leader]]. The [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|premier]] is the [[head of government]], with [[Li Qiang]] being the incumbent premier. The premier is officially nominated by the president and then elected by the NPC, and has generally been either the second or third-ranking member of the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC). The premier presides over the [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|State Council]], China's cabinet, composed of four vice premiers, [[State councillor|state councilors]], and the heads of ministries and commissions.<ref name="Constitution" /> The [[Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference]] (CPPCC) is a political advisory body that is critical in China's "[[United Front (China)|united front]]" system, which aims to gather non-CCP voices to support the CCP. Similar to the people's congresses, CPPCC's exist at various division, with the National Committee of the CPPCC being chaired by [[Wang Huning]], fourth-ranking member of the PSC.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tiezzi |first=Shannon |date=4 March 2021 |title=What Is the CPPCC Anyway? |work=[[The Diplomat]] |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/03/what-is-the-cppcc-anyway/ |access-date=21 August 2022}}</ref>

The governance of China is characterized by a high degree of political centralization but significant economic decentralization.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Jin |first=Keyu |title=The New China Playbook: Beyond Socialism and Capitalism |date=2023 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-1-9848-7828-1 |location=New York |author-link=Keyu Jin}}</ref>{{Rp|page=7}} The central government sets the strategic direction while local officials carry it out.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=7}} Policy instruments or processes are often tested locally before being applied more widely, resulting in a policy process that involves experimentation and feedback.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heilmann |first=Sebastian |url= |title=Red Swan: How Unorthodox Policy-Making Facilitated China's Rise |date=2018 |publisher=[[The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press]] |isbn=978-962-996-827-4 |author-link=Sebastian Heilmann}}</ref>{{Rp|page=14}} Generally, high level central government leadership refrains from drafting specific policies, instead using the informal networks and site visits to affirm or suggest changes to the direction of local policy experiments or pilot programs.<ref name=":44">{{Cite book |last=Brussee |first=Vincent |title=Social Credit: The Warring States of China's Emerging Data Empire |publisher=[[Palgrave MacMillan]] |year=2023 |isbn=9789819921881 |location=Singapore}}</ref>{{Rp|page=71}} The typical approach is that high level central government leadership begins drafting formal policies, law, or regulations after policy has been developed at local levels.<ref name=":44" />{{Rp|page=71}}

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of China|Districts of Hong Kong|Municipalities and parishes of Macau}}
The PRC is constitutionally a [[unitary state]] officially divided into 23 [[Provinces of China|provinces]],{{efn|China claims the [[List of states with limited recognition|''de facto'' state]] of [[Taiwan]], which it does not control, as its disputed 23rd province, i.e. [[Taiwan Province, People's Republic of China|Taiwan Province]]. See {{section link||Administrative divisions}} for more details.|name=TaiwanClaim}} five [[Autonomous regions of China|autonomous regions]] (each with a designated minority group), and four [[Direct-administered municipalities of China|directly administered municipalities]]—collectively referred to as "mainland China"—as well as the [[Special administrative regions of China|special administrative regions]] (SARs) of Hong Kong and Macau.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 August 2014 |title=Administrative Division |url=http://english.www.gov.cn/archive/china_abc/2014/08/27/content_281474983873401.htm |access-date=2022-12-19 |website=[[State Council of the People's Republic of China]]}}</ref> The PRC considers [[Taiwan]] to be [[Taiwan Province, People's Republic of China|its 23rd province]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-11-06 |title=What's behind China-Taiwan tensions? |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-34729538 |access-date=2022-11-10}}</ref> although it is governed by the Republic of China (ROC), which claims to be the legitimate representative of China and its territory, though it has downplayed this claim since its democratization.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chang |first=Bi-yu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgaUBwAAQBAJ&q=9781317658122&pg=PA58 |title=Place, Identity, and National Imagination in Post-war Taiwan |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-65812-2 |location=Oxon, UK, and New York City |pages=35–40, 46–60}}</ref> Geographically, all 31 provincial divisions of mainland China can be grouped into six regions: [[North China]], [[Northeast China]], [[East China]], [[South Central China]], [[Southwest China]], and [[Northwest China]].<ref name="Brown2013">{{cite book|author=Kerry Brown|title=Contemporary China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BywdBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103215248/https://books.google.com/books?id=BywdBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 November 2020|year=2013|publisher=Macmillan International Higher Education – University of Sydney|isbn=978-1-137-28159-3|page=7}}</ref>

{{PRC provinces big imagemap alt}}
{{PRC provinces small imagemap/province list}}
{{Clear}}

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of China}}
[[File:Diplomatic relations of the People's Republic of China.svg|upright=1.4|thumb|Diplomatic relations of China]]
The PRC has [[List of diplomatic missions in China|diplomatic relations]] with 179 United Nation members states and maintains [[List of diplomatic missions of China|embassies in 174]]. Since 2019, China has the largest diplomatic network in the world.<ref>{{cite web|title=Global Diplomacy Index – Country Rank|url=https://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/country_rank.html|access-date=13 October 2020|website=[[Lowy Institute]]}}</ref><ref name="BBC News-2019">{{Cite news |date=27 November 2019 |title=China now has more diplomatic posts than any other country |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-50569237 |access-date=21 October 2020}}</ref> In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China (ROC) as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the [[United Nations Security Council]].<ref name="Ref_r">Chang, Eddy (22 August 2004). [http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2004/08/22/2003199768 ''Perseverance will pay off at the UN''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070806100002/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2004/08/22/2003199768|date=6 August 2007}}, ''[[The Taipei Times]]''.</ref> It is a member of intergovernmental organizations including the [[G20]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=About G20 |url=https://www.g20.org/en/about-g20/ |access-date=4 July 2023 |website=[[G20]]}}</ref> [[East Asia Summit]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=EAS Participating Countries |url=https://eastasiasummit.asean.org/eas-participating-country |access-date=4 July 2023 |website=[[East Asia Summit]]}}</ref> and [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 2021 |title=About APEC |url=https://www.apec.org/about-us/about-apec |access-date=4 July 2023 |website=[[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]]}}</ref> China was also a former member and leader of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], and still considers itself an advocate for [[developing countries]].<ref name="Ref_2009">{{Cite news|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90883/6847341.html|title=China says communication with other developing countries at Copenhagen summit transparent|date=21 December 2009|work=[[People's Daily]]|access-date=31 January 2019}}</ref> Along with Brazil, Russia, India and South Africa, China is a member of the [[BRICS]] group of emerging major economies and hosted the group's [[3rd BRICS summit|third official summit]] at [[Sanya]], [[Hainan]] in April 2011.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13076229|title=Bric summit ends in China with plea for more influence|date=14 April 2011|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=24 October 2011}}</ref>

The PRC officially maintains the [[One China|one-China principle]], which holds the view that there is only one sovereign state in the name of China, represented by the PRC, and that Taiwan is part of that China.<ref name="Drun-2017">{{Cite web |last=Drun |first=Jessica |date=28 December 2017 |title=One China, Multiple Interpretations |url=https://www.ccpwatch.org/single-post/2017/12/29/one-china-multiple-interpretations |access-date=11 January 2023 |website=Center for Advanced China Research}}</ref> The unique status of Taiwan has led to countries recognizing the PRC to maintain unique "one-China policies" that differ from each other; some countries explicitly recognize the PRC's claim over Taiwan, while others, including the US and Japan, only ''acknowledge'' the claim.<ref name="Drun-2017" /> Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.mysinchew.com/node/33834|title=Taiwan's Ma to stopover in US: report|date=12 January 2010|agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909170723/http://www.mysinchew.com/node/33834|archive-date=9 September 2015}}</ref> especially in the matter of armament sales.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/china-says-us-arms-sales-to-taiwan-could-threaten-wider-relations-pl2j2pdn667|title=China says US arms sales to Taiwan could threaten wider relations|last=Macartney|first=Jane|date=1 February 2010|work=[[The Times]]|access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref> Most countries have switched recognition from the ROC to the PRC since the latter replaced the former in the United Nations in 1971 as the sole representative of China.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hale |first=Erin |date=25 October 2021 |title=Taiwan taps on United Nations' door, 50 years after departure |work=[[Al Jazeera]] |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/25/chinas-un-seat-50-years-on |access-date=11 January 2023}}</ref>

Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier [[Zhou Enlai]]'s [[Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence]], and is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences.<ref name="Keith">{{Cite book|last=Keith|first=Ronald C.|title=China from the inside out – fitting the People's republic into the world|publisher=PlutoPress|pages=135–136}}</ref> This policy may have led China to support or maintain close ties with states that are [[rogue state|regarded as dangerous]] or repressive by Western nations, such as [[China–Myanmar relations|Myanmar]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kurlantzick |first=Joshua |date=4 April 2022 |title=China's Support for Myanmar Further Shows the World Dividing Into Autocracy versus Democracy |url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/chinas-support-myanmar-further-shows-world-dividing-autocracy-versus-democracy |access-date=24 March 2023 |website=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]}}</ref> [[China–North Korea relations|North Korea]] and [[China–Iran relations|Iran]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Martel |first=William C. |date=29 June 2012 |title=An Authoritarian Axis Rising? |newspaper=[[The Diplomat]] |url=https://thediplomat.com/2012/06/an-authoritarian-axis-rising/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216045110/https://thediplomat.com/2012/06/an-authoritarian-axis-rising/ |archive-date=16 December 2013}}</ref> China has a [[China–Russia relations|close political, economic and military relationship]] with Russia,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Davidson |first=Helen |date=16 March 2022 |title=How close are China and Russia and where does Beijing stand on Ukraine? |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/16/how-close-are-china-and-russia-and-where-does-beijing-stand-on-ukraine |access-date=11 January 2023}}</ref> and the two states often vote in unison in the [[United Nations Security Council]].<ref>{{cite news |date=5 June 2012 |title=Energy to dominate Russia President Putin's China visit |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-18327632 |access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/20/world/middleeast/russia-and-china-veto-un-sanctions-against-syria.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/20/world/middleeast/russia-and-china-veto-un-sanctions-against-syria.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |url-access=limited|title=Friction at the U.N. as Russia and China Veto Another Resolution on Syria Sanctions|last=Gladstone|first=Rick|date=19 July 2012|work=The New York Times|access-date=15 November 2012|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-21911842|title=Xi Jinping: Russia-China ties 'guarantee world peace'|date=23 March 2013|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=23 March 2013}}</ref>

==== Trade relations ====
[[File:Russia and China sign major gas deal.jpeg|thumb|On 21 May 2014, China and [[Russia]] signed a $400 billion [[Natural gas in Russia|gas deal]]. Currently, Russia is supplying [[List of countries by natural gas exports|natural gas]] to China.]]
China became the world's largest trading nation in 2013 as measured by the sum of imports and exports, as well as the world's largest commodity importer. comprising roughly 45% of maritime's [[Shipping markets|dry-bulk market]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Monaghan |first=Angela |date=10 January 2014 |title=China surpasses US as world's largest trading nation |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2014/jan/10/china-surpasses-us-world-largest-trading-nation |access-date=4 December 2019 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Paris|first=Costas|date=27 April 2021|title=China's Imports of Commodities Drive a Boom in Dry-Bulk Shipping|language=en-US|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-imports-of-commodities-drive-a-boom-in-dry-bulk-shipping-11619541574|access-date=29 April 2021|issn=0099-9660}}</ref>
By 2016, China was the largest trading partner of 124 other countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.visualcapitalist.com/four-maps-showing-chinas-rising-dominance-trade/|title=Four Maps Showing China's Rising Dominance in Trade|last=Desjardins|first=Jeff |date=27 April 2016|website=Visual Capitalist|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> China is the largest trading partner for the [[ASEAN]] nations, with a total trade value of $669.2 billion in 2021 accounting for 20% of ASEAN's total trade.<ref>{{cite web |date=December 2022 |title=ASEAN Statistical Yearbook 2022 |url=https://www.aseanstats.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/ASYB_2022_423.pdf |access-date=16 May 2023 |work=ASEAN}}</ref> ASEAN is also China's largest trading partner.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/ASEAN-becomes-China-s-top-trade-partner-as-supply-chain-evolves|title=ASEAN becomes China's top trade partner as supply chain evolves|last=Harada|first=Issaku|date=15 July 2020|work=Nikkei Asia|access-date=18 March 2021}}</ref> In 2020, China became the largest trading partner of the [[European Union]] for goods, with the total value of goods trade reaching nearly $700 billion.<ref name=qz_EU_trade>{{cite news|url=https://qz.com/1973067/china-dethroned-the-us-as-europes-top-trade-partner-in-2020/|title=China dethroned the US as Europe's top trade partner in 2020|last=Timsit|first=Annabelle|date=15 February 2021|work=Quartz|access-date=18 March 2021}}</ref> China, along with ASEAN, Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand, is a member of the [[Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership]], the world's largest free-trade area covering 30% of the world's population and economic output.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/11/16/rcep-a-new-trade-agreement-that-will-shape-global-economics-and-politics/|title=RCEP: A new trade agreement that will shape global economics and politics|date=16 November 2020|work=Brookings|access-date=18 March 2021}}</ref> China became a member of the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO) in 2001. In 2004, it proposed an entirely new [[East Asia Summit]] (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues.<ref name="Ref_s">Dillon, Dana; and Tkacik, John, Jr.; [https://web.archive.org/web/20060210135228/http://www.policyreview.org/134/dillon.html ''China's Quest for Asia'']. ''Policy Review''. December 2005 and January 2006. Issue No. 134. Retrieved 22 April 2006.</ref> The EAS, which includes [[ASEAN Plus Three]], India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-asia-summit-east-qa/qa-what-is-the-east-asia-summit-all-about-idUSTRE59N0I020091024|title=Q+A – What is the East Asia Summit all about?|last=Ruwitch|first=John|date=23 October 2009|work=Reuters|access-date=18 March 2021}}</ref>

China has had a long and complex trade relationship with the United States. In 2000, the [[United States Congress]] approved "permanent normal trade relations" (PNTR) with China, allowing Chinese exports in at the same low tariffs as goods from most other countries.<ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Matt |date=10 October 2000 |title=Clinton signs China trade bill |work=[[CNN]] |url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/10/10/clinton.pntr/ |url-status=live |access-date=16 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505165947/http://transcripts.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/10/10/clinton.pntr/ |archive-date=5 May 2009}}</ref> China has a significant [[trade surplus]] with the United States, one of its most important export markets.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Martin |first1=Eric |last2=Monteiro |first2=Ana |date=7 February 2023 |title=US-China Goods Trade Hits Record Even as Political Split Widens |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-02-07/us-china-trade-climbs-to-record-in-2022-despite-efforts-to-split |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref> Economists have argued that the [[renminbi]] is undervalued, due to [[currency intervention]] from the Chinese government, giving China an unfair trade advantage.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2021/06/04/investing/china-yuan-financial-risks-intl-hnk/index.html|title=China's stronger currency means difficult choices for Beijing|last=He|first=Laura|date=4 June 2021|access-date=27 July 2022|work=[[CNN Business]]|publisher=CNN}}</ref> The US and other foreign governments have also alleged that China does not respect [[intellectual property]] (IP) rights and [[Allegations of intellectual property theft by China|steals IP through espionage operations]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 February 2020 |title=China theft of technology is biggest law enforcement threat to US, FBI says |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/06/china-technology-theft-fbi-biggest-threat |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref> with the [[United States Department of Justice|US Department of Justice]] saying that 80% of all the prosecutions related to economic espionage it brings were about conduct to benefit the Chinese state.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Zhou |first=Cissy |date=13 July 2020 |title=China sharpens economic espionage penalties in 'tit-for-tat provision' against US accusations of trade secret theft |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3092939/china-sharpens-economic-espionage-penalties-tit-tat-provision |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref>

Since the turn of the century, China has followed a policy of [[Sino-African relations|engaging with African nations]] for trade and bilateral co-operation;<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0330/p01s01-woaf.html|title=A rising China counters US clout in Africa|last=McLaughlin|first=Abraham|date=30 March 2005|work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]|access-date=18 January 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816123236/http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0330/p01s01-woaf.html|archive-date=16 August 2007 |issn=0882-7729}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/8436/|title=China's Rising Role in Africa|last=Lyman |first=Princeton|date=21 July 2005|website=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715183929/http://www.cfr.org/publication/8436/|archive-date=15 July 2007|access-date=26 June 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/china-and-africa-stronger-economic-ties-mean-more-migration|title=China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration|last=Politzer|first=Malia|date=6 August 2008|website=[[Migration Policy Institute]]|access-date=26 January 2013}}</ref> in 2022, Sino-African trade totalled $282 billion, having grown more than 20 times over two decades.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nyabiage |first=Jevans |date=19 January 2023 |title=China-Africa trade hits record US$282 billion with boost from Beijing and soaring commodity prices |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3207403/china-africa-trade-hits-record-us282-billion-boost-beijing-and-soaring-commodity-prices |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref> According to Madison Condon "China finances more infrastructure projects in Africa than the World Bank and provides billions of dollars in low-interest loans to the continent's emerging economies."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Condon|first=Madison|date=1 January 2012|title=China in Africa: What the Policy of Nonintervention Adds to the Western Development Dilemma|url=https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/faculty_scholarship/990|journal=PRAXIS: The Fletcher Journal of Human Security|volume=27|page=5}}</ref> China maintains extensive and highly diversified trade links with the European Union, and became its largest trading partner for goods, with the total value of goods trade reaching nearly $700 billion.<ref name=qz_EU_trade /> China has furthermore strengthened its trade ties with major South American economies,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://time.com/5936037/us-china-latin-america-influence|title=The U.S. and China Are Battling for Influence in Latin America, and the Pandemic Has Raised the Stakes|date=4 February 2021|magazine=Time|access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref> and is the largest trading partner of Brazil, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, Argentina, and several others.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Garrison |first=Cassandra |date=14 December 2020 |title=In Latin America, a Biden White House faces a rising China |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-latam-usa-china-insight/in-latin-america-a-biden-white-house-faces-a-rising-china-idUSKBN28O18R |access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref>

In 2013, China initiated the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a large global infrastructure building initiative with funding on the order of $50–100 billion per year.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dollar |first=David |date=October 2020 |title=Seven years into China's Belt and Road |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/10/01/seven-years-into-chinas-belt-and-road/ |access-date=1 December 2020 |website=Brookings}}</ref> BRI could be one of the largest development plans in modern history.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cai |first=Peter |title=Understanding China's Belt and Road Initiative |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/understanding-belt-and-road-initiative |access-date=30 November 2020 |website=[[Lowy Institute]]}}</ref> It has expanded significantly over the last six years and, {{As of|2020|April|lc=y}}, includes 138 countries and 30 international organizations. In addition to intensifying foreign policy relations, the focus here is particularly on building efficient transport routes. The focus is particularly on the [[21st Century Maritime Silk Road|maritime Silk Road]] with its connections to East Africa and Europe and there are Chinese investments or related declarations of intent at numerous ports such as [[Gwadar]], [[Kuantan]], [[Hambantota]], [[Piraeus]] and [[Trieste]]. However many of these loans made under the Belt and Road program are unsustainable and China has faced a number of calls for [[debt relief]] from debtor nations.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kynge |first1=James |author-link=James Kynge |last2=Sun |first2=Yu |date=30 April 2020 |title=China faces wave of calls for debt relief on 'Belt and Road' projects |work=[[Financial Times]] |url=https://www.ft.com/content/5a3192be-27c6-4fe7-87e7-78d4158bd39b |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/5a3192be-27c6-4fe7-87e7-78d4158bd39b |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |access-date=28 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Harry G. Broadman |title=Afrika's Silk Road |date=2007}}<br/>{{cite book |author1=Wolf D. Hartmann |author2=Wolfgang Maennig |author3=Run Wang |title=Chinas neue Seidenstraße |place=Frankfurt am Main |year=2017 |page=59}}<br/>{{cite book |author=Marcus Hernig |title=Die Renaissance der Seidenstraße |year=2018 |page=112}}<br/>{{cite journal |author=Harry de Wilt |title=Is One Belt, One Road a China crisis for North Sea main ports? |journal=World Cargo News |volume=17 |date=December 2019}}<br/>{{cite journal |author=Guido Santevecchi |title=Di Maio e la Via della Seta: «Faremo i conti nel 2020», siglato accordo su Trieste |journal=Corriere della Sera |volume=5 |date=November 2019}}{{full citation needed|date=June 2023|reason=Made many guesses adding templates.}}</ref>

==== Territorial disputes ====
{{Main|Territorial disputes of the People's Republic of China}}
{{See also|List of wars involving the People's Republic of China|Cross-Strait relations}}

[[File:China administrative.png|thumb|Map depicting territorial disputes between the PRC and neighboring states. For a larger map, see [[Template:PRC provinces big imagemap|here]].]]
Ever since its establishment, the PRC has claimed [[Free area of the Republic of China|the territories]] governed by the [[Republic of China]] (ROC), a separate political entity today commonly known as Taiwan, as a part of its territory. It regards the [[Geography of Taiwan|island of Taiwan]] as its [[Taiwan Province, People's Republic of China|Taiwan Province]], [[Kinmen]] and [[Matsu Islands|Matsu]] as a part of [[Fujian|Fujian Province]] and islands the ROC controls in the South China Sea as a part of [[Hainan|Hainan Province]] and [[Guangdong|Guangdong Province]]. These claims are controversial because of the complicated [[Cross-Strait relations]], with the PRC treating the [[One China|one-China principle]] as one of its most important diplomatic principles in dealing with other countries.<ref name="Drun-2017" />

China has resolved its land borders with 12 out of 14 neighboring countries, having pursued substantial compromises in most of them.<ref>{{cite web|title=Groundless to view China as expansionist, says Beijing after PM Modi's Ladakh visit|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/groundless-to-view-china-as-expansionist-says-beijing-after-pm-modi-s-ladakh-visit-1696727-2020-07-03|access-date=13 August 2020|website=[[India Today]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fravel|first=M. Taylor|date=1 October 2005|title=Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation: Explaining China's Compromises in Territorial Disputes|journal=[[International Security (journal)|International Security]]|volume=30|issue=2|pages=46–83|doi=10.1162/016228805775124534|issn=0162-2889|s2cid=56347789}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Fravel|first=M. Taylor|title=Strong Borders, Secure Nation: Cooperation and Conflict in China's Territorial Disputes|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-691-13609-7}}</ref> China currently has a disputed land border with [[Sino-Indian border dispute|India]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 December 2022 |title=India-China dispute: The border row explained in 400 words |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-53062484 |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref> and [[Bhutan–China border|Bhutan]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 April 2023 |title=Bhutan wants a border deal with China: Will India accept? |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-65396384 |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref> China is additionally involved in maritime disputes with multiple countries over the ownership of several small islands in the East and South China Seas, such as [[Socotra Rock]], the [[Senkaku Islands dispute|Senkaku Islands]] and the entirety of [[South China Sea Islands]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-18045383|title=China denies preparing war over South China Sea shoal|date=12 May 2012|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-11341139|title=How uninhabited islands soured China-Japan ties|date=27 November 2013|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref> along with the [[East China Sea EEZ disputes|EEZ disputes over East China Sea]].

=== Sociopolitical issues and human rights ===
{{See also|Human rights in China|Hukou|Social welfare in China|Elections in China|Censorship in China|Uyghur genocide}}
[[File:港人燭光遊行至中聯辦悼念劉曉波 12.jpg|thumb|March in memory of Chinese [[2010 Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel Peace Prize]] laureate [[Liu Xiaobo]] who died of organ failure while in government custody in 2017]]
The situation of [[human rights in China]] has attracted significant criticism from a number of foreign governments, foreign press agencies, and non-governmental organizations, alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental rights, and [[Capital punishment in China|excessive use of the death penalty]].<ref name="freedomhouse" /><ref name="Amnesty-2023">{{cite web |title=China |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/east-asia/china/ |access-date=15 May 2023 |publisher=[[Amnesty International]]}}</ref> Since its inception, [[Freedom House]] has ranked China as "not free" in its ''[[Freedom in the World]]'' survey,<ref name="freedomhouse" /> while [[Amnesty International]] has documented significant human rights abuses.<ref name="Amnesty-2023" /> The Constitution of the People's Republic of China states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include [[freedom of speech]], [[freedom of the press]], the [[right to a fair trial]], [[freedom of religion]], [[universal suffrage]], and [[property|property rights]]. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state.<ref name="books.google">{{cite book|last=Sorman|first=Guy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aRaLevXMZf4C&pg=PA46|title=Empire of Lies: The Truth About China in the Twenty-First Century|publisher=[[Encounter Books]]|year=2008|isbn=978-1-59403-284-4|pages=46, 152}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=World Report 2022: China |chapter=China: Events of 2021 |chapter-url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022/country-chapters/china-and-tibet |access-date=15 May 2023 |website=[[Human Rights Watch]]|date=2 December 2021 }}</ref> China has limited protections regarding [[LGBT rights in China|LGBT rights]].<ref>{{cite web |title=For China's LGBTQ community, safe spaces are becoming harder to find |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/china-beijing-lgbt-center-rcna85528 |website=NBC News |access-date=8 August 2023}}</ref>

Although some criticisms of government policies and the ruling CCP are tolerated, censorship of political speech and information are amongst the harshest in the world and routinely used to prevent collective action.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=King |first1= Gary|last2=Pan |first2= Jennifer|last3=Roberts |first3= Margaret E.|url=http://gking.harvard.edu/files/gking/files/censored.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://gking.harvard.edu/files/gking/files/censored.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=How Censorship in China Allows Government Criticism but Silences Collective Expression |journal=American Political Science Review|date=May 2013|doi=10.1017/S0003055413000014|access-date=6 March 2015|quote=Our central theoretical finding is that, contrary to much research and commentary, the purpose of the censorship program is not to suppress criticism of the state or the Communist Party.|volume=107|issue=2|pages=326–343|s2cid= 53577293}}</ref> China also has the most comprehensive and sophisticated Internet censorship regime in the world, with numerous websites being blocked.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=Freedom on the Net: 2022 |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/china/freedom-net/2022 |access-date=15 May 2023 |website=[[Freedom House]]}}</ref> The government suppresses popular protests and demonstrations that it considers a potential threat to "social stability", as was the case with the [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre]].<ref>Christian Göbel and Lynette H. Ong, [https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Asia/1012ecran_gobelong.pdf "Social unrest in China." ''Long Briefing, Europe China Research and Academic Network (ECRAN)'' (2012) p 18]. [[Chatham House]]</ref> China additionally uses a massive espionage network of cameras, facial recognition software, sensors, and surveillance of personal technology as a means of social control of persons living in the country.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Qian |first1=Isabelle |last2=Xiao |first2=Muyi |last3=Mozur |first3=Paul |last4=Cardia |first4=Alexander |date=2022-06-21 |title=Four Takeaways From a Times Investigation Into China's Expanding Surveillance State |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/21/world/asia/china-surveillance-investigation.html |access-date=2022-08-14 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

[[File:Xinjiang Internment Map, US-Aus Gov Assessment.jpg|thumb|In [[Xinjiang]], China has been accused of committing [[Uyghur genocide|genocide against Uyghurs]] and detaining more than one million [[Uyghurs]] and other ethnic minorities in camps.<ref name="BBC News-2021">{{Cite news |date=8 February 2021 |title=Uighurs: 'Credible case' China carrying out genocide |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55973215 |access-date=8 February 2021}}</ref>]]
China is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in [[Human rights in Tibet|Tibet]] and [[Uyghur genocide|Xinjiang]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anna Morcom|date=June 2018|title=The Political Potency of Tibetan Identity in Pop Music and Dunglen|url=https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2348&context=himalaya|journal=Himalaya|publication-place=[[Royal Holloway, University of London]]|volume=38}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=7 November 2011 |title=Dalai Lama hits out over burnings |work=[[BBC]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-15617026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Diamond|first=Rayhan Asat, Yonah|title=The World's Most Technologically Sophisticated Genocide Is Happening in Xinjiang|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/07/15/uighur-genocide-xinjiang-china-surveillance-sterilization/|website=[[Foreign Policy]]|date=15 July 2020 }}</ref> where significant amounts of ethnic minorities reside, including violent police crackdowns and [[religious suppression]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-23081653|title=China 'moves two million Tibetans'|last=Hatton|first=Celia|date=27 June 2013|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=27 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-23112177|title=Fresh unrest hits China's Xinjiang|date=29 June 2013|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=29 June 2013}}</ref> In Xinjiang, repression has significantly escalated since 2016, after which at least one million [[Uyghurs]] and other ethnic and religion minorities have been detained in [[Xinjiang internment camps|internment camps]] aimed at changing the political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs.<ref name="Graham-Harrison-2019">{{Cite news |last1=Graham-Harrison |first1=Emma |last2=Garside |first2=Juliette |date=24 November 2019 |title='Allow no escapes': leak exposes reality of China's vast prison camp network |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/24/china-cables-leak-no-escapes-reality-china-uighur-prison-camp |access-date=18 January 2020 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> According to witnesses, actions including political indoctrination, torture, [[Physical abuse|physical]] and [[Psychological abuse|psychological]] abuse, [[Compulsory sterilization|forced sterilization]], [[sexual abuse]], and [[Forced labour|forced labor]] are common in these facilities.<ref name="Khatchadourian-2021">{{Cite magazine |last=Khatchadourian |first=Raffi |date=5 April 2021 |title=Surviving the Crackdown in Xinjiang |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/04/12/surviving-the-crackdown-in-xinjiang |access-date=19 March 2023}}</ref> According to a 2020 report, China's treatment of Uyghurs meets the UN definition of genocide,<ref>{{cite news|date=4 July 2020|title=China Suppression Of Uighur Minorities Meets U.N. Definition Of Genocide, Report Says|publisher=[[NPR]]|url=https://www.npr.org/2020/07/04/887239225/china-suppression-of-uighur-minorities-meets-u-n-definition-of-genocide-report-s|access-date=28 September 2020}}</ref> while a separate [[UN Human Rights Office report on Xinjiang|UN Human Rights Office report]] said they could potentially meet the definitions for [[crimes against humanity]].<ref name="Cumming-Bruce-2022">{{Cite news |last1=Cumming-Bruce |first1=Nick |last2=Ramzy |first2=Austin |date=31 August 2022 |title=U.N. Says China May Have Committed 'Crimes Against Humanity' in Xinjiang |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/31/world/asia/un-china-xinjiang-uyghurs.html |url-status=live |access-date=2022-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901014137/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/31/world/asia/un-china-xinjiang-uyghurs.html |archive-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>

[[File:Hong Kong anti-extradition bill protest (48108594957).jpg|thumb|[[2019–20 Hong Kong protests]]]]
Global studies from [[Pew Research Center]] in 2014 and 2017 ranked the Chinese government's restrictions on religion as among the highest in the world, despite low to moderate rankings for religious-related social hostilities in the country.<ref>{{cite web|date=23 June 2016|title=Middle East-North Africa was region with highest restrictions and hostilities in 2014|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2016/06/23/middle-east-north-africa-was-region-with-highest-restrictions-and-hostilities-in-2014/|access-date=30 October 2020|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=15 July 2019|title=Middle East still home to highest levels of restrictions on religion|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2019/07/15/middle-east-still-home-to-highest-levels-of-restrictions-on-religion-although-levels-have-declined-since-2016/|access-date=30 October 2020|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref> The [[Global Slavery Index]] estimated that in 2016 more than 3.8 million people were living in "conditions of modern [[Slavery in China|slavery]]", or 0.25% of the population, including victims of human trafficking, forced labor, forced marriage, child labor, and state-imposed forced labor. The state-imposed [[re-education through labor]] (''laojiao'') system was formally abolished in 2013, but it is not clear to which extent its various practices have stopped.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/country/china/|title=China|year=2016|website=[[Global Slavery Index]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160706152456/https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/country/china/|archive-date=6 July 2016|access-date=13 March 2018}}</ref> The Chinese penal system also includes the much larger [[Laogai|reform through labor]] (''laogai'') system, which includes labor prison factories, detention centers, and re-education camps; the [[Laogai Research Foundation]] has estimated in June 2008 that there were nearly 1,422 of these facilities, though it cautioned that this number was likely an underestimate.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008 |title=Laogai Handbook: 2007–2008 |url=https://laogairesearch.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/33-Laogai-Handbook-2007-08.pdf |website=[[Laogai Research Foundation]]}}</ref>

=== Public views of government ===
Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 May 2002 |title=China sounds alarm over fast growing gap between rich and poor |agency=[[Associated Press]] |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-52919430.html |url-status=dead |access-date=1 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140610060248/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-52919430.html |archive-date=10 June 2014}}</ref> Nonetheless, international surveys show a high level of the Chinese public's satisfaction with their government.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=137}} These views are generally attributed to the material comforts and security available to large segments of the Chinese populace as well as the government's attentiveness and responsiveness.<ref name=":0" /> {{Rp|page=136}}According to the [[World Values Survey]] (2017-2020), 95% of Chinese respondents have significant confidence in their government.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=13}} Confidence decreased to 91% in the survey's 2022 edition.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=13}} A Harvard University survey published in July 2020 found that citizen satisfaction with the government had increased since 2003, also rating China's government as more effective and capable than ever before in the survey's history.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zhao |first=Suisheng |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1331741429 |title=The dragon roars back : transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy |date=2023 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-1-5036-3088-8 |location=Stanford, California |pages=163 |oclc=1331741429}}</ref>

== Military ==
{{Main|People's Liberation Army|Paramilitary forces of China}}
[[File:J-20 at Airshow China 2016.jpg|thumb|[[Chengdu J-20]] [[Fifth-generation jet fighter|5th generation]] stealth fighter]]
The [[People's Liberation Army]] (PLA) is considered one of the world's most powerful militaries and has rapidly modernized in the recent decades.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Maizland |first=Lindsay |date=5 February 2020 |title=China's Modernizing Military |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-modernizing-military |access-date=2022-08-14 |website=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |language=en}}</ref> It consists of the [[People's Liberation Army Ground Force|Ground Force]] (PLAGF), the [[People's Liberation Army Navy|Navy]] (PLAN), the [[People's Liberation Army Air Force|Air Force]] (PLAAF), the [[People's Liberation Army Rocket Force|Rocket Force]] (PLARF) and the [[People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force|Strategic Support Force]] (PLASSF). Its nearly 2.2 million active duty personnel is the [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|largest in the world]]. The PLA holds the world's [[China and weapons of mass destruction|third-largest stockpile of nuclear weapons]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Which Countries Have the Most Nuclear Weapons?|date=30 September 2021|url=https://www.visualcapitalist.com/which-countries-have-the-most-nuclear-weapons/|publisher=Visual Capitalist|access-date=27 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=July 19, 2018 |title=Chinese Nuclear Program |work=Atomic Heritage Foundation |url=https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/chinese-nuclear-program}}</ref> and the world's second-largest navy by tonnage.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lendon |first=Brad |date=6 March 2021 |title=Analysis: China has built the world's largest navy. Now what's Beijing going to do with it? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/03/05/china/china-world-biggest-navy-intl-hnk-ml-dst/index.html |access-date=2022-08-14 |website=CNN}}</ref> China's official military budget for 2022 totalled US$230 billion (1.45 trillion Yuan), the [[List of countries by military expenditures|second-largest in the world]], though [[SIPRI]] estimates that its real expenditure that year was US$292 billion.<ref name="SIPRI-2020">{{cite web |date=April 2023 |title=Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2022 |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/2304_fs_milex_2022.pdf |access-date=29 April 2023 |publisher=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]]}}</ref> According to SIPRI, its military spending from 2012 to 2021 averaged US$215 billion per year or 1.7 per cent of GDP, behind only the United States at US$734 billion per year or 3.6 per cent of GDP.<ref>{{cite web |title=SIPRI Military Expenditure Database |url=https://milex.sipri.org/sipri |publisher=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute}}</ref> The PLA is commanded by the [[Central Military Commission (China)|Central Military Commission]] (CMC) of the party and the state; though officially two separate organizations, the two CMCs have identical membership except during leadership transition periods and effectively function as one organization. The [[Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)|chairman of the CMC]] is the [[Supreme Military Command of the People's Republic of China|commander-in-chief]] of the PLA, with the officeholder also generally being the CCP general secretary, making them the paramount leader of China.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What China's New Central Military Commission Tells Us About Xi's Military Strategy |url=https://asiasociety.org/policy-institute/what-chinas-new-central-military-commission-tells-us-about-xis-military-strategy |access-date=2022-12-21 |website=Asia Society |language=en}}</ref>

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of China}}
{{For|Economic history of China|Economic history of China before 1912|Economic history of China (1912–1949)|Economic history of China (1949–present)}}

China has the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|second-largest economy]] in terms of nominal GDP,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kollewe |first=Justin McCurry Julia |date=14 February 2011 |title=China overtakes Japan as world's second-largest economy |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2011/feb/14/china-second-largest-economy |access-date=8 July 2019 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> and the world's [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|largest]] in terms of [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.PP.CD?locations=CN-US&start=2000&year_high_desc=true|title=GDP PPP (World Bank)|year=2018|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=18 February 2019}}</ref> {{As of|2022}}, China accounts for around 18% of global economy by nominal GDP.<ref name="IMF-2023">{{cite web |author= |date=April 2023 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[International Monetary Fund]] |publisher=}}</ref> China is one of the world's [[List of countries by real GDP growth rate|fastest-growing]] major economies,<ref>{{cite web|title=Overview|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china/overview|access-date=13 September 2020|publisher=World Bank}}</ref> with its economic growth having been almost consistently above 6 percent since the introduction of [[Chinese economic reform|economic reforms in 1978]].<ref>{{cite web |title=GDP growth (annual %) – China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?end=2016&locations=CN&start=1961&year_high_desc=true |access-date=25 May 2018 |publisher=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> According to the World Bank, China's GDP grew from $150 billion in 1978 to $17.96 trillion by 2022.<ref>{{cite web |title=GDP (current US$) – China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=CN |access-date=7 July 2023 |publisher=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> Of the world's [[Fortune Global 500|500 largest companies]], 142 are headquartered in China.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global 500 |url=https://fortune.com/ranking/global500/ |access-date=3 August 2023 |website=[[Fortune Global 500]] |language=en}}</ref>

China was one of the world's [[List of regions by past GDP (PPP)|foremost economic powers]] throughout the arc of [[Economy of East Asia#China|East Asian]] and [[Economic history of China before 1912|global history]]. The country had one of the [[Economic history of China before 1912|largest economies in the world]] for most of the [[Pax Sinica|past two millennia]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Maddison|first=Angus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a-JGGp2suQUC&q=angus+maddison|title=Contours of the World Economy 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-164758-1|page=379|author-link=Angus Maddison}}</ref> during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED460052|title=China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st Century. WBI Development Studies. World Bank Publications.|last1=Dahlman|first1=Carl J|last2=Aubert |first2=Jean-Eric|publisher=Institute of Education Sciences|access-date=26 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/Maddison98.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/Maddison98.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Angus Maddison. Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run. Development Centre Studies. |page=29 |access-date=15 September 2017}}</ref> Since economic reforms began in 1978, China has developed into a highly diversified economy and one of the most consequential players in international trade. Major sectors of competitive strength include manufacturing, retail, mining, steel, textiles, automobiles, energy generation, green energy, banking, electronics, telecommunications, real estate, e-commerce, and tourism. China has three out of the ten largest stock exchanges in the world<ref>{{cite web|date=19 February 2019|title=Top 10 Largest Stock Exchanges in the World By Market Capitalization|url=https://www.valuewalk.com/2019/02/top-10-largest-stock-exchanges/|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20190515114023/https://www.valuewalk.com/2019/02/top-10-largest-stock-exchanges/|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 May 2019|access-date=28 November 2019|website=ValueWalk}}</ref>—[[Shanghai Stock Exchange|Shanghai]], [[Hong Kong Stock Exchange|Hong Kong]] and [[Shenzhen Stock Exchange|Shenzhen]]—that together have a market capitalization of over $15.9 trillion, {{As of|2020|October|lc=y}}.<ref>{{Cite news|date=13 October 2020|title=China's Stock Market Tops $10 Trillion First Time Since 2015|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-10-13/china-s-stock-market-tops-10-trillion-for-first-time-since-2015|access-date=28 October 2020}}</ref> China has four ([[Shanghai]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Beijing]], and [[Shenzhen]]) out of the world's top ten most competitive financial centers, which is more than any other country in the 2020 [[Global Financial Centres Index]].<ref name="GFCI2">{{cite web|date=September 2020|title=The Global Financial Centres Index 28 |url=https://www.longfinance.net/media/documents/GFCI_28_Full_Report_2020.09.25_v1.1.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.longfinance.net/media/documents/GFCI_28_Full_Report_2020.09.25_v1.1.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=26 September 2020|publisher=Long Finance}}</ref>

[[File:Graph of Major Developing Economies by Real GDP per capita at PPP 1990-2013.png|thumb|China and other major developing economies by [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita at purchasing-power parity]], 1990–2013. The rapid economic growth of China (blue) is readily apparent.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Bank World Development Indicators|url=http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators|publisher=World Bank|access-date=8 December 2014}}</ref>]]

Modern-day China is often described as an example of [[state capitalism]] or [[party-state capitalism]].<ref name="Pearson-2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Pearson |first1=Margaret |last2=Rithmire |first2=Meg |last3=Tsai |first3=Kellee S. |date=2021-09-01 |title=Party-State Capitalism in China |journal=[[Current History]] |language=en |volume=120 |issue=827 |pages=207–213 |doi=10.1525/curh.2021.120.827.207 |issn=0011-3530 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pearson |first1=Margaret M. |last2=Rithmire |first2=Meg |last3=Tsai |first3=Kellee S. |date=2022-10-01 |title=China's Party-State Capitalism and International Backlash: From Interdependence to Insecurity |journal=[[International Security]] |language=en |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=135–176 |doi=10.1162/isec_a_00447 |issn=0162-2889 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In 1992, Jiang Zemin termed the country a [[socialist market economy]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boer |first=Roland |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1249470522 |title=Socialism with Chinese characteristics : a guide for foreigners |date=2021 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-981-16-1622-8 |location=Singapore |pages=123–128 |oclc=1249470522 |author-link=Roland Boer}}</ref> Others have described it as a form of [[Marxism–Leninism]] adapted to co-exist with global capitalism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Poulin |first=Maxence |date=2021-10-02 |title=Comparative Analysis of the Economic Structure of the Socialist Market Economy of China and the New Economy Policy |url= |journal=International Critical Thought |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=519–534 |doi=10.1080/21598282.2021.2007502 |s2cid=244875301 |issn=2159-8282}}</ref> The state dominates in strategic "pillar" sectors such as energy production and [[heavy industry|heavy industries]], but private enterprise has expanded enormously, with around 30&nbsp;million private businesses recorded in 2008.<ref name="Ref_abf">John Lee. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080726102845/http://www.cis.org.au/issue_analysis/IA95/ia95.html "Putting Democracy in China on Hold"]. The Center for Independent Studies. 26 July 2008. Retrieved 16 July 2013.</ref><ref name="Ref_2005a">{{cite web |date=22 August 2005 |title=China Is a Private-Sector Economy |url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_34/b3948478.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213222740/http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_34/b3948478.htm |archive-date=13 February 2008 |access-date=27 April 2010 |work=[[Bloomberg Businessweek]]}}</ref><ref name="Ref_abg">{{cite web |title=Microsoft Word – China2bandes.doc |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/16/3/36174313.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010154017/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/16/3/36174313.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-10 |access-date=27 April 2010 |publisher=OECD}}</ref> According to official statistics, privately owned companies constitute more than 60% of China's GDP.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hancock |first=Tom |date=30 March 2022 |title=China Crackdowns Shrink Private Sector's Slice of Big Business |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-03-29/china-crackdowns-shrink-private-sector-s-slice-of-big-business?leadSource=uverify%20wall |access-date=13 April 2023}}</ref>

China has been the [[Manufacturing#List of countries by manufacturing output|world's largest manufacturing nation]] since 2010, after overtaking the US, which had been the largest for the previous hundred years.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.ft.com/content/002fd8f0-4d96-11e0-85e4-00144feab49a |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/002fd8f0-4d96-11e0-85e4-00144feab49a |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|title=China noses ahead as top goods producer|last=Marsh|first=Peter|date=13 March 2011|work=[[Financial Times]]|access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42135.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42135.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=U.S. Manufacturing in International Perspective|last=Levinson|first=Marc|date=21 February 2018|website=Federation of American Scientists}}</ref> China has also been the second largest in high-tech manufacturing country since 2012, according to US [[National Science Foundation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2018/nsb20181/report/sections/industry-technology-and-the-global-marketplace/patterns-and-trends-of-knowledge--and-technology-intensive-industries#medium-high-technology-industries-in-china|title=Report – S&E Indicators 2018 {{!}} NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov|access-date=8 July 2019}}</ref> China is the second largest retail market in the world, next to the United States.<ref>{{cite news |last=Shane |first=Daniel |date=23 January 2019 |title=China will overtake the US as the world's biggest retail market this year |work=[[CNN]] |publisher= |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/01/23/business/china-retail-sales-us/index.html |access-date=18 February 2019}}</ref> China leads the world in e-commerce, accounting for over 37% of the global market share in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cameron |first=Isabel |date=9 August 2022 |title=China continues to lead global ecommerce market with over $2 trillion sales in 2022 |work=Charged |url=https://www.chargedretail.co.uk/2022/08/09/china-continues-to-lead-global-ecommerce-market-with-over-2-trillion-sales-in-2022/ |access-date=19 May 2023}}</ref> China is the world's leader in electric vehicle consumption and production, manufacturing and buying half of all the plug-in electric cars (BEV and PHEV) in the world {{As of|2022|lc=y}}.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Baraniuk |first=Chris |date=11 October 2022 |title=China's electric car market is booming but can it last? |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-62825830 |access-date=13 April 2023}}</ref> China is also the leading producer of batteries for electric vehicles as well as several key raw materials for batteries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/renewable/china-dominates-the-global-lithium-battery-market/|title=China Dominates the Global Lithium Battery Market|date=9 September 2020|website=Institute for Energy Research|access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref> Long heavily relying on non-renewable energy sources such as coal, China's adaptation of [[Renewable energy in China|renewable energy]] has increased significantly in recent years, with their share increasing from 26.3 percent in 2016 to 31.9 percent in 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Maguire |first=Gavin |date=23 November 2022 |title=Column: China on track to hit new clean & dirty power records in 2022 |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/china-track-hit-new-clean-dirty-power-records-2022-maguire-2022-11-23/ |access-date=15 May 2023}}</ref>

=== Wealth ===
{{See also|Income inequality in China}}
[[File:Shanghai skyscrapers 5166285.jpg|thumb|[[Shanghai World Financial Center]], [[Jin Mao Tower]] and [[Shanghai Tower|Shanghai Tower, Lujiazui]]]]

China [[List of countries by total wealth|accounted for 17.9%]] of the world's total wealth in 2021, second highest in the world after the US.<ref name="databook20222">{{Cite book |last1=Shorrocks |first1=Anthony |url=https://www.credit-suisse.com/media/assets/corporate/docs/about-us/research/publications/global-wealth-databook-2022.pdf |title=Global Wealth Databook 2022 |last2=Davies |first2=James |last3=Lluberas |first3=Rodrigo |publisher=[[Credit Suisse]] Research Institute |year=2022 |author-link=Anthony Shorrocks}}</ref> It ranks at 64th at [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|GDP (nominal) per capita]], making it an upper-middle income country.<ref>{{cite web |year=2018 |title=GDP PPP (World Bank) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD?locations=CN-US&start=2000&year_high_desc=true |access-date=18 February 2019 |publisher=World Bank}}</ref> Though China used to make up much of the world's poor, it now makes up much of the world's middle-class.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Hernández |first1=Javier C. |last2=Bui |first2=Quoctrung |date=18 November 2018 |title=The American Dream Is Alive. In China. |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/11/18/world/asia/china-social-mobility.html |access-date=23 February 2019 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> China brought more people out of extreme poverty than any other country in history<ref>{{cite news |date=13 October 2017 |title=China lifting 800 million people out of poverty is historic: World Bank |work=Business Standard India |agency=Press Trust of India |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/international/china-lifting-800-million-people-out-of-poverty-is-historic-world-bank-117101300027_1.html |access-date=22 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |url= |title=Four Decades of Poverty Reduction in China: Drivers, Insights for the World, and the Way Ahead |date=2022 |publisher=World Bank Publications |isbn=9781464818783 |location= |page=ix |quote=By any measure, the speed and scale of China's poverty reduction is historically unprecedented.}}</ref>—between 1978 and 2018, China reduced extreme poverty by 800 million.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=23}} China reduced the extreme poverty rate—per international standard, it refers to an income of less than $1.90/day—from 88% in 1981 to 1.85% by 2013.<ref name="UN-2019">{{cite web |title=China's Approach to Reduce Poverty: Taking Targeted Measures to Lift People out of Poverty |url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2018/05/31.pdf |access-date=21 February 2019 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref> The portion of people in China living below the international poverty line of $1.90 per day (2011 [[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]) fell to 0.3% in 2018 from 66.3% in 1990. Using the lower-middle income poverty line of $3.20 per day, the portion fell to 2.9% in 2018 from 90.0% in 1990. Using the upper-middle income poverty line of $5.50 per day, the portion fell to 17.0% from 98.3% in 1990.<ref>{{cite web |date=23 October 2020 |title=Is China Succeeding at Eradicating Poverty? |url=https://chinapower.csis.org/poverty/ |access-date=28 March 2021 |work=Center for Strategic and International Studies}}</ref>

From 1978 to 2018, the average standard of living multiplied by a factor of twenty-six.<ref name="Bergsten 2022">{{Cite book |last=Bergsten |first=C. Fred |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1255691875 |title=The United States vs. China : the quest for global economic leadership |date=2022 |isbn=978-1-5095-4735-7 |location=Cambridge |oclc=1255691875}}</ref> Wages in China have grown a lot in the last 40 years—real (inflation-adjusted) wages grew seven-fold from 1978 to 2007.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rising Wages: Has China Lost Its Global Labor Advantage? |url=https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/5008/rising-wages-has-china-lost-its-global-labor-advantage |access-date=21 February 2019 |website=iza.org}}</ref> Per capita incomes have risen significantly – when the PRC was founded in 1949, per capita income in China was one-fifth of the world average; per capita incomes now equal the world average itself.<ref name="Bergsten 2022" /> China's development is highly uneven. Its major cities and coastal areas are far more prosperous compared to rural and interior regions.<ref>{{cite news |last=King |first=Stephen |date=2 February 2016 |title=China's path to tackling regional inequality |newspaper=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/9c6203d8-e1d9-3ca3-818a-e55b409ece94}}</ref> It has a high level of economic inequality,<ref>{{cite news |last=Duggan |first=Jennifer |date=12 January 2013 |title=Income inequality on the rise in China |publisher=[[Al Jazeera]] |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/12/2012122311167503363.html |url-status=dead |access-date=14 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722192442/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/12/2012122311167503363.html |archive-date=22 July 2013}}</ref> which has increased quickly after the economic reforms,<ref>{{cite news |last=Tobin |first=Damian |date=29 June 2011 |title=Inequality in China: Rural poverty persists as urban wealth balloons |newspaper=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-13945072 |access-date=14 January 2020}}</ref> though has decreased significantly in the 2010s.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 October 2021 |title=Just how Dickensian is China? |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2021/10/02/just-how-dickensian-is-china |access-date=15 May 2023 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> In 2019 China's [[Gini coefficient]] was 0.382, according to the [[World Bank]].<ref name="GINI" />

{{As of|2023|April}}, China was second in the world, after the US, in [[List of countries by number of billionaires|total number of billionaires]] and [[List of countries by number of millionaires|total number of millionaires]], with 495 Chinese billionaires<ref>{{cite web |title=Forbes World's Billionaires List: The Richest People in the World 2023 |url=https://www.forbes.com/billionaires/ |access-date=15 May 2023 |website=[[Forbes]] |language=English}}</ref> and 6.2 million millionaires.<ref name="databook20222" /> In 2019, China overtook the US as the home to the highest number of people who have a net personal wealth of at least $110,000, according to the global wealth report by [[Credit Suisse]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Khan|first=Yusuf|date=22 October 2019|title=China has overtaken the US to have the most wealthy people in the world {{!}} Markets Insider|url=http://markets.businessinsider.com/news/stocks/china-has-overtaken-the-us-to-have-the-most-wealthy-people-in-the-world-1028618107|access-date=12 November 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Dawkins|first=David|date=21 October 2019|title=China Overtakes U.S. In Global Household Wealth Rankings 'Despite' Trade Tensions – Report|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/daviddawkins/2019/10/21/china-overtakes-us-in-global-household-wealth-rankings-despite-trade-tensionsreport/|access-date=12 November 2019|website=Forbes}}</ref> According to the Hurun Global Rich List 2020, China is home to five of the world's top ten cities (Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Shenzhen, and Guangzhou in the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 10th spots, respectively) by the highest number of billionaires, which is more than any other country.<ref name="Hurun-2020">{{cite web|date=26 February 2020|title=Shimao Shenkong International Center·Hurun Global Rich List 2020|url=https://hurun.net/EN/Article/Details?num=775CEFAE8BF8|website=Hurun Report|access-date=6 February 2021|archive-date=21 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201221124815/https://www.hurun.net/EN/Article/Details?num=775CEFAE8BF8|url-status=dead}}</ref> China had 85 female billionaires {{As of|2021|January|lc=y}}, two-thirds of the global total, and minted 24 new female billionaires in 2020.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/people-culture/article/3127254/china-now-home-two-thirds-worlds-top-women-billionaires-four|title=China is now home to two-thirds of the world's top women billionaires, four times more than the US, Hurun research institute reveals|last=Chen|first=Qin|date=27 March 2021|work=South China Morning Post|access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref> China has had the world's largest middle-class population since 2015,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Zheping |first=Huang |date=14 October 2015 |title=China's middle class has overtaken the US's to become the world's largest |work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]] |url=https://qz.com/523626/chinas-middle-class-has-overtaken-the-uss-to-become-the-worlds-largest/ |access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref> and the middle-class grew to a size of 400 million by 2018.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rubin |first=Trudy |date=16 November 2018 |title=400 million strong and growing: China's massive middle class is its secret weapon |website=[[The Seattle Times]] |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/opinion/400-million-strong-and-growing-chinas-massive-middle-class-is-its-secret-weapon/ |access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref>

=== China in the global economy ===
<div class="floatright">
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|style="text-align:center; font-size:100%;"|Largest economies by nominal GDP in 2023<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=924,134,532,534,158,546,111,&s=NGDPD,&sy=2021&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|date=11 October 2022|website=International Momentary Fund|access-date=1 November 2022}}</ref>
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China is a member of the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] and is the world's largest trading power, with a total international trade value of US$6.3&nbsp;trillion in 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |last=He |first=Laura |date=13 January 2023 |title=China's exports plunge as global demand weakens, but trade with Russia hits record high |work=[[CNN]] |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/01/13/economy/china-exports-struggle-reopening-2022-intl-hnk/index.html |access-date=19 May 2023}}</ref> China is the world's [[List of countries by exports|largest exporter]] and [[List of countries by imports|second-largest importer]] of goods.<ref name="ChinaBiggestTrader">{{cite news |last=White |first=Garry |date=10 February 2013 |title=China trade now bigger than US |work=The Daily Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/9860518/China-trade-now-bigger-than-US.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=15 February 2013 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/9860518/China-trade-now-bigger-than-US.html |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[Foreign-exchange reserves of China|Its foreign exchange reserves]] reached US$3.128&nbsp;trillion {{As of|2022|December|lc=y}},<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/china-economy-forex-reserves-idUSL4N23A2O2|title=UPDATE 1-China's May forex reserves rise unexpectedly to $3.1 trillion|date=10 June 2019|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref> making its reserves by far the world's largest.<ref name="Ref_2009b">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=alZgI4B1lt3s|title=China's Foreign-Exchange Reserves Surge, Exceeding $2&nbsp;Trillion|date=15 July 2009|publisher=[[Bloomberg L.P.]]|access-date=19 July 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613163056/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087|archive-date=13 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://smetimes.tradeindia.com/smetimes/news/global-business/2011/Jan/11/china-s-forex-reserves-reach-usd-2.85-trillion624606.html|title=China's forex reserves reach USD 2.85 trillion|website=Smetimes.tradeindia.com|access-date=1 November 2011}}</ref> In 2022, China was amongst the world's largest recipient of inward [[foreign direct investment]] (FDI), attracting $180 billion, though most of these were speculated to be from Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 January 2023 |title=China Foreign Investment Posts Record Slump as Covid Zero Ended |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-01-19/china-foreign-investment-posts-record-slump-as-covid-zero-ended |access-date=15 May 2023}}</ref> In 2021, China's foreign exchange remittances were $US53 billion making it the second largest recipient of remittances in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |author= |date=21 July 2022 |title=With $87 billion, India beats China as top remittance recipient in 2021 |work=[[India Today]] |location= |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/business/story/india-china-top-remittance-recipient-2021-un-report-1978008-2022-07-20 |access-date=15 May 2023}}</ref> China also invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $62.4&nbsp;billion in 2012,<ref name="FDI">{{cite web |title=FDI in Figures |url=http://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/FDI%20in%20figures.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/FDI%20in%20figures.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |access-date=28 November 2013 |publisher=OECD}}</ref> and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese companies.<ref>{{cite news|title=Being eaten by the dragon|url=http://www.economist.com/node/17460954|newspaper=The Economist|date=11 November 2010}}</ref> China is a major owner of [[US public debt]], holding trillions of dollars worth of U.S. [[Treasury bond]]s.<ref name="Ref_abe">[https://money.cnn.com/2009/07/29/news/economy/china_america_lender_respect.fortune/index.htm "Washington learns to treat China with care"]. CNNMoney.com. 29 July 2009.</ref><ref name="Hornby2009">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSTRE58M25U20090923|title=Factbox: US-China Interdependence Outweighs Trade Spat|work=Reuters|date=23 September 2009|access-date=25 September 2009|first=Lucy|last=Hornby}}</ref> China's undervalued exchange rate has caused friction with other major economies,<ref name="CurrencyManipulator">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-campaign-romney-china-idUSBRE88N12M20120924|title=Obama should call China a currency manipulator: Romney aide|last=Palmer|first=Doug|date=24 September 2012|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=6 October 2012|archive-date=28 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120928004226/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/09/24/us-usa-campaign-romney-china-idUSBRE88N12M20120924|url-status=live}}</ref> and it has also been widely criticized for manufacturing large quantities of [[counterfeit]] goods.<ref>[http://www.asiabusinesscouncil.org/docs/IntellectualPropertyRights.pdf Intellectual Property Rights]. Asia Business Council. September 2005. Retrieved 13 January 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=MIT CIS: Publications: Foreign Policy Index|url=http://web.mit.edu/cis/fpi_china.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070214212158/http://web.mit.edu/CIS/fpi_china.html|archive-date=14 February 2007|access-date=15 May 2010|website=[[MIT Center for International Studies]]}}</ref> In 2020, [[Harvard University]]'s [[Economic Complexity Index]] ranked complexity of China's exports 17th in the world, up from 24th in 2010.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hancock |first=Tom |date=26 January 2023 |title=The US Hasn't Noticed That China-Made Cars Are Taking Over the World |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-01-26/how-china-is-quietly-dominating-the-global-car-market |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref>

Following the 2007–08 financial crisis, Chinese authorities sought to actively wean off of its dependence on the U.S. dollar as a result of perceived weaknesses of the international monetary system.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/cato-journal/2013/9/cjv33n3-18.pdf|title = Does Internationalizing the RMB Make Sense for China?|last = Huang|first = Yukon|date =Fall 2013|journal = Cato Journal|access-date = 28 July 2014}}</ref> To achieve those ends, China took a series of actions to further the [[Internationalization of the renminbi|internationalization of the Renminbi]]. In 2008, China established the [[dim sum bond]] market and expanded the Cross-Border Trade RMB Settlement Pilot Project, which helps establish pools of offshore RMB liquidity.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.hkma.gov.hk/eng/key-information/insight/20140218.shtml|title = Hong Kong as Offshore Renminbi Centre – Past and Prospects|date = 18 February 2014|access-date = 24 July 2014|publisher = HKMA|last = Chan|first = Norman T.L.}}</ref><ref>"RMB Settlement", Kasikorn Research Center, Bangkok, 8 February 2011</ref> This was followed with bilateral agreements to settle trades directly in renminbi with Russia,<ref>{{cite news|title=Sidestepping the U.S. Dollar, a Russian Exchange Will Swap Rubles and Renminbi|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/15/business/global/15iht-ruble15.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/15/business/global/15iht-ruble15.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |url-access=limited|work=The New York Times|access-date=10 October 2013|first=Andrew E.|last=Kramer|date=14 December 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[Japan]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Japan/NF02Dh01.html|title=Japan, China bypass US in currency trade|last=Takahashi|first=Kosuke|date=2 June 2012|website=[[Asia Times]]|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130321032934/https://www.atimes.com/atimes/Japan/NF02Dh01.html|archive-date=21 March 2013|access-date=16 October 2013}}</ref> [[Australia]],<ref>{{cite web|title=China and Australia Announce Direct Currency Trading |url=http://ministers.treasury.gov.au/DisplayDocs.aspx?doc=pressreleases/2013/044.htm&pageID=&min=wms&Year=&DocType=0|quote=Direct trading between the two currencies will commence on the China Foreign Exchange Trade System (CFETS) and the Australian foreign exchange market on 10 April 2013.|publisher=[[Department of the Treasury (Australia)]]|access-date=22 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010151157/http://ministers.treasury.gov.au/DisplayDocs.aspx?doc=pressreleases%2F2013%2F044.htm&pageID=&min=wms&Year=&DocType=0|archive-date=10 October 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Singapore]],<ref name="massg">{{cite web|title=New Initiatives to Strengthen China-Singapore Financial Cooperation |url=http://www.mas.gov.sg/news-and-publications/media-releases/2013/new-initiatives-to-strengthen-china-singapore-financial-cooperation.aspx|publisher=[[Monetary Authority of Singapore]]|access-date=22 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909143221/http://www.mas.gov.sg/news-and-publications/media-releases/2013/new-initiatives-to-strengthen-china-singapore-financial-cooperation.aspx|archive-date=9 September 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> the [[United Kingdom]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Chancellor George Osborne cements London as renminbi hub|url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/9579f608-356e-11e3-b539-00144feab7de.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/9579f608-356e-11e3-b539-00144feab7de.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|newspaper=[[Financial Times]]|quote= The two countries agreed to allow direct renminbi-sterling trading in Shanghai and offshore, making the pound the fourth currency to trade directly against the renminbi, while Chinese banks will be permitted to set up branches in London.}}</ref> and [[Canada]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Bank of Canada announces signing of reciprocal 3-year Canadian dollar/renminbi bilateral swap arrangement |url=http://bankofcanada.ca/2014/11/bofc-announces-signing-reciprocal-bilateral-swap|quote=As part of the initiative announced today by the Government of Canada to promote increased trade and investment between Canada and China, as well as to support domestic financial stability should market conditions warrant, Governor Stephen S. Poloz and Governor Zhou Xiaochuan of the People's Bank of China have signed an agreement establishing a reciprocal 3-year, Canadian dollar (Can$)/renminbi (RMB) currency swap line.|publisher=[[Bank of Canada]]|access-date=11 November 2014}}</ref> As a result of the rapid internationalization of the renminbi, it became the eighth-most-traded currency in the world by 2018, an emerging international [[reserve currency]],<ref name="igtop10">{{cite news|title=The top 10 most traded currencies in the world|url=https://www.ig.com/au/trading-strategies/the-top-ten-most-traded-currencies-in-the-world-180904|work=IG|date=4 September 2018}}</ref> and a component of the IMF's [[special drawing rights]]; however, partly due to capital controls that make the renminbi fall short of being a fully convertible currency, it remains far behind the Euro, Dollar and Japanese Yen in international trade volumes.<ref>{{cite web|title=RMB now 8th most widely traded currency in the world|url=http://www.swift.com/about_swift/shownews?param_dcr=news.data%2Fen%2Fswift_com%2F2013%2FPR_RMB_september.xml|publisher=[[Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication]]|access-date=10 October 2013|archive-date=5 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105223715/http://www.swift.com/about_swift/shownews?param_dcr=news.data%2Fen%2Fswift_com%2F2013%2FPR_RMB_september.xml|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{As of|2022}}, Yuan is the world's fifth-most traded currency.<ref>{{cite news |date=31 October 2022 |title=Chinese yuan becomes world's fifth most traded currency |newspaper=[[The Straits Times]] |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/chinese-yuan-becomes-world-s-fifth-most-traded-currency-survey |access-date=4 December 2022}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="120" caption="Central business districts in China" perrow=6>
File:Skyline of Beijing CBD with B-5906 approaching (20211016171955).jpg|[[Beijing]]
File:Shanghai skyline 2018(cropped).jpg|[[Shanghai]]
File:Guangzhou skyline.jpg|[[Guangzhou]], [[Guangdong]]
File:Commercial area of futian to east2020.jpg|[[Shenzhen]], [[Guangdong]]
File:Vista del Puerto de Victoria desde Sky100, Hong Kong, 2013-08-09, DD 10.JPG|[[Hong Kong]]
File:Jiefangbei.jpg|[[Chongqing]]
File:东方之门1.jpg|[[Suzhou]], [[Jiangsu]]
File:Wuhan CBD Buildings.jpg|[[Wuhan]], [[Hubei]]
File:杭州钱江新城 4.jpg|[[Hangzhou]], [[Zhejiang]]
File:Hexi CBD, Nanjing.jpg|[[Nanjing]], [[Jiangsu]]
File:Ningbo South Business District 24-09-2018.jpg|[[Ningbo]], [[Zhejiang]]
File:青岛123.jpg|[[Qingdao]], [[Shandong]]
File:Furong Middle Road.jpg|[[Changsha]], [[Hunan]]
File:20220812 Central Business District of Zhengdong New Area.jpg|[[Zhengzhou]], [[Henan]]
File:Fuzhou Taixi CBD.jpg|[[Fuzhou]], [[Fujian]]
File:Skyline of CBD, Jinan, China.jpg|[[Jinan]], [[Shandong]]
File:Urumqi Skyline July 2019.jpg|[[Ürümqi]], [[Xinjiang]]
</gallery>

== Science and technology ==
{{Main|Science and technology in China|List of Chinese discoveries|List of Chinese inventions}}

=== Historical ===
{{Main|History of science and technology in China}}
[[File:Chinese Gunpowder Formula.JPG|thumb|Earliest known written formula for gunpowder, from the ''[[Wujing Zongyao]]'' of 1044 CE]]
China was a world leader in science and technology until the [[Ming dynasty]].<ref>Tom (1989), 99; Day & McNeil (1996), 122; Needham (1986e), 1–2, 40–41, 122–123, 228.</ref> Ancient and medieval [[List of Chinese discoveries|Chinese discoveries]] and [[List of Chinese inventions|inventions]], such as [[papermaking]], [[History of typography in East Asia|printing]], the [[compass]], and [[gunpowder]] (the [[Four Great Inventions]]), became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use [[negative numbers#History|negative numbers]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003hyd9|title=In Our Time: Negative Numbers|date=9 March 2006|website=[[BBC News]]|access-date=19 June 2013}}</ref><ref>Struik, Dirk J. (1987). ''A Concise History of Mathematics''. New York: Dover Publications. pp. 32–33. "''In these matrices we find negative numbers, which appear here for the first time in history.''"</ref> By the 17th century, the Western World surpassed China in scientific and technological advancement.<ref>{{cite book|title=Chinese Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology|volume=179|year=1996|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|pages=137–138|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jaQH6_8Ju-MC&pg=PA137|isbn=978-0-7923-3463-7}}</ref> The causes of this early modern [[Great Divergence]] continue to be debated by scholars.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Frank|first=Andre|author-link=Andre Gunder Frank|title=Review of ''The Great Divergence''|journal=Journal of Asian Studies|volume=60|issue=1|year=2001|pages=180–182|doi=10.2307/2659525|url=http://www.rrojasdatabank.info/agfrank/pomeranz.html|jstor=2659525 }}</ref>

After [[Century of humiliation|repeated military defeats]] by the European colonial powers and Japan in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the [[Self-Strengthening Movement]]. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the [[Soviet Union]], in which scientific research was part of central planning.<ref>{{cite book|last=Yu|first=Q. Y.|title=The Implementation of China's Science and Technology Policy|year=1999|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|page=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IluWYKmTCN0C&pg=PA2|isbn=978-1-56720-332-5}}</ref> After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology were promoted as one of the [[Four Modernizations]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Vogel|first=Ezra F.|title=[[Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China]]|year=2011|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3IaR-FxlA6AC&pg=PA129 129]|isbn=978-0-674-05544-5}}</ref> and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed.<ref>{{cite book|last=DeGlopper|first=Donald D.|chapter=Soviet Influence in the 1950s|chapter-url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cntoc.html|publisher=Library of Congress|title=China: a country study|year=1987}}</ref>

=== Modern era ===
[[File:Tencent Seafront Tower in Dec2020.jpg|thumb|upright|Headquarters of [[Tencent]] in [[Shenzhen]], one of the largest technology and entertainment companies in the world<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |date=2020-08-07 |title=What is Tencent? |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-53696743 |access-date=2022-12-19}}</ref>]]
Since the end of the [[Cultural Revolution]], China has made significant investments in scientific research<ref name="CWRD">{{cite web|url=http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2014/09/research-development-rd-share-basic-research-china-dwindles|title=R&D share for basic research in China dwindles|last=Jia|first=Hepeng|date=9 September 2014|website=[[Chemistry World]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219044130/http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2014/09/research-development-rd-share-basic-research-china-dwindles|archive-date=19 February 2015|access-date=21 January 2020}}</ref> and is quickly catching up with the US in R&D spending.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/surging-rd-spending-china-narrows-gap-united-states|title=Surging R&D spending in China narrows gap with United States|last=Normile|first=Dennis|date=10 October 2018|website=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|access-date=20 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=China Has Surpassed the U.S. in R&D Spending, According to New National Academy of Arts and Sciences Report – ASME|url=https://www.asme.org/government-relations/capitol-update/china-has-surpassed-the-u-s-in-r-d-spending,-according-to-new-national-academy-of-arts-and-sciences-report|access-date=26 October 2020|website=asme.org}}</ref> China officially spent around 2.4% of its GDP on R&D in 2020, totaling to around $377.8 billion.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-03-01 |title=China's R&D Spending Rises 10% to Record $378 Billion in 2020 |language=en |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-03-01/china-s-r-d-spending-rises-10-to-record-378-billion-in-2020 |access-date=2022-12-18}}</ref> According to the [[World Intellectual Property Indicators]], China received more applications than the US did in 2018 and 2019 and ranked first globally in patents, utility models, trademarks, industrial designs, and creative goods exports in 2021.<ref name="Dutta-2021">{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4560 |title=Global Innovation Index 2021, 14th Edition |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |last3=Wunsch-Vincent |first3=Sacha |last4=León |first4=Lorena Rivera |last5=World Intellectual Property Organization |website=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |year=2021 |isbn=9789280532494 |series=[[Global Innovation Index]] |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.44315 |access-date=20 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=World Intellectual Property Indicators: Filings for Patents, Trademarks, Industrial Designs Reach Record Heights in 2018|url=https://www.wipo.int/pressroom/en/articles/2019/article_0012.html|access-date=10 May 2020|website=wipo.int}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=China Becomes Top Filer of International Patents in 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/pressroom/en/articles/2020/article_0005.html|access-date=26 October 2020|website=wipo.int}}</ref> It was ranked 11th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2022, a considerable improvement from its rank of 35th in 2013.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Global Innovation Index 2022 – Which are the most innovative countries |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |access-date=2022-09-29 |website=www.wipo.int |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |language=en|last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |last3=Wunsch-Vincent |first3=Sacha |last4=León |first4=Lorena Rivera |last5=World Intellectual Property Organization |year=2022 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |isbn=9789280534320 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=28 October 2013|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2 September 2021|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101622/https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|url-status=dead}}</ref> Chinese [[supercomputer]]s have been ranked the [[TOP500|fastest in the world]] on a few occasions;<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-22936989|title=China retakes supercomputer crown|date=17 June 2013|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=18 June 2013}}</ref> however, these supercomputers rely on critical components —namely processors— designed in foreign countries imported from outside of China.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tsay |first1=Brian |title=The Tianhe-2 Supercomputer: Less than Meets the Eye? |journal=Study of Innovation and Technology in China |date=1 July 2013 |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt1839q9q8/qt1839q9q8_noSplash_655683ee7607fac63ee7c103c25f45a8.pdf |publisher=UC Institute on Global Conflict and Cooperation |language=en}}</ref> China has also struggled with developing several technologies domestically, such as the most advanced semiconductors and reliable jet engines.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Zhu |first=Julie |date=2022-12-14 |title=Exclusive: China readying $143 billion package for its chip firms in face of U.S. curbs |language=en |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/china-plans-over-143-bln-push-boost-domestic-chips-compete-with-us-sources-2022-12-13/ |access-date=2022-12-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://hackaday.com/2020/07/28/80-years-from-invention-china-is-struggling-with-jet-engines|title=80 Years From Invention, China Is Struggling With Jet Engines|last=Day|first=Lewin|publisher=HackADay Insider|date=28 July 2020 }}</ref>

China is developing [[Education in China|its education system]] with an emphasis on [[science, technology, engineering, and mathematics]] (STEM).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Colvin |first=Geoff |date=29 July 2010 |title=Desperately seeking math and science majors |work=[[CNN Business]] |publisher= |url=https://money.cnn.com/2010/07/29/news/international/china_engineering_grads.fortune/index.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=9 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017232727/https://money.cnn.com/2010/07/29/news/international/china_engineering_grads.fortune/index.htm |archive-date=17 October 2010}}</ref> It became the [[List of countries by number of scientific and technical journal articles|world's largest publisher]] of [[Academic publishing in China|scientific papers]] in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/amp/opinion/articles/2018-09-12/chinese-researchers-are-outperforming-americans-in-science|title=China is Overtaking the U.S. in Scientific Research|last=Orszag|first=Peter R.|date=12 September 2018|work=[[Bloomberg News]]|access-date=19 February 2019|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190220183147/https://www.bloomberg.com/amp/opinion/articles/2018-09-12/chinese-researchers-are-outperforming-americans-in-science|archive-date=20 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tollefson |first=Jeff |date=18 January 2018 |title=China declared world's largest producer of scientific articles |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-00927-4 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=553 |issue=7689 |page=390 |doi=10.1038/d41586-018-00927-4|bibcode=2018Natur.553..390T }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Koshikawa |first=Noriaki |date=8 August 2020 |title=China passes US as world's top researcher, showing its R&D might |work=[[Nikkei Asia]] |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Science/China-passes-US-as-world-s-top-researcher-showing-its-R-D-might |access-date=8 June 2022}}</ref> Chinese-born academicians have won prestigious prizes in the sciences and in mathematics, although most of them had conducted their winning research in Western nations.{{efn|[[Tsung-Dao Lee]],<ref name="Nobel Physics 1957">{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1957/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1957|publisher=Nobel Media AB|access-date=26 July 2014}}</ref> [[Chen Ning Yang]],<ref name="Nobel Physics 1957" /> [[Daniel C. Tsui]],<ref>{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1998|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1998/|access-date=6 December 2013}}</ref> [[Charles K. Kao]],<ref>{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 2009|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2009/|access-date=6 December 2013}}</ref> [[Yuan T. Lee]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1986/lee-bio.html|title=Yuan T. Lee – Biographical|access-date=6 December 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109222305/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1986/lee-bio.html|archive-date=9 November 2013}}</ref> [[Tu Youyou]]<ref>{{cite web|title = Nobel Prize announcement|url = https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2015/press.pdf|publisher = [[Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet]]|access-date = 5 October 2015}}</ref> [[Shing-Tung Yau]]<ref>Albers, Donald J.; Alexanderson, G. L.; Reid, Constance. [https://www.mathunion.org/fileadmin/IMU/Prizes/Fields/1982/index.html#0x82496a1f_0x0005ea36 International Mathematical Congresses. An Illustrated History 1893–1986.] Rev. ed. including ICM 1986. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1986</ref>}}{{Synthesis inline|date=July 2020}}

==== Space program ====
{{Main|Chinese space program}}
[[File:Launch of Shenzhou 13.jpg|thumb|upright|Launch of [[Shenzhou 13]] by a [[Long March 2F]] rocket. China is one of the only three countries with independent [[human spaceflight]] capability.]]
The Chinese space program started in 1958 with some technology transfers from the Soviet Union. However, it did not launch the nation's first satellite until 1970 with the [[Dong Fang Hong I]], which made China the fifth country to do so independently.<ref>{{cite web|last=Long|first=Wei |url=http://www.spacedaily.com/news/china-00u.html|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515110247/http%3A//www.spacedaily.com/news/china%2D00u.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 May 2016|title=China Celebrates 30th Anniversary of First Satellite Launch|publisher=Space daily|date=25 April 2000}}</ref>

In 2003, China became the third country in the world to independently send humans into space with [[Yang Liwei]]'s spaceflight aboard [[Shenzhou 5]]. As of 2023, [[List of Chinese astronauts|eighteen Chinese nationals]] have journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China launched its first space station testbed, [[Tiangong-1]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Rocket launches Chinese space lab |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15112760|last=Amos|first=Jonathan|date=29 September 2011 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=20 May 2012}}</ref> In 2013, a Chinese robotic rover [[Yutu (rover)|Yutu]] successfully touched down on the lunar surface as part of the [[Chang'e 3]] mission.<ref>{{cite news |title=China lands Jade Rabbit robot rover on Moon |last=Rincon |first=Paul|date=14 December 2013|work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-25356603 |access-date=26 July 2014}}</ref>

In 2019, China became the first country to land a probe—[[Chang'e 4]]—on the [[far side of the Moon]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Lyons|first=Kate |title=Chang'e 4 landing: China probe makes historic touchdown on far side of the moon|work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jan/03/china-probe-change-4-land-far-side-moon-basin-crater|access-date=3 January 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103043232/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jan/03/china-probe-change-4-land-far-side-moon-basin-crater|archive-date=3 January 2019}}</ref> In 2020, [[Chang'e 5]] successfully returned Moon samples to the Earth, making China the third country to do so independently after the United States and the Soviet Union.<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 December 2020|title=Moon rock samples brought to Earth for first time in 44 years|work=The Christian Science Monitor |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Science/Spacebound/2020/1217/Moon-rock-samples-brought-to-Earth-for-first-time-in-44-years |access-date=23 February 2021|issn=0882-7729}}</ref> In 2021, China became the third country to land a spacecraft on Mars and the second one to deploy a [[Zhurong (rover)|rover (Zhurong)]] on Mars, after the United States.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 May 2021|title=China succeeds on country's first Mars landing attempt with Tianwen-1|website=NASASpaceFlight.com |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/05/china-first-mars-landing-attempt-tianwen-1/ |access-date=15 May 2021}}</ref> China completed its own modular [[space station]], the [[Tiangong space station|''Tiangong'']], in [[low Earth orbit]] on 3 November 2022.<ref>{{cite tweet |author=China 'N Asia Spaceflight |user=CNSpaceflight |number=1587984835808665600 |title=Official completion time of #Mengtian relocation is 01:32UTC |date=3 November 2022 |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|title=China Is Now a Major Space Power |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/story/china-is-now-a-major-space-power-tiangong-space-station/|access-date=4 November 2022|last1=Skibba |first1=Ramin }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Celestial second fiddle no more, China completes its space station |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/11/05/china-space-station-tiangong/|access-date=2022-11-24}}</ref> On 29 November 2022, China performed its first in-orbit crew handover aboard the ''Tiangong''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chinese astronauts meet in space for historic crew handover|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2022/11/29/chinese-astronauts-meet-in-space-for-historic-crew-handover/ |publisher=Spaceflight Now|access-date=16 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Woo |first1=Ryan |last2=Liangping |first2=Gao |date=30 November 2022 |title=Chinese astronauts board space station in historic mission |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/science/china-launches-crewed-spacecraft-chinese-space-station-state-television-2022-11-29/#:~:text=Shenzhou%2D15%20was%20the%20last,was%20launched%20in%20April%202021. |access-date=16 December 2022}}</ref>

In May 2023, China announces plan to [[Moon landing|land humans on Moon]] by 2030.<ref>{{cite news |title=China Announces Plan to Land Astronauts on Moon by 2030|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/29/world/asia/china-space-moon-2030.html|work=The New York Times|date= 29 May 2023|last1= Wang|first1= Vivian}}</ref>

== Infrastructure ==
After a decades-long infrastructural boom,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gbm.hsbc.com/insights/global-research/china-infrastructure-builds-foundation-for-growth|title=China's infrastructure builds foundation for growth|last=Qu|first=Hongbin|website=HSBC|access-date=1 December 2020}}</ref> China has produced numerous world-leading infrastructural projects: China has the [[High-speed rail by country|world's largest bullet train network]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 January 2017 |title=China has built the world's largest bullet-train network |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/china/2017/01/13/china-has-built-the-worlds-largest-bullet-train-network |access-date=13 September 2020 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> the [[List of supertall skyscrapers|most supertall skyscrapers]] in the world,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.skyscrapercenter.com/countries|title=Countries or Jurisdictions Ranked by Number of 150m+ Completed Buildings|website=The Skyscraper Center|access-date=30 November 2020}}</ref> the world's largest power plant (the [[Three Gorges Dam]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/three-gorges-dam-worlds-largest-hydroelectric-plant?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects|title=Three Gorges Dam: The World's Largest Hydroelectric Plant|website=United States Geological Survey|access-date=1 December 2020}}</ref> and a [[BeiDou|global satellite navigation system]] with the largest number of satellites in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Gao |first1=Ryan Woo |date=12 June 2020 |title=China set to complete Beidou network rivalling GPS in global navigation |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-space-exploration-china-satellite-idUSKBN23J0I9 |access-date=1 December 2020}}</ref>

=== Telecommunications ===
{{Main|Telecommunications in China}}
[[File:P1994-2011.gif|thumb|upright=1.35|Internet penetration rates in China in the context of [[East Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]], 1995–2012]]
China is the largest telecom market in the world and currently has the [[List of countries by number of mobile phones in use|largest number of active cellphones]] of any country in the world, with over 1.69 billion subscribers, {{As of|2023|February|lc=y}}.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} It also has the world's largest number of [[List of countries by number of Internet users|internet]] and [[List of sovereign states by number of broadband Internet subscriptions|broadband users]], with over 1.05 billion Internet users {{As of|2021||df=US|lc=y|since=y}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 December 2021 |title=The 48th Statistical Report on China's Internet Development |url=https://www.cnnic.com.cn/IDR/ReportDownloads/202212/P020221209344717199824.pdf |publisher=[[CNNIC]]}}</ref>—equivalent to around 73.7% of its population—and almost all of them being mobile as well. By 2018, China had more than 1 billion 4G users, accounting for 40% of world's total.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mobileworldlive.com/featured-content/home-banner/china-breaks-1b-4g-subscriber-mark/|title=China breaks 1B 4G subscriber mark|date=22 January 2018|website=Mobile World Live|access-date=23 February 2019}}</ref> China is making rapid advances in [[5G]]—by late 2018, China had started large-scale and commercial 5G trials.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/612617/china-is-racing-ahead-in-5g-heres-what-it-means/|title=China is racing ahead in 5G. Here's what that means.|last=Woyke|first=Elizabeth|website=MIT Technology Review|access-date=21 February 2019}}</ref> {{As of|2022|March}}, China had over 500 million [[5G]] users and 1.45 million base stations installed.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2022 |title=China aims to accelerate 5G base stations deployment this year: Report |url=https://www.rcrwireless.com/20220311/5g/china-aims-accelerate-5g-base-stations-deployment-this-year-report |access-date=25 March 2022 |publisher=RCR Wireless}}</ref>

[[China Mobile]], [[China Unicom]] and [[China Telecom]], are the three large providers of mobile and internet in China. China Telecom alone served more than 145 million broadband subscribers and 300 million mobile users; China Unicom had about 300 million subscribers; and China Mobile, the largest of them all, had 925 million users, {{As of|2018|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mobileworldlive.com/blog/blog-china-operator-h1-2018-scorecard/|title=Blog: China operator H1 2018 scorecard|date=21 August 2018|website=Mobile World Live|access-date=23 February 2019}}</ref> Combined, the three operators had over 3.4 million 4G base-stations in China.<ref name="TechNode-2018">{{cite web|date=8 November 2018|title=China ranked in top 5 for 4G penetration · TechNode|url=https://technode.com/2018/11/08/china-ranked-in-top-5-for-4g-penetration/|access-date=23 February 2019|website=TechNode}}</ref> Several Chinese telecommunications companies, most notably [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], have been accused of spying for the Chinese military.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-10-07/huawei-zte-provide-opening-for-china-spying-report-says.html|title=Huawei, ZTE Provide Opening for China Spying, Report Says|last=Engleman|first=Eric|date=8 October 2012|work=[[Bloomberg News]]|access-date=26 October 2012}}</ref>

China has developed its own [[satellite navigation]] system, dubbed [[BeiDou]], which began offering commercial navigation services across Asia in 2012<ref name="CustomersDec2012">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-20852150|title=China's Beidou GPS-substitute opens to public in Asia|date=27 December 2012|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=27 December 2012}}</ref> as well as global services by the end of 2018.<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 November 2018 |title=China Is Building a $9 Billion Rival to the American-Run GPS |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-11-25/china-s-big-dipper-satellites-challenge-the-dominance-of-gps |access-date=21 February 2019}}</ref> Upon the completion of the 35th Beidou satellite, which was launched into orbit on 23 June 2020, Beidou followed [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] and [[GLONASS]] as the third completed global navigation satellite in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Elmer |first=Keegan |date=3 August 2020 |title=China promises state support to keep BeiDou satellite system at cutting edge |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3095794/china-promises-state-support-keep-beidou-satellite-system |access-date=22 August 2020}}</ref>

=== Transport ===
{{Main|Transport in China}}
{{multiple image|direction=vertical
|image1=Duge Bridge.jpg
|caption1=The [[Duge Bridge]] is the [[List of highest bridges|highest bridge in the world]].
|image2=CR400BF-Z-0312@BJI (20231009152047).jpg
|caption2=A [[Fuxing (train)|Fuxing]] high-speed train running near the [[Beijing central business district|Beijing CBD]].
|image3=Beijing New Airport.jpg
|caption3=The [[Beijing Daxing International Airport]] features the world's largest single-building airport terminal.
}}
Since the late 1990s, China's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of [[China National Highways|national highways]] and [[Expressways of China|expressways]]. In 2018, [[Expressways of China|China's highways]] had reached a total length of {{convert|161000|km|mi|abbr=on|sp=us}}, making it the [[List of countries by road network size|longest highway system in the world]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=31 May 2021 |title=多项指标位居世界第一 我国从"交通大国"迈向"交通强国" |trans-title=Many Indicators Rank [China] First in the World, China has Gone from a "Transportation Power" to a "Transportation Powerhouse" |work=[[Xinhua News Agency]] |url=https://www.xinhuanet.com/2021-05/31/c_1127510817.htm |access-date=16 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624195259/http://www.xinhuanet.com/2021-05/31/c_1127510817.htm |archive-date=24 June 2021}}</ref> China has the world's largest market for automobiles,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2010-01-08 |title=China overtakes US as world's biggest car market |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2010/jan/08/china-us-car-sales-overtakes |access-date=2023-06-07 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Ho |first=Patricia Jiayi |date=2010-01-12 |title=China Overtakes U.S. to Become Largest Auto Market |language=en-US |work=Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703652104574651833126548364 |access-date=2023-06-07 |issn=0099-9660}}</ref> having surpassed the United States in both auto sales and [[List of countries by motor vehicle production|production]]. The country has also become a large exporter of automobiles, being the world's second-largest exporter of cars in 2022 after Japan.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ren |first=Daniel |date=15 January 2023 |title=China closes gap with Japan after 2022 car exports surpass Germany with 54.4 per cent surge to 3.11 million vehicles |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/business/china-business/article/3206875/chinas-car-exports-surpass-germanys-after-544-cent-surge-311-million-2022-narrowing-japans-lead |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref> In early 2023, China has overtaken Japan, becoming the world's largest exporter of cars.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harley |first=Michael |title=China Overtakes Japan As The World's Biggest Exporter Of Passenger Cars |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaelharley/2023/05/22/china-overtakes-japan-as-the-worlds-biggest-exporter-of-passenger-cars/ |access-date=2023-06-07 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-05-19 |title=China overtakes Japan as world's top car exporter |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-65643064 |access-date=2023-06-07}}</ref> A side-effect of the rapid growth of China's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents,<ref>{{cite web|title=Road Traffic Accidents Increase Dramatically Worldwide|publisher=Population Reference Bureau |url=http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2006/RoadTrafficAccidentsIncreaseDramaticallyWorldwide.aspx|access-date=16 November 2013 |archive-date=10 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010151203/http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2006/RoadTrafficAccidentsIncreaseDramaticallyWorldwide.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> though the number of fatalities in traffic accidents fell by 20% from 2007 to 2017.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} In urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the increasing prevalence of automobiles – {{As of|2012|lc=y}}, there are approximately 470 million bicycles in China.<ref name="470MBikes" /> [[Rail transport in China|China's railways]], which are operated by the state-owned [[China Railway|China State Railway Group Company]], are among [[List of countries by rail usage|the busiest in the world]], handling a quarter of the world's rail traffic volume on only 6 percent of the world's tracks in 2006.<ref>[http://www.china.org.cn/english/travel/214698.htm "Chinese Railways Carry Record Passengers, Freight" Xinhua] 21 June 2007</ref>{{Better source needed|date=January 2021}} {{As of|2021}}, the country had {{convert|150000|km|mi|0|abbr=on|sp=us}} of railways, the [[List of countries by rail transport network size|second longest network in the world]].<ref name="Chinab">{{cite news |date=5 January 2022 |title=2021年全国铁路营业里程突破15万公里 高铁超4万公里 |language=Chinese |trans-title=The national railway operating mileage has exceeded 150,000 kilometers in 2021 |work=China News |url=http://finance.people.com.cn/n1/2022/0105/c1004-32324386.html |url-status=live |access-date=5 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414061508/http://finance.people.com.cn/n1/2022/0105/c1004-32324386.html |archive-date=14 April 2022}}</ref> The railways strain to meet enormous demand particularly during the [[Chinese New Year]] holiday, when the [[Chunyun|world's largest annual human migration]] takes place.<ref name="overcrowding">{{cite news|date=22 January 2009|title=China's trains desperately overcrowded for Lunar New Year|newspaper=The Seattle Times|url=http://seattletimes.com/html/travel/2008659473_webchinatrains22.html}}</ref>

China's [[High-speed rail in China|high-speed rail (HSR) system]] started construction in the early 2000s. By the end of 2022, [[High-speed rail in China|high speed rail in China]] had reached {{convert|42000|km|mi|0|abbr=off|sp=us}} of dedicated lines alone, making it the [[List of high-speed railway lines|longest HSR network in the world]].<ref name="IRJ2022">{{cite web |last=Preston |first=Robert |date=3 January 2023 |title=China opens 4100km of new railway |url=https://www.railjournal.com/infrastructure/china-opens-4100km-of-new-railway/ |website=International Railway Journal}}</ref> Services on the [[Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway|Beijing–Shanghai]], [[Beijing–Tianjin intercity railway|Beijing–Tianjin]], and [[Chengdu–Chongqing intercity railway|Chengdu–Chongqing]] lines reach up to {{convert|350|km/h|0|abbr=on|sp=us}}, making them the fastest conventional high speed railway services in the world. With an annual ridership of over 2.29 billion passengers in 2019, it is the world's busiest.<ref>{{cite web|last=陈子琰|title=China's railways report 3.57b passenger trips in 2019|url=http://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202001/03/WS5e0eada7a310cf3e355824c4.html|access-date=10 March 2021|website=China Daily}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=October 2021}} The network includes the [[Beijing–Guangzhou high-speed railway]], the single longest HSR line in the world, and the [[Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway]], which has [[List of longest bridges|three of longest railroad bridges in the world]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-20842836|title=China opens world's longest high-speed rail route|publisher=BBC|date=26 December 2012|access-date=26 December 2012}}</ref> The [[Shanghai maglev train]], which reaches {{convert|431|km/h|0|abbr=on|sp=us}}, is the fastest commercial train service in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jones |first=Ben |date=7 December 2022 |title=Flying without wings: The world's fastest trains |work=[[CNN Travel]] |url=https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/worlds-fastest-trains-cmd/index.html |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref>

Since 2000, the growth of rapid transit systems in Chinese cities has accelerated.<ref>{{cite news |last=Areddy |first=James T. |date=10 November 2013 |title=China's Building Push Goes Underground |newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702303482504579177830819719254 |access-date=16 November 2013}}</ref> {{As of|2021|January}}, 44 Chinese cities have [[Urban rail transit in China|urban mass transit systems]] in operation<ref>{{cite web |title=China builds more urban rail transit lines in 2020—China Economic Net |url=http://en.ce.cn/main/latest/202101/10/t20210110_36207420.shtml |access-date=10 March 2021 |website=[[Economic Daily]]}}</ref> and 39 more have metro systems approved.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-transport-investment-idUSKCN0Y70I1|title=China to let more cities build metro systems – Economic Information Daily|last=Goh|first=Brenda|date=16 May 2016|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=24 October 2016}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, China boasts the five longest [[List of metro systems|metro systems in the world]] with the networks in [[Shanghai Metro|Shanghai]], [[Beijing Subway|Beijing]], [[Guangzhou Metro|Guangzhou]], [[Chengdu Metro|Chengdu]] and [[Shenzhen Metro|Shenzhen]] being the largest.

There were [[List of airports in China|approximately 241 airports in 2021]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 February 2021 |title=China adds 43 civil transport airports in 5 years |url=http://english.www.gov.cn/news/photos/202102/18/content_WS602de0adc6d0719374af8fdd.html |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[State Council of the People's Republic of China]]}}</ref>

China has over 2,000 [[List of ports in China|river and seaports]], about 130 of which are open to foreign shipping.<ref>{{Cite web |title=China's Global Network of Shipping Ports Reveal Beijing's Strategy |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/6224958.html |access-date=2022-09-15 |website=VOA |date=13 September 2021 |language=en}}</ref> In 2021, the Ports of [[Port of Shanghai|Shanghai]], [[Port of Ningbo-Zhoushan|Ningbo-Zhoushan]], [[Port of Shenzhen|Shenzhen]], [[Port of Guangzhou|Guangzhou]], [[Qingdao Port|Qingdao]], [[Port of Tianjin|Tianjin]] and [[Port of Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] ranked in the top 10 in the world in [[List of busiest container ports|container traffic and cargo tonnage]].<ref name="lloydslist2022">{{Cite web |title=One Hundred Container Ports 2022 |url=https://lloydslist.maritimeintelligence.informa.com/one-hundred-container-ports-2022 |access-date=2023-01-10 |work=Lloyd's List}}</ref>

=== Water supply and sanitation ===
{{Main|Water supply and sanitation in China}}

Water supply and sanitation infrastructure in China is facing challenges such as rapid urbanization, as well as [[Water resources of China|water scarcity, contamination, and pollution]].<ref name="Water Scarcity in China">{{cite news|url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/7d6f69ea-bc73-11e2-b344-00144feab7de.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/7d6f69ea-bc73-11e2-b344-00144feab7de.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|title=China: High and dry: Water shortages put a brake on economic growth|last=Hook |first= Leslie|date=14 May 2013|newspaper=[[Financial Times]]|access-date=15 May 2013}}</ref> According to data presented by the [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation]] of [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) and [[UNICEF]] in 2015, about 36% of the rural population in China still did not have access to [[improved sanitation]].<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Update-report-2015_English.pdf|title = Website of the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation|access-date = 14 February 2016|publisher = JMP (WHO and UNICEF)|url-status=dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304112745/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Update-report-2015_English.pdf|archive-date = 4 March 2016|df = dmy-all}}</ref> The ongoing [[South–North Water Transfer Project]] intends to abate water shortage in the north.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Freeman |first=Carla |title=Quenching the Dragon's Thirst: The South-North Water Transfer Project—Old Plumbing for New China? |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/publication/Quenching%20the%20Dragon%25E2%2580%2599s%20Thirst.pdf |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]]}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of China}}
[[File:China Population Density, 2000 (6171905307).jpg|thumb|Population density map of the People's Republic of China (2000). The eastern coastal provinces are much more densely populated than the western interior.]]
The [[2020 Chinese census|national census of 2020]] recorded the [[population]] of the People's Republic of China as approximately 1,411,778,724. According to the 2020 census, about 17.95% of the population were 14 years old or younger, 63.35% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 18.7% were over 60 years old.<ref name="2020_census2">{{cite web |date=11 May 2021 |title=Communiqué of the Seventh National Population Census (No. 2) |url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202105/t20210510_1817187.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511104840/http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202105/t20210510_1817187.html |archive-date=11 May 2021 |access-date=11 May 2021 |url-status=live |website=[[National Bureau of Statistics of China]] |language=en}}</ref> Between 2010 and 2020, the average population growth rate was 0.53%.<ref name="2020_census2"/>

Given concerns about population growth, China implemented a two-child limit during the 1970s, and, in 1979, began to advocate for an even stricter limit of one child per family. Beginning in the mid-1980s, however, given the unpopularity of the strict limits, China began to allow some major exemptions, particularly in rural areas, resulting in what was actually a "1.5"-child policy from the mid-1980s to 2015 (ethnic minorities were also exempt from one child limits). The next major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child.<ref>{{cite news |date=28 December 2013 |title=China formalizes easing of one-child policy |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/12/28/china-one-child-policy/4230785/ |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref> In 2016, the one-child policy was replaced in favor of a [[two-child policy]].<ref name="Birtles-2021">{{Cite news |last=Birtles |first=Bill |author-link=Bill Birtles |date=31 May 2021 |title=China introduces three-child policy to alleviate problem of ageing population |work=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]] |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-05-31/china-introduces-three-child-policy/100179832 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> A [[three-child policy]] was announced on 31 May 2021, due to [[Aging of China|population aging]],<ref name="Birtles-2021" /> and in July 2021, all family size limits as well as penalties for exceeding them were removed.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cheng |first=Evelyn |date=21 July 2021 |title=China scraps fines, will let families have as many children as they'd like |work=[[CNBC]] |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/07/21/china-scraps-fines-for-families-violating-childbirth-limits.html |access-date=29 April 2022}}</ref> According to data from the 2020 census, China's total fertility rate is 1.3, but some experts believe that after adjusting for the transient effects of the relaxation of restrictions, the country's actual total fertility rate is as low as 1.1.<ref>{{cite web|date=16 September 2021|last1=Toshiya|first1=Tsugami|title=Why Society Will be the Real Loser from China's Low Birth Rate|work=Nippon.com|url= https://www.nippon.com/en/in-depth/d00740/|accessdate=11 April 2022}}</ref> In 2023, [[National Bureau of Statistics of China|National Bureau of Statistics]] estimated that the population fell 850,000 from 2021 to 2022, the first decline since 1961.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ng |first1=Kelly |date=17 January 2023 |title=China's population falls for first time since 1961 |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-64300190 |access-date=17 January 2023}}</ref>

According to one group of scholars, one-child limits had little effect on population growth<ref name="Wang Judge">{{cite journal |last1=Feng |first1=Wang |last2=Yong |first2=Cai |last3=Gu |first3=Baochang |year=2012 |title=Population, Policy, and Politics: How Will History Judge China's One-Child Policy? |url=http://dragonreport.com/Dragon_Report/Challenges_files/Wang_pp115-129.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=[[Population and Development Review]] |volume=38 |pages=115–129 |doi=10.1111/j.1728-4457.2013.00555.x |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606203524/http://dragonreport.com/Dragon_Report/Challenges_files/Wang_pp115-129.pdf |archive-date=6 June 2019|access-date=16 May 2018}}</ref> or the size of the total population.<ref name="Whyte">{{cite journal |last1=Whyte |first1=Martin K.|last2=Wang|first2=Feng|last3=Cai|first3=Yong|year=2015|title=Challenging Myths about China's One-Child Policy |url=http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/martinwhyte/files/challenging_myths_published_version.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/martinwhyte/files/challenging_myths_published_version.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=[[The China Journal]]|volume=74|pages=144–159 |doi=10.1086/681664 |pmc=6701844|pmid=31431804}}</ref> However, these scholars have been challenged. Their own counterfactual model of fertility decline without such restrictions implies that China averted more than 500 million births between 1970 and 2015, a number which may reach one billion by 2060 given all the lost descendants of births averted during the era of fertility restrictions, with one-child restrictions accounting for the great bulk of that reduction.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Goodkind |first1=Daniel|year=2017|title=The Astonishing Population Averted by China's Birth Restrictions: Estimates, Nightmares, and Reprogrammed Ambitions|journal=[[Demography (journal)|Demography]] |volume=54|issue=4|pages=1375–1400 |doi=10.1007/s13524-017-0595-x|pmid=28762036 |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/7dcb4537e267aa61f75f87bc82062644d9965652 |s2cid=13656899}}</ref> The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may have contributed to an imbalance in the [[human sex ratio|sex ratio]] at birth.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/1480778/Shortage-of-girls-forces-China-to-criminalise-selective-abortion.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/1480778/Shortage-of-girls-forces-China-to-criminalise-selective-abortion.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Shortage of girls forces China to criminalize selective abortion|work=The Daily Telegraph|date=9 January 2005|access-date=22 October 2012|location=London|first=Simon|last=Parry}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Ref_2007a">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6254763.stm |title=Chinese facing shortage of wives|date=12 January 2007|work=BBC News |access-date=23 March 2009}}</ref> According to the 2020 census, the sex ratio at birth was 105.07 boys for every 100 girls,<ref name="NBS China-2021">{{Cite web |date=11 May 2021 |title=Communiqué of the Seventh National Population Census (No. 4) |url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202105/t20210510_1817189.html |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[National Bureau of Statistics of China]]}}</ref> which is beyond the normal range of around 105 boys for every 100 girls.<ref>{{cite web|title=The odds that you will give birth to a boy or girl depend on where in the world you live|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/09/24/the-odds-that-you-will-give-birth-to-a-boy-or-girl-depend-on-where-in-the-world-you-live/|publisher=Pew Research Center|date=24 September 2013}}</ref> The 2020 census found that males accounted for 51.24 percent of the total population.<ref name="NBS China-2021" /> However, China's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51.82 percent of the total population.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 October 2011 |title=Chinese mainland gender ratios most balanced since 1950s: census data |work=[[Xinhua News Agency]] |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-04/28/c_13850191.htm |access-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911115321/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-04/28/c_13850191.htm |archive-date=11 September 2011}}</ref>

=== Ethnic groups ===
{{Main|List of ethnic groups in China|Ethnic minorities in China|Ethnic groups in Chinese history}}
[[File:China ethnolinguistic 1967.jpg|thumb|Ethnolinguistic map of China in 1967]]
China legally recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, who altogether comprise the ''[[Zhonghua minzu]]''. The largest of these nationalities are the [[Han Chinese]], who constitute more than 91% of the total
population.<ref name="2020_census2"/> The Han Chinese – the world's largest single ethnic group<ref>{{cite news |last=Lilly |first=Amanda |date=7 July 2009 |title=A Guide to China's Ethnic Groups |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://articles.washingtonpost.com/2009-07-07/world/36836997_1_muslim-uighurs-chinese-government-xinjiang-province |url-status=dead |access-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209112957/http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2009-07-07/world/36836997_1_muslim-uighurs-chinese-government-xinjiang-province |archive-date=9 December 2013}}</ref> – outnumber other ethnic groups in every provincial-level division except [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]] and [[Xinjiang]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/chinasgeographyg0000unse|title=China's Geography: Globalization and the Dynamics of Political, Economic, and Social Change|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield Publishers]]|year=2011|isbn=978-0-7425-6784-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/chinasgeographyg0000unse/page/102 102]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Ethnic minorities account for less than 10% of the population of China, according to the 2020 census.<ref name="2020_census2" /> Compared with the 2010 population census, the Han population increased by 60,378,693 persons, or 4.93%, while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 11,675,179 persons, or 10.26%.<ref name="2020_census2" /> The 2020 census recorded a total of 845,697 foreign nationals living in mainland China.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 May 2021 |title=Communiqué of the Seventh National Population Census (No. 8) |url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202105/t20210510_1817193.html |access-date=22 April 2023 |website=[[National Bureau of Statistics of China]]}}</ref>

=== Languages ===
{{Main|Languages of China|List of endangered languages in China}}
[[File:Lihaozhai High School - P1360829.JPG|thumb|Lihaozhai High School in [[Jianshui]], [[Yunnan]]. The sign is in [[Hani language|Hani]] (Latin alphabet), [[Nisu language|Nisu]] ([[Yi script]]), and Chinese.]]There are as many as 292 [[living language]]s in China.<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=CN Languages of China] – from Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International.</ref> The languages most commonly spoken belong to the [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic branch]] of the [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan language]] family, which contains [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] (spoken by 80% of the population),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Over 80 percent of Chinese population speak Mandarin - People's Daily Online |url=http://en.people.cn/n3/2020/1016/c90000-9769716.html |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=en.people.cn}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Language Planning and Policy in Asia: Japan, Nepal, Taiwan and Chinese characters|url=https://archive.org/details/languageplanning00kapl_687|url-access=limited|last1=Kaplan |first1= Robert B.|first2=Richard B. |last2=Baldauf |publisher=Multilingual Matters|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84769-095-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/languageplanning00kapl_687/page/n48 42]}}</ref> and [[Varieties of Chinese|other varieties]] of [[Chinese language]]: [[Yue Chinese|Yue]] (including [[Cantonese]] and [[Taishanese]]), [[Wu Chinese|Wu]] (including [[Shanghainese]] and [[Suzhou dialect|Suzhounese]]), [[Min Chinese|Min]] (including [[Fuzhou dialect|Fuzhounese]], [[Hokkien]] and [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]]), [[Xiang Chinese|Xiang]], [[Gan Chinese|Gan]] and [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]]. Languages of the [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman branch]], including [[Lhasa Tibetan|Tibetan]], [[Qiang language|Qiang]], [[Naxi language|Naxi]] and [[Nuosu language|Yi]], are spoken across the [[Tibetan Plateau|Tibetan]] and [[Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau]]. Other ethnic minority languages in [[southwestern China]] include [[Zhuang languages|Zhuang]], [[Thai language|Thai]], [[Kam language|Dong]] and [[Sui language|Sui]] of the [[Kra–Dai languages|Tai-Kadai family]], [[Hmongic language|Miao]] and [[Mienic languages|Yao]] of the [[Hmong–Mien languages|Hmong–Mien family]], and [[Wa language|Wa]] of the [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic family]]. Across [[Northeast China|northeastern]] and [[northwestern China]], local ethnic groups speak [[Altaic languages]] including [[Manchu language|Manchu]], [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] and several [[Turkic languages]]: [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]], [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]], [[Salar language|Salar]] and [[Western Yugur language|Western Yugur]]. [[Korean language|Korean]] is spoken natively along the border with [[North Korea]]. [[Sarikoli language|Sarikoli]], the language of [[Chinese Tajiks|Tajiks in western Xinjiang]], is an [[Indo-European language]]. [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples]], including a small population on the mainland, speak [[Austronesian languages]].<ref name="language">[https://web.archive.org/web/20130725061022/http://english.gov.cn/2005-08/16/content_23691.htm "Languages"]. 2005. Gov.cn. Retrieved 31 May 2015.</ref>

[[Standard Chinese|Standard Mandarin]], a variety of Mandarin based on the [[Beijing dialect]], is the official national language of China and is used as a [[lingua franca]] in the country between people of different linguistic backgrounds.<ref name="langlaw">{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm|title=Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37)|publisher=Chinese Government|date=31 October 2000|access-date=21 June 2013|quote=For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters.|archive-date=24 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724204951/http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Rough Guide Phrasebook: Mandarin Chinese|year=2011|publisher=Rough Guides|page=19|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jlM3TMYg8HQC&pg=PA19|isbn=978-1-4053-8884-9}}</ref> Mongolian, Uyghur, Tibetan, Zhuang and various other languages are also regionally recognized throughout the country.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.chinatoday.com/general/a.htm#LANGU|title=General Information of the People's Republic of China (PRC): Languages|publisher=chinatoday.com|access-date=17 April 2008}}</ref>

=== Urbanization ===
{{See also|List of cities in China|List of cities in China by population|Megalopolises in China}}
[[File:China Top 10 Biggest Cities.png|thumb|Map of the ten [[List of cities in China by population|largest cities]] in China (2010)]]
China has [[Urbanization|urbanized]] significantly in recent decades. The percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1980 to over 64% in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=Urban population (% of total) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=CN |access-date=28 May 2018 |website=[[World Bank]] |publisher=}}</ref><ref name="Economist-2014">{{Cite news |date=16 April 2014 |title=Where China's future will happen |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2014/04/16/where-chinas-future-will-happen |access-date=18 February 2023 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=He |first=Huifeng |date=28 February 2022 |title=China's urbanisation push could be at a 'bottleneck', with slowest migration growth rate in quarter-century |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3168678/chinas-urbanisation-push-could-be-bottleneck-slowest |access-date=13 April 2023}}</ref> It is estimated that China's [[Urbanization in China|urban population]] will reach one billion by 2030, potentially equivalent to one-eighth of the world population.<ref name="Economist-2014" />

China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million,<ref>{{cite news |last=FlorCruz |first=Jaime A. |date=20 January 2012 |title=China's urban explosion: A 21st century challenge |work=[[CNN]] |publisher= |url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/01/20/world/asia/china-florcruz-urban-growth/index.html |access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref> including the 17 [[Megacity|megacities]] {{As of|2021|lc=y}}<ref>{{cite news|author=Maggie Hiufu Wong|title=Megacities and more: A guide to China's most impressive urban centers|url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/china-top-megacities/index.html|access-date=26 October 2020|publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=张洁|title=Chongqing, Chengdu top new first-tier cities by population|url=http://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202106/15/WS60c84b56a31024ad0bac6db4.html|access-date=3 November 2021|website=China Daily}}</ref> (cities with a population of over 10 million) of [[Chongqing]], [[Shanghai]], [[Beijing]], [[Chengdu]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Shenzhen]], [[Tianjin]], [[Xi'an]], [[Suzhou]], [[Zhengzhou]], [[Wuhan]], [[Hangzhou]], [[Linyi]], [[Shijiazhuang]], [[Dongguan]], [[Qingdao]] and [[Changsha]].<ref>{{cite web |title=17 Chinese cities have a population of over 10 million in 2021 |url=https://www.ecns.cn/news/cns-wire/2022-05-26/detail-ihaytawr8118445.shtml |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=www.ecns.cn}}</ref> Among them, the total permanent population of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing and Chengdu is above 20 million.<ref>{{cite web |last=孙迟 |title=China's inland rides waves of innovation, new opportunities |url=https://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202205/27/WS62902a26a310fd2b29e5f516.html |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=global.chinadaily.com.cn |quote=Chengdu and Chongqing are now two of the only four cities (the other two are Beijing and Shanghai) in China with populations of more than 20 million.}}</ref> Shanghai is China's [[List of cities in China by population|most populous urban area]]<ref name=Demographia2013>{{cite book|author1=Demographia|title=Demographia World Urban Areas|date=March 2013|edition=9th|url=http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501024602/http://demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf|archive-date=1 May 2013}}</ref><ref name="oecd">{{cite book|url=http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/urban-rural-and-regional-development/oecd-urban-policy-reviews-china-2015_9789264230040-en#page39|doi=10.1787/9789264230040-en|title=OECD Urban Policy Reviews: China 2015|publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]]|page=37|date=18 April 2015|isbn=9789264230033}}</ref> while Chongqing is its [[List of largest cities|largest city proper]], the only city in China with the largest permanent population of over 30 million.<ref name="renamed_from_2015_on_20160214005959">{{cite web
|url = http://cq.cqnews.net/html/2016-01/28/content_36292655.htm
|script-title = zh:2015年重庆常住人口3016.55万人 继续保持增长态势
|publisher = Chongqing News
|language = zh
|date = 28 January 2016
|access-date = 13 February 2016
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160129083111/http://cq.cqnews.net/html/2016-01/28/content_36292655.htm
|archive-date = 29 January 2016
|df = dmy-all
}}</ref> By 2025, it is estimated that the country will be home to 221 cities with over a million inhabitants.<ref name="McKinseyUrbanBillion">{{cite web |date=February 2009 |title=Preparing for China's urban billion |url=http://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/dotcom/Insights%20and%20pubs/MGI/Research/Urbanization/Preparing%20for%20Chinas%20urban%20billion/MGI_Preparing_for_Chinas_Urban_Billion_full_report.ashx |access-date=18 February 2015 |publisher=McKinsey Global Institute |pages=6, 52}}</ref> The figures in the table below are from the 2017 census,<ref name="census">{{cite web|title=Tabulation of the China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook 2017|url=http://cdi.cnki.net/Titles/SingleNJ?NJCode=N2019060082|publisher=China Statistics Press|access-date=29 October 2020|archive-date=31 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031183956/http://cdi.cnki.net/Titles/SingleNJ?NJCode=N2019060082|url-status=dead}}</ref> and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations (which includes suburban and rural populations). The large "[[floating population]]s" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;<ref name="Ref_abce">Francesco Sisci. "China's floating population a headache for census". ''The Straits Times''. 22 September 2000.</ref> the figures below include only long-term residents.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

{{Most populous cities in the People's Republic of China|class=info}}

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in China|Higher education in China|List of universities in China}}
[[File:13 Peking University.jpg|alt=|thumb|Beijing's [[Peking University]], one of the [[Rankings of universities in China|top-ranked universities in China]]<ref>{{cite web|date=18 September 2020|title=Peking University|url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/peking-university|access-date=9 December 2020|website=Times Higher Education (THE)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Overall Ranking, Best Chinese Universities Rankings – 2019|url=http://www.shanghairanking.com/Chinese_Universities_Rankings/Overall-Ranking-2019.html|access-date=9 December 2020|website=shanghairanking.com|archive-date=30 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330045254/http://www.shanghairanking.com/Chinese_Universities_Rankings/Overall-Ranking-2019.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]
Since 1986, compulsory education in China comprises [[primary school|primary]] and [[middle school|junior secondary school]], which together last for nine years.<ref>{{cite web |date=23 July 2009 |title=Compulsory Education Law of the People's Republic of China |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/laws_policies/201506/t20150626_191391.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319045258/https://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/laws_policies/201506/t20150626_191391.html |archive-date=19 March 2022 |access-date=3 November 2021 |website=[[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China]]}}</ref> In 2021, about 91.4 percent of students continued their education at a three-year senior secondary school.<ref name="Ministry of Edu China-2022">{{Cite web |date=24 September 2022 |title=Statistical report on China's educational achievements in 2021 |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/reports/202209/t20220924_664436.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204020612/http://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/reports/202209/t20220924_664436.html |archive-date=4 February 2023 |access-date=2022-10-04 |website=[[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China]]}}</ref> The [[Gaokao]], China's national university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. {{As of|2020}}, 58.42 percent of secondary school graduates were enrolled in higher education.<ref>{{Cite web |title=School enrollment, tertiary (% gross) – China {{!}} 2010–2020 |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.ENRR?end=2020&locations=CN&start=2010 |access-date=2022-10-04 |website=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and [[tertiary education|tertiary]] level.<ref name="Ministry of Edu China-2022" /> More than 10 million Chinese students graduated from vocational colleges nationwide every year.<ref>{{cite web |date=23 March 2021 |title=Zheng Yali: vocational education entering a new development stage |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/features/2021TwoSessions/Voices/VocationalEducation/202103/t20210323_522096.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128011150/http://en.moe.gov.cn/features/2021TwoSessions/Voices/VocationalEducation/202103/t20210323_522096.html |archive-date=28 January 2023 |access-date=3 November 2021 |website=[[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China]]}}</ref>

China has the largest education system in the world, with about 282 million students and 17.32 million full-time teachers in over 530,000 schools.<ref name="UNICEF-2021">{{cite web|date=August 2021|title=China Case Study: Situation Analysis of the Effect of and Response to COVID-19 in Asia|url=https://www.unicef.org/eap/media/9321/file/Sit%20An%20-%20China%20Case%20Study.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.unicef.org/eap/media/9321/file/Sit%20An%20-%20China%20Case%20Study.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=3 November 2021|website=UNICEF|page=21|language=en}}</ref> Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to more than US$817 billion in 2020.<ref>{{cite news |date=16 January 2013 |title=In Education, China Takes the Lead |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2013/01/16/business/In-Education-China-Takes-the-Lead.html |access-date=17 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=7 May 2021 |title=MOE releases 2020 Statistical Bulletin on Educational Spending |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/news/press_releases/202105/t20210512_531041.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321225632/http://en.moe.gov.cn/news/press_releases/202105/t20210512_531041.html |archive-date=21 March 2023 |access-date=3 November 2021 |website=[[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China]]}}</ref> However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In 2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled ¥20,023, while in [[Guizhou]], one of the [[List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP per capita|poorest provinces in China]], only totalled ¥3,204.<ref>{{cite news |last=Roberts |first=Dexter |date=4 April 2013 |title=Chinese Education: The Truth Behind the Boasts |newspaper=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-04-04/chinese-education-the-truth-behind-the-boasts |url-status= |access-date=17 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130406202405/http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-04-04/chinese-education-the-truth-behind-the-boasts |archive-date=6 April 2013}}</ref> Free compulsory education in China consists of primary school and junior secondary school between the ages of 6 and 15. In 2021, the graduation enrollment ratio at compulsory education level reached 95.4 percent, and around 91.4% of Chinese have received secondary education.<ref name="Ministry of Edu China-2022" />

China's literacy rate has grown dramatically, from only 20% in 1949 and 65.5% in 1979.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Galtung|first1=Marte Kjær|last2= Stenslie|first2=Stig|date=2014|title=49 Myths about China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qqqDBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA189|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]|page=189|isbn=978-1-4422-3622-6}}</ref> to 97% of the population over age 15 in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) - China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.ZS?end=2020&locations=CN&most_recent_value_desc=true&start=1982 |access-date=2022-10-04 |website=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> In the same year, Beijing, Shanghai, [[Jiangsu]], and [[Zhejiang]], amongst the most affluent regions in China, were ranked the highest in the world in the [[Programme for International Student Assessment]] ranking for all three categories of Mathematics, Science and Reading.<ref>{{cite web|date=3 December 2019|title=PISA 2018 Results |url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/pisa-2018-results.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203141933/https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/pisa-2018-results.htm|archive-date=3 December 2019|access-date=3 December 2019|website=OECD}}</ref>

{{As of|2021}}, China has over 3,000 universities, with over 44.3 million students enrolled in mainland China and 240 million Chinese citizens have received high education, making China the largest higher education system in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2022 |title=MOE press conference presents reform progress in China's higher education |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/news/press_releases/202205/t20220527_631451.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326224908/http://en.moe.gov.cn/news/press_releases/202205/t20220527_631451.html |archive-date=26 March 2023 |access-date=16 October 2022 |website=[[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Zou |first=Shuo |date=3 December 2020 |title=China's higher education system is world's largest, officials say |work=[[China Daily]] |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202012/03/WS5fc86ab2a31024ad0ba9999e.html |access-date=3 November 2021}}</ref> {{As of|2021}}, China had the world's second-highest [[Rankings of universities in China|number of top universities]] (the highest in Asia & Oceania region).<ref>{{cite web |date=26 October 2021 |title=U.S. News Unveils 2022 Best Global Universities Rankings |url=https://www.usnews.com/info/blogs/press-room/articles/2021-10-26/us-news-announces-2022-best-global-universities-rankings |access-date=27 April 2022 |work=U.S. News & World Report}}</ref> Currently, China trails only the United States in terms of representation on lists of top 200 universities according to the [[Academic Ranking of World Universities]] (ARWU).<ref>{{cite web |title=Statistics of Academic Ranking of World Universities – 2022 |url=https://www.shanghairanking.com/rankings/arwu/2022 |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[Academic Ranking of World Universities]]}}</ref> China is home to the two of the highest ranking universities ([[Tsinghua University]] and [[Peking University]]) in [[Asia]] and [[Emerging market|emerging economies]] according to the [[Times Higher Education World University Rankings]].<ref>{{cite web |date= 4 October 2022|title=World University Rankings 2023 |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2023/world-ranking |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[Times Higher Education World University Rankings]]}}</ref> {{As of|2022}}, two universities in mainland China rank in the world's top 15, with Peking University (12th) and Tsinghua University (14th) and three other universities ranking in the world's top 50, namely [[Fudan University|Fudan]], [[Zhejiang University|Zhejiang]], and [[Shanghai Jiao Tong University|Shanghai Jiao Tong]] according to the [[QS World University Rankings]].<ref>{{cite web |title=QS World University Rankings 2023: Top Global Universities |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2023 |access-date=9 June 2022 |website=Top Universities |language=en}}</ref> These universities are members of the [[C9 League]], an alliance of elite [[List of universities in China|Chinese universities]] offering comprehensive and leading education.<ref>{{cite web |date=17 February 2011 |title=Eastern stars: Universities of China's C9 League excel in select fields |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/eastern-stars-universities-of-chinas-c9-league-excel-in-select-fields/415193.article |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[Times Higher Education World University Rankings]]}}</ref>

=== Health ===
{{Main|Health in China}}
{{See also|Medicine in China|Pharmaceutical industry in China|COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China}}
[[File:China, Trends in the Human Development Index 1970-2010.png|thumb|upright=1.15|Chart showing the rise of China's [[Human Development Index]] from 1970 to 2010]]
The [[National Health and Family Planning Commission]], together with its counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health needs of the Chinese population.<ref>{{cite web |title=What we do |url=http://en.nhfpc.gov.cn/2014-05/07/content_17491484.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140928220552/http://en.nhfpc.gov.cn/2014-05/07/content_17491484.htm |archive-date=28 September 2014 |access-date=6 September 2015 |website=[[National Health and Family Planning Commission]] |publisher=}}</ref> An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s. At that time, the Communist Party started the [[Patriotic Health Campaign]], which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as [[cholera]], [[typhoid]] and [[scarlet fever]], which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-12-14 |title=Peking University of Health Sciences {{!}} |url=https://liemgthailand.com/en/peking-university-of-health-sciences/ |access-date=2023-06-09 |language=en-US}}</ref>

After [[Deng Xiaoping]] began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared along with the People's Communes. Healthcare in China became mostly privatized, and experienced a significant rise in quality. In 2009, the government began a 3-year large-scale healthcare provision initiative worth US$124 billion.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aXFagkr3Dr6s|title=China's $124 Billion Health-Care Plan Aims to Boost Consumption|last1=Lawrence|first1=Dune|date=22 January 2009|newspaper=[[Bloomberg News]]|access-date=16 January 2020|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029211403/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aXFagkr3Dr6s|archive-date=29 October 2013|last2=Liu|first2=John}}</ref> By 2011, the campaign resulted in 95% of China's population having basic health insurance coverage.<ref>{{cite news |last=Liu |first=Yuanli |date=1 November 2011 |title=China's Health Care Reform: Far From Sufficient |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2011/11/01/is-china-facing-a-health-care-crisis/chinas-health-care-reform-far-from-sufficient |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref> By 2022, China had established itself as a key producer and exporter of [[Medication|pharmaceuticals]], with the country alone producing around 40 percent of [[Active ingredient|active pharmaceutical ingredients]] in 2017.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 April 2022 |title=The great medicines migration |work=[[Nikkei Asia]] |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/static/vdata/infographics/chinavaccine-3/ |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref>

{{As of|2020||df=US}}, the life expectancy at birth in China is 78 years,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=CN|title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – China|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=28 October 2013}}</ref> and the [[infant mortality]] rate is 5 per thousand (in 2021).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN?locations=CN|title=Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) – China|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=28 October 2013}}</ref> Both have improved significantly since the 1950s.{{efn|The national life expectancy at birth rose from about 31 years in 1949 to 75 years in 2008,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.people.com.cn/90001/90776/90882/6776688.html|title=Life expectancy increases by 44 years from 1949 in China's economic powerhouse Guangdong|work=People's Daily|date=4 October 2009}}</ref> and infant mortality decreased from 300 per thousand in the 1950s to around 33 per thousand in 2001.<ref name="Ref_abcu">[http://www.china.org.cn/english/19012.htm "China's Infant Mortality Rate Down"]. 11 September 2001. China.org.cn. Retrieved 3 May 2006.</ref>}} Rates of [[Stunted growth|stunting]], a condition caused by [[malnutrition]], have declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 9.9% in 2010.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1 = Stone|first1 = R.|title = Despite Gains, Malnutrition Among China's Rural Poor Sparks Concern|doi = 10.1126/science.336.6080.402|journal = Science|volume = 336|issue = 6080|page = 402|year = 2012|pmid = 22539691|bibcode = 2012Sci...336..402S }}</ref> Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused by [[Air pollution in China|widespread air pollution]],<ref name="FT-china-pollution">{{cite web|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/8f40e248-28c7-11dc-af78-000b5df10621.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/8f40e248-28c7-11dc-af78-000b5df10621.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|title=750,000 a year killed by Chinese pollution|last=McGregor|first=Richard|date=2 July 2007|work=[[Financial Times]]|access-date=22 July 2007}}</ref> hundreds of millions of [[tobacco smoking|cigarette smokers]],<ref>{{Cite news|last=Tatlow|first=Didi Kirsten|date=10 June 2010|title=China's Tobacco Industry Wields Huge Power|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/11/world/asia/11iht-letter.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/11/world/asia/11iht-letter.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |url-access=limited|access-date=16 January 2020|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and an increase in [[obesity]] among urban youths.<ref name="Ref_abcy">[http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1999/china.50/dispatches/09.23.health/ "Serving the people?"]. 1999. Bruce Kennedy. CNN. Retrieved 17 April 2006.</ref><ref name="Ref_abcz">[http://english.people.com.cn/english/200008/04/eng20000804_47271.html "Obesity Sickening China's Young Hearts"]. 4 August 2000. ''People's Daily''. Retrieved 17 April 2006.</ref> China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks in recent years, such as the 2003 outbreak of [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]], although this has since been largely contained.<ref name="Ref_abcda">[https://web.archive.org/web/20040824014230/http://www.who.int/csr/don/2004_05_18a/en/index.html "China's latest SARS outbreak has been contained, but biosafety concerns remain"]. 18 May 2004. [[World Health Organization]]. Retrieved 17 April 2006.</ref> In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature deaths in China.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/02/world/asia/air-pollution-linked-to-1-2-million-deaths-in-china.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/02/world/asia/air-pollution-linked-to-1-2-million-deaths-in-china.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |url-access=limited|title=Air Pollution Linked to 1.2 Million Premature Deaths in China|last=Wong|first=Edward|date=1 April 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=14 January 2020|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] was first identified in [[Wuhan]] in December 2019.<ref name="auto12">{{Cite journal|date=20 February 2020|title=The Epidemiological Characteristics of an Outbreak of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Diseases (COVID-19) – China, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222141550/http://www.ne.jp/asahi/kishimoto/clinic/cash/COVID-19.pdf|journal=China CDC Weekly |volume=2|pages=1–10|url=http://www.ne.jp/asahi/kishimoto/clinic/cash/COVID-19.pdf|archive-date=22 February 2020|via=Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia Emergency Response Epidemiology Team|date=17 February 2020|title=The Epidemiological Characteristics of an Outbreak of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Diseases (COVID-19) in China|journal=China CDC Weekly|script-journal=zh:中华流行病学杂志|volume=41|issue=2|pages=145–151 |doi=10.3760/cma.j.issn.0254-6450.2020.02.003|pmid=32064853 |s2cid=211133882|language=zh}}</ref> Further studies are being carried out around the world on a possible origin for the virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mallapaty|first=Smriti |date=2 December 2020 |title=Meet the scientists investigating the origins of the COVID pandemic|journal=Nature |volume=588|issue=7837|page=208 |doi=10.1038/d41586-020-03402-1|pmid=33262500 |bibcode=2020Natur.588..208M|s2cid=227253792}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mallapaty|first=Smriti|date=11 November 2020|title=Where did COVID come from? WHO investigation begins but faces challenges|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-03165-9|journal=Nature|volume=587|issue=7834|pages=341–342 |doi=10.1038/d41586-020-03165-9|pmid=33177687|bibcode=2020Natur.587..341M|s2cid=226311682}}</ref> Beijing says it has been sharing Covid data in "a timely, open and transparent manner in accordance with the law".<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-01-12 |title=China Covid: How many cases and deaths are there? |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/59882774 |access-date=2023-02-19}}</ref> According to U.S. officials, the Chinese government has been concealing the extent of the outbreak before it became an international pandemic.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04-01/china-concealed-extent-of-virus-outbreak-u-s-intelligence-says |title=China Concealed Extent of Virus Outbreak, U.S. Intelligence Says |last1=Wadhams|first1=Nick |last2=Jacobs|first2=Jennifer|date=1 April 2020 |publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|access-date=17 April 2020}}</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in China}}
[[File:Distribution of religions in China.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Geographic distribution of religions in China:<br/><ref name=map1>{{cite map|map=Religions en Chine|map-url=http://img.webme.com/pic/g/geographie-ville-en-guerre/religions-chine.jpg |last=Dumortier|first=Brigitte|title=Atlas des religions. Croyances, pratiques et territoires|year=2002|series=Atlas/Monde |publisher=Autrement|location=Paris, France|language=fr|isbn=2746702649|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427135523/http://img.webme.com/pic/g/geographie-ville-en-guerre/religions-chine.jpg|archive-date=27 April 2017}} p. 34.</ref><ref name=map2>{{cite map|map=Religions in China|map-url=http://cybergeo.revues.org/docannexe/image/23808/img-3.jpg|title=Narody Vostochnoi Asii|trans-title=Ethnic Groups of East Asia|year=1965|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427135600/http://cybergeo.revues.org/docannexe/image/23808/img-3.jpg|archive-date=27 April 2017}} ''Zhongguo Minsu Dili'' [Folklore Geography of China], 1999; ''Zhongguo Dili'' [Geography of China], 2002.</ref><ref name=map3>{{cite map|map=Religions in China|map-url=http://refbook.img.cnki.net/CRFDPIC/r200608092/r200608092.006.76507a.jpg|editor-last=Gao 高|editor-first=Wende 文德|script-title=zh:中国少数民族史大辞典|trans-title=Chinese Dictionary of Minorities' History|year=1995|publisher=Jilin Education Press (吉林教育出版社)|location=Changchun|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427135641/http://refbook.img.cnki.net/CRFDPIC/r200608092/r200608092.006.76507a.jpg|archive-date=27 April 2017}}</ref><ref name=map4>{{cite map|map=Religions in China|map-url=http://refbook.img.cnki.net/CRFDPIC/r200606014/r200606014.0652.288333.jpg|editor-last1=Yin 殷|editor-first1=Haishan 海山|editor-last2=Li 李|editor-first2=Yaozong 耀宗|editor-last3=Guo 郭|editor-first3=Jie 洁|script-title=zh:中国少数民族艺术词典|trans-title=Chinese Minorities' Arts Dictionary|year=1991|publisher=National Publishing House (民族出版社)|location=Beijing|language=zh |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427135713/http://refbook.img.cnki.net/CRFDPIC/r200606014/r200606014.0652.288333.jpg |archive-date=27 April 2017}}</ref><br />{{colorbull|#C00000}} [[Chinese folk religion]] (including [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], and groups of [[Chinese Buddhism]])<br />{{colorbull|#FFFF00}} [[Buddhism]] ''tout court''<br />{{colorbull|#008000}} [[Islam in China|Islam]]<br />{{colorbull|#FF00FF}} [[Religion in China#Ethnic minorities' indigenous religions|Ethnic minorities' indigenous religions]]<br />{{colorbull|#00CCFF}} [[Mongolian folk religion]]<br />{{colorbull|#00FF00}} [[Northeast China folk religion]] influenced by Tungus and [[Manchu shamanism]]; widespread [[Shanrendao]]]]
The government of the People's Republic of China and the Chinese Communist Party both officially espouse [[State atheism in China|state atheism]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dillon|first1=Michael|title=Religious Minorities and China|date=2001|publisher=Minority Rights Group International }}</ref> and have conducted [[Antireligious campaigns in China|antireligious campaigns]] to this end.<ref name="BuangChew2014">{{cite book|last1=Buang|first1=Sa'eda|title=Muslim Education in the 21st Century: Asian Perspectives|last2=Chew|first2=Phyllis Ghim-Lian|date=9 May 2014|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-317-81500-6|page=75|quote=Subsequently, a new China was found on the basis of Communist ideology, i.e. atheism. Within the framework of this ideology, religion was treated as a 'contorted' world-view and people believed that religion would necessarily disappear at the end, along with the development of human society. A series of anti-religious campaigns was implemented by the Chinese Communist Party from the early 1950s to the late 1970s. As a result, in nearly 30 years between the beginning of the 1950s and the end of the 1970s, mosques (as well as churches and Chinese temples) were shut down and Imams involved in forced 're-education'.}}</ref> Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the CCP's [[United Front Work Department]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Joske |first=Alex |author-link=Alex Joske |date=May 9, 2019 |title=Reorganizing the United Front Work Department: New Structures for a New Era of Diaspora and Religious Affairs Work |url=https://jamestown.org/program/reorganizing-the-united-front-work-department-new-structures-for-a-new-era-of-diaspora-and-religious-affairs-work/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721191900/https://jamestown.org/program/reorganizing-the-united-front-work-department-new-structures-for-a-new-era-of-diaspora-and-religious-affairs-work/ |archive-date=July 21, 2019 |access-date=2019-07-27 |website=[[Jamestown Foundation]] |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Freedom of religion]] is guaranteed by China's constitution, although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to state persecution.<ref name="XinBan2012">[http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/602b650e-dc69-11e1-a304-00144feab49a.html "China bans religious activities in Xinjiang"]. ''[[Financial Times]]''. 2 August 2012. Retrieved 28 August 2012.</ref><ref>''Constitution of the People's Republic of China''. Chapter 2, Article 36.</ref>

Over the millennia, Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. The "[[three teachings]]", including [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], and [[Buddhism]] ([[Chinese Buddhism]]), historically have a significant role in shaping Chinese culture,<ref name="Yao2011">{{cite book|last1=Yao|first1=Xinzhong|author-link1=Yao Xinzhong|year=2010|title=Chinese Religion: A Contextual Approach|publisher=A&C Black|location=London|isbn=978-1-84706-475-2}} pp. 9–11.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=James|title=Chinese Religions in Contemporary Societies|year=2006|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-626-8}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=S4vg8BQrqA4C&pg=PA57 p. 57].</ref> enriching a [[Chinese theology|theological and spiritual framework]] which harks back to the early [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and [[Zhou dynasty]]. Chinese popular or folk religion, which is framed by the three teachings and other traditions,<ref>Tam Wai Lun, "Local Religion in Contemporary China", in {{cite book|last=Xie|first=Zhibin|year=2006|title=Religious Diversity and Public Religion in China|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|isbn=978-0-7546-5648-7}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=peah4XTpqnkC&pg=PA73 p. 73].</ref> consists in allegiance to the ''[[shen (Chinese religion)|shen]]'' ({{lang|zh|{{linktext|神}}}}), a character that signifies the "[[Chinese gods and immortals|energies of generation]]", who can be [[deity|deities]] of the environment or [[progenitor|ancestral principles]] of human groups, concepts of civility, [[culture hero]]es, many of whom feature in [[Chinese mythology]] and history.<ref>{{citation|last=Teiser|first=Stephen F. |chapter=The Spirits of Chinese Religion|chapter-url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/main/spirits_of_chinese_religion.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/main/spirits_of_chinese_religion.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Religions of China in Practice|editor=Donald S. Lopez Jr.|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1996}}. Extracts in ''[http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/bgov/cosmos.htm The Chinese Cosmos: Basic Concepts]''.</ref> Among the most popular [[cult (religious practice)|cults]] are those of [[Mazu]] (goddess of the seas),<ref name="Laliberte2011">{{cite journal|last=Laliberté|first=André|title=Religion and the State in China: The Limits of Institutionalization|journal=Journal of Current Chinese Affairs|volume=40|issue=2|pages=3–15 |year=2011|url=http://journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de/giga/jcca/article/view/415/413|doi=10.1177/186810261104000201|s2cid=30608910}} {{ISSN|1868-4874}} (online), {{ISSN|1868-1026}} (print). p. 7: "...{{nbsp}}while provincial leaders in Fujian nod to Taoism with their sponsorship of the Mazu Pilgrimage in Southern China, the leaders of Shanxi have gone further with their promotion of worship of the Yellow Emperor ({{zh|labels=no|t=黃帝|p=Huáng Dì}})".</ref> [[Yellow Emperor|Huangdi]] (one of the two [[Yan Huang Zisun|divine patriarchs]] of the Chinese race),<ref name="Laliberte2011" /><ref>{{citation|last=Sautman|first=Barry|author-link=Barry Sautman|chapter=Myths of Descent, Racial Nationalism and Ethnic Minorities in the People's Republic of China|pages=75–95 |title=The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives|editor1-last=Dikötter |editor1-first=Frank|location=Honolulu|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=1997|isbn=978-962-209-443-7}} pp. 80–81.</ref> [[Guandi]] (god of war and business), [[Caishen]] (god of prosperity and richness), [[Pangu]] and many others. China is home to many of the [[list of statues by height|world's tallest religious statues]], including the tallest of all, the [[Spring Temple Buddha]] in [[Henan]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/monitoring/media_reports/1315785.stm |title=China enters biggest Buddhist statue race |publisher=BBC News |date=6 May 2001}}</ref>

Clear data on religious affiliation in China is difficult to gather due to varying definitions of "religion" and the unorganized, diffusive nature of Chinese religious traditions. Scholars note that in China there is no clear boundary between [[three teachings]] religions and local folk religious practice.<ref name="Yao2011" /> A 2015 poll conducted by [[WIN/GIA|Gallup International]] found that 61% of Chinese people self-identified as "convinced atheist",<ref name="GallupInternational">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/files/2015/04/WIN.GALLUP-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUSITY-INDEX.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/files/2015/04/WIN.GALLUP-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUSITY-INDEX.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Gallup International Religiosity Index |date=April 2015|newspaper=The Washington Post|publisher=WIN-Gallup International|access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref> though Chinese religions or some of their strands are definable as [[nontheism|non-theistic]] and [[humanistic]] religions, since they do not believe that divine creativity is completely transcendent, but it is inherent in the world and in particular in the human being.<ref>{{cite conference|first=Joseph A.|last=Adler|title=The Heritage of Non-Theistic Belief in China|conference=(Conference paper) Toward a Reasonable World: The Heritage of Western Humanism, Skepticism, and Freethought|location=San Diego, CA|year=2011 |url=http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Writings/Non-theistic.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Writings/Non-theistic.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to a 2014 study, approximately 74% are either non-religious or practice Chinese folk belief, 16% are Buddhists, 2% are Christians, 1% are Muslims, and 8% adhere to other religions including Taoists and [[Chinese salvationist religions|folk salvationism]].<ref name="CFPS2014">[[China Family Panel Studies]] 2014 survey.http://www.isss.edu.cn/cfps/EN/enNews/CFPSNews/2016news/2016-12-30/307.html release #2] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20170225211353/http://www.isss.edu.cn/cfps/EN/enNews/CFPSNews/2016news/2016-12-30/307.html archived]). The tables also contain the results of CFPS 2012 and Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) results for 2006, 2008 and 2010.</ref> In addition to Han people's local religious practices, there are also various [[ethnic minorities in China|ethnic minority groups in China]] who maintain their [[religion in China#Ethnic minorities' indigenous religions|traditional autochthone religions]]. The various folk religions today comprise 2–3% of the population, while Confucianism as a religious self-identification is common within the intellectual class. Significant faiths specifically connected to certain ethnic groups include [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and the [[Islam in China|Islamic religion]] of the [[Hui people|Hui]], [[Uyghurs|Uyghur]], [[Kazakhs in China|Kazakh]], [[Kyrgyz in China|Kyrgyz]] and other peoples in Northwest China.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}} The 2010 population census reported the total number of Muslims in the country as 23.14 million.

A 2021 poll from [[Ipsos]] and the Policy Institute at [[King's College London]] found that 35% of Chinese people said there was tension between different religious groups, which was the second lowest percentage of the 28 countries surveyed.<ref>{{Cite news|date=25 June 2021|title=Tension between rich and poor is seen as a key source of division around the world|work=[[Ipsos]]|url=https://www.ipsos.com/en-ca/news-polls/culture-war-around-the-world|access-date=13 February 2022|archive-date=27 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211227174707/https://www.ipsos.com/en-ca/news-polls/culture-war-around-the-world|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=[[John Ibbitson]]|date=1 July 2021|title=Canadians less caught up in 'culture wars' than most countries, survey shows|language=en-CA|work=[[The Globe and Mail]]|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-canadians-less-caught-up-in-culture-wars-than-most-countries-survey/}}</ref>

== Culture and society==
{{Main|Chinese culture|Culture of the People's Republic of China}}
{{wide image|File:Temple of Heaven, Beijing, China - 010 edit.jpg|1000px|The [[Temple of Heaven]], a center of [[Chinese theology|heaven worship]] and an UNESCO [[World Heritage Site|World Heritage site]], symbolizes the Interactions Between Heaven and Mankind.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Temple of Heaven: an Imperial Sacrificial Altar in Beijing |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/881/ |access-date=2023-02-18 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref>}}
[[File:Yellow Register Archives of the Ming Dynasty, Nanjing (flickr 1559896574).jpg|thumb|A [[Moon gate]] in a Chinese garden]]
Since [[Ancient China|ancient times]], Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism. Chinese culture, in turn, has heavily influenced [[East Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bader |first=Jeffrey A. |date=6 September 2005 |title=China's Role in East Asia: Now and the Future |url=https://www.brookings.edu/on-the-record/chinas-role-in-east-asia-now-and-the-future/ |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=Brookings Institution}}</ref> For much of the country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigious [[imperial examination]]s, which have their origins in the Han dynasty.<ref>{{cite book|title=China: Understanding Its Past|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|year=1997|page=29}}</ref> The [[Chinese literature|literary emphasis]] of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the belief that [[Chinese calligraphy|calligraphy]], [[Classical Chinese poetry|poetry]] and [[Chinese painting|painting]] were higher forms of art than dancing or drama. Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely inward-looking national perspective.<ref name="ChinaFuture">{{cite news|last=Jacques|first=Martin|date=19 October 2012|title = A Point of View: What kind of superpower could China be?|work=[[BBC News]]|url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-19995218|access-date=21 October 2012 }}</ref> Examinations and a [[meritocracy|culture of merit]] remain greatly valued in China today.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Historical and Contemporary Exam-driven Education Fever in China|journal=KEDI Journal of Educational Policy|year=2005|volume=2|issue=1|pages=17–33|url= http://suen.educ.psu.edu/~hsuen/pubs/KEDI%20Yu.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150301123007/http://suen.educ.psu.edu/~hsuen/pubs/KEDI%20Yu.pdf|archive-date=1 March 2015 }}</ref>
[[File:Fenghuang old town.JPG|thumb|[[Fenghuang County]], an ancient town that harbors many architectural remains of Ming and Qing styles<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Fenghuang Ancient City |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5337/ |access-date=2023-02-19 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref>]]
The first leaders of the People's Republic of China were born into the traditional imperial order but were influenced by the [[May Fourth Movement]] and reformist ideals.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} They sought to change some traditional aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural land tenure, [[sexism]], and the Confucian system of education, while preserving others, such as the family structure and culture of obedience to the state.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} Some observers see the period following the establishment of the PRC in 1949 as a continuation of traditional Chinese dynastic history, while others claim that the CCP's rule under Mao Zedong damaged the foundations of Chinese culture, especially through political movements such as the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s, where many aspects of traditional culture were destroyed, having been denounced as "regressive and harmful" or "vestiges of [[feudalism]]".{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} Many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture, such as Confucianism, art, literature, and performing arts like [[Peking opera]], were altered to conform to government policies and propaganda at the time.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://qz.com/62717/why-china-is-letting-django-unchained-slip-through-its-censorship-regime/|title=Why China is letting 'Django Unchained' slip through its censorship regime|last=Kuo|first=Lily|date=13 March 2013|work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]|access-date=12 July 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514072402/http://qz.com/62717/why-china-is-letting-django-unchained-slip-through-its-censorship-regime/|archive-date=14 May 2013}}</ref>

Today, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society. With the rise of [[Chinese nationalism]] and the end of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival,<ref name="Ref_abcdef">{{cite web|url = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+cn0133)|title="China: Traditional arts". Library of Congress – Country Studies|date=July 1987|website=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]|url-status=dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050226150229/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+cn0133%29|archive-date=26 February 2005|access-date=1 November 2011 }}</ref><ref name="Ref_abcdeg">{{cite encyclopedia|url = https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-258942/China|title=China: Cultural life: The arts|access-date=1 November 2011|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide.<ref name="Ref_abcdeh">{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+cn0138)|title=China: Folk and Variety Arts |date=July 1987 |website=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041114173430/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+cn0138%29 |archive-date=14 November 2004|access-date=1 November 2011}}</ref>

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in China|3 = List of World Heritage Sites in China}}

China received 65.7&nbsp;million inbound international visitors in 2019,<ref name="WTO Tourism Highlights 2019 Edition">{{Cite journal |date=18 December 2020 |title=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer and Statistical Annex, December 2020 {{!}} World Tourism Organization |journal=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer (English Version) |volume=18 |issue=7 |pages=1–36 |doi=10.18111/wtobarometereng.2020.18.1.7 |s2cid=241989515 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and in 2018 was the [[World Tourism rankings|fourth-most-visited country]] in the world.<ref name="WTO Tourism Highlights 2019 Edition" /> It also experiences an enormous volume of [[domestic tourism]]; Chinese tourists made an estimated 6 billion travels within the country in 2019.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Liang |first=Xinlu |date=19 August 2021 |title=How has China's travel industry been hurt by the coronavirus pandemic, and when will tourism recover? |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3145468/how-has-chinas-travel-industry-been-hurt-coronavirus-pandemic |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref> China hosts the world's [[World Heritage Sites by country#Countries with major concentrations of World Heritage Sites|second-largest number]] of [[World Heritage Site]]s ([[List of World Heritage Sites in China|56]]) after Italy, and is one of the [[World Tourism rankings|most popular tourist destinations]] in the world ([[World Tourism rankings#Asia-Pacific|first in the Asia-Pacific]]).

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Chinese literature}}
[[File:Pekin przedstawienie tradycjnego teatru chinskiego 7.JPG|thumb|The stories in ''[[Journey to the West]]'' are common themes in [[Peking opera]].]]

Chinese literature is based on the literature of the Zhou dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://cai.jstvu.edu.cn/cai/daxueyuwen/2/two/xxck.htm|script-title=zh:中国文学史概述|website=jstvu.edu.cn|access-date=18 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722034509/http://cai.jstvu.edu.cn/cai/daxueyuwen/2/two/xxck.htm|archive-date=22 July 2015|url-status=dead }}</ref> Concepts covered within the [[Chinese classic texts]] present a wide range of [[Hundred Schools of Thought|thoughts]] and subjects including [[Chinese calendar|calendar]], [[List of Chinese military texts|military]], [[Chinese astrology|astrology]], [[Chinese herbology|herbology]], [[Chinese geography|geography]] and many others.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://weber.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/hbcanonru-u.html|title = The Canonical Books of Confucianism – Canon of the Literati|date = 14 November 2013|access-date = 14 January 2014|archive-date = 2 February 2014|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140202210607/http://weber.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/hbcanonru-u.html|url-status = dead}}</ref> Some of the most important early texts include the ''[[I Ching]]'' and the ''[[Classic of History|Shujing]]'' within the [[Four Books and Five Classics]] which served as the Confucian authoritative books for the state-sponsored curriculum in dynastic era. Inherited from the ''[[Classic of Poetry]]'', [[classical Chinese poetry]] developed to its [[floruit]] during the Tang dynasty. [[Li Bai]] and [[Du Fu]] opened the forking ways for the poetic circles through romanticism and realism respectively. [[Chinese historiography]] began with the ''[[Shiji]]'', the overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China is termed the [[Twenty-Four Histories]], which set a vast stage for Chinese fictions along with [[Chinese mythology]] and [[Chinese folklore|folklore]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Guo|first=Dan|url=http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-MQXS199704006.htm|script-title=zh:史传文学与中国古代小说|journal=明清小说研究|issue=April 1997|access-date=18 July 2015|archive-date=22 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722013727/http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-MQXS199704006.htm|url-status=dead}}{{better source needed|date=November 2019}}</ref> Pushed by a burgeoning citizen class in the Ming dynasty, Chinese classical fiction rose to a boom of the historical, town and [[gods and demons fiction]]s as represented by the [[Four Great Classical Novels]] which include ''[[Water Margin]]'', ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'', ''[[Journey to the West]]'' and ''[[Dream of the Red Chamber]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://iclass.nbtvu.net.cn/kecheng/072157/3title4200499122140/z3.htm|script-title=zh:第一章 中国古典小说的发展和明清小说的繁荣|website=nbtvu.net.cn|access-date=18 July 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151015200539/http://iclass.nbtvu.net.cn/kecheng/072157/3title4200499122140/z3.htm|archive-date=15 October 2015|url-status=dead }}</ref> Along with the [[wuxia]] fictions of [[Jin Yong]] and [[Liang Yusheng]],<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.baotounews.com.cn/epaper/btrb/html/2014-03/12/content_286579.htm|script-title=zh:金庸作品从流行穿越至经典|website=Baotou News|date=12 March 2014|access-date=18 July 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150722071612/http://www.baotounews.com.cn/epaper/btrb/html/2014-03/12/content_286579.htm|archive-date=22 July 2015|url-status=dead }}</ref> it remains an enduring source of popular culture in the [[East Asian cultural sphere|Chinese sphere of influence]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://d.wanfangdata.com.cn/Periodical_dbsdxb-zxsh201006025.aspx|script-title=zh:四大名著在日、韩的传播与跨文化重构|journal=Journal of Northeast Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)|issue=June 2010|access-date=18 July 2015 }}</ref>

In the wake of the [[New Culture Movement]] after the end of the Qing dynasty, Chinese literature embarked on a new era with [[written vernacular Chinese]] for ordinary citizens. [[Hu Shih]] and [[Lu Xun]] were pioneers in modern literature.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-HZSW200004009.htm|script-title=zh:新文化运动中的胡适与鲁迅|publisher=CCP Hangzhou Party School Paper (中共杭州市委党校学报)|language=zh-CN|date=April 2000|access-date=18 July 2015|archive-date=22 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722013427/http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-HZSW200004009.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Various literary genres, such as [[misty poetry]], [[scar literature]], [[young adult fiction]] and the [[xungen movement|xungen literature]], which is influenced by [[magic realism]],<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.literature.org.cn/article.aspx?id=25449|script-title=zh:魔幻现实主义文学与"寻根"小说"|website=literature.org.cn|language=zh-CN|date=February 2006|access-date=18 July 2015|archive-date=23 July 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150723065447/http://www.literature.org.cn/article.aspx?id=25449|url-status=dead }}</ref> emerged following the Cultural Revolution. [[Mo Yan]], a xungen literature author, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://e.hznews.com/paper/djsb/20121012/A0607/1/|script-title=zh:"莫言：寻根文学作家"|publisher=Dongjiang Times (东江时报)|language=zh-CN|date=12 October 2012|access-date=18 July 2015|archive-date=22 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722034627/http://e.hznews.com/paper/djsb/20121012/A0607/1/|url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Chinese cuisine}}
[[File:Cuisines of China.png|thumb|Map showing major regional cuisines of China]]
Chinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history and geographical variety, in which the most influential are known as the "Eight Major Cuisines", including [[Sichuan cuisine|Sichuan]], [[Cantonese cuisine|Cantonese]], [[Jiangsu cuisine|Jiangsu]], [[Shandong cuisine|Shandong]], [[Fujian cuisine|Fujian]], [[Hunan cuisine|Hunan]], [[Anhui cuisine|Anhui]], and [[Zhejiang cuisine|Zhejiang]] cuisines.<ref>{{cite web|title=Eight Major Cuisines|url=http://www.chinesecio.com/cms/en/culture/eight-major-cuisines-ba-da-cai-xi|website=chinese.cn|date=2 June 2011|access-date=17 July 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912222348/http://www.chinesecio.com/cms/en/culture/eight-major-cuisines-ba-da-cai-xi|archive-date=12 September 2015}}</ref> Chinese cuisine is also known for its width of [[Chinese cooking techniques|cooking methods]] and ingredients,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/photo/2013-09/23/c_125426786.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926145102/http://news.xinhuanet.com/photo/2013-09/23/c_125426786.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 September 2013|date=23 September 2013|agency=[[Xinhua News Agency]]|script-title=zh:中国美食成外国网友"噩梦" 鸡爪内脏鱼头不敢吃|access-date=17 July 2015}}</ref> as well as [[Chinese food therapy|food therapy]] that is emphasized by traditional Chinese medicine.<ref>{{cite web|script-title=zh:中医强调"药疗不如食疗" 食疗有三大优势|url=http://www.antpedia.com/news/36/n-135136.html|website=antpedia.com|date=1 April 2011|access-date=17 July 2015}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=July 2020}} Generally, China's staple food is rice in the south, wheat-based breads and noodles in the north. The diet of the common people in pre-modern times was largely grain and simple vegetables, with meat reserved for special occasions. The bean products, such as [[tofu]] and [[soy milk]], remain as a popular source of protein. Pork is now the most popular meat in China, accounting for about three-fourths of the country's total meat consumption.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/greatspeculations/2013/06/19/chinas-hunger-for-pork-will-impact-the-u-s-meat-industry/|title=China's Hunger For Pork Will Impact The U.S. Meat Industry|date=19 June 2013|newspaper=Forbes|access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref> While pork dominates the meat market, there is also the vegetarian [[Buddhist cuisine]] and the pork-free [[Chinese Islamic cuisine]]. Southern cuisine, due to the area's proximity to the ocean and milder climate, has a wide variety of seafood and vegetables; it differs in many respects from the wheat-based diets across dry northern China. Numerous offshoots of Chinese food, such as [[Cuisine of Hong Kong#Eastern Styles|Hong Kong cuisine]] and [[American Chinese food]], have emerged in the nations that play host to the [[Chinese diaspora]].{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

=== Architecture ===
{{Main|Chinese architecture|3 = List of World Heritage Sites in China}}

Many architectural masters and masterpieces emerged in [[History of China|ancient China]], creating many palaces, tombs, temples, gardens, houses, etc. The architecture of China is as old as Chinese civilization.<ref name="Itō-2017"/> The first communities that can be identified culturally as Chinese were settled chiefly in the basin of the Yellow River.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Liang |first1=Sicheng |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/71216529 |title=Qing shi ying zao ze li |last2=梁思成 |date=2006 |publisher=Qing hua da xue chu ban she |isbn=7-302-10200-7 |edition=Di 1 ban |location=Beijing |oclc=71216529}}</ref> [[Chinese architecture]] is the embodiment of an [[architectural style]] that has developed over millennia in China and has remained a vestigial source of perennial influence on the development of East Asian architecture.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodrich |first=L. Carrington |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/957659861 |title=A short history of the Chinese people |date=2007 |isbn=978-1-4067-6976-0 |edition=Third |location=[Place of publication not identified] |oclc=957659861}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=McCannon |first=John |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/47755818 |title=Barron's how to prepare for the AP world history examination |date=2002 |isbn=0-7641-1816-1 |location=Hauppauge, N.Y. |oclc=47755818}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Religious pluralism, state and society in Asia |date=2013 |author=Chiara Formichi |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-57542-8 |oclc=1053736418}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Historiography |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |author1=Robin W. Winks |author2=Alaine M. Low |isbn=978-0-19-154241-1 |location=New York |oclc=780534735}}</ref> Since its emergence during the early ancient era, the structural principles of its architecture have remained largely unchanged. The main changes involved diverse decorative details. Starting with the [[Tang dynasty#Engineering|Tang dynasty]],<ref>{{Cite journal |date=December 1940 |title=Volume Information |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3046712 |journal=The Art Bulletin |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=286–289 |doi=10.2307/3046712 |jstor=3046712 |issn=0004-3079}}</ref> Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the architectural styles of neighboring East Asian countries such as [[Japanese architecture|Japan]], [[Korean architecture|Korea]], and [[Mongolian architecture|Mongolia]].<ref name="Cartwright-2023">{{Cite web |last=Cartwright |first=Mark |title=Ancient Chinese Architecture |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Chinese_Architecture/ |access-date=2023-02-19 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref> and minor influences on the architecture of Southeast and South Asia including the countries of [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Indonesia]], [[Sri Lanka]], Thailand, Laos, [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnamese architecture|Vietnam]] and the Philippines.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bandaranayake |first=Senake |title=Sinhalese monastic architecture: the viháras of Anurádhapura |date=1974 |publisher=Brill |isbn=90-04-03992-9 |location=Leiden |oclc=3052790}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author1=Nithi Sathāpitānon |title=Architecture of Thailand: a guide to traditional and contemporary forms |date=2012 |publisher=Didier Millet |author2=Brian Mertens |isbn=978-981-4260-86-2 |location=Singapore |oclc=795182528}}</ref>

Chinese architecture is characterized by bilateral symmetry, use of enclosed open spaces, [[feng shui]] (e.g. directional [[Hierarchy|hierarchies]]),<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Tuobin |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1336350713 |title=Bu lu ke lin = Brooklyn |last2=托宾 Toibin |first2=Colm |date=2021 |publisher=Shang hai yi wen chu ban she you xian gong si |others=Bo,Li, 柏栎 |isbn=978-7-5327-8659-6 |edition=Di 1 ban |location=Shanghai |oclc=1336350713}}</ref> a horizontal emphasis, and an allusion to various cosmological, [[myth]]ological or in general symbolic elements. Chinese architecture traditionally classifies structures according to type, ranging from ''[[pagodas]]'' to [[Chinese palace|palaces]].<ref name="Itō-2017">{{Cite book |last1=Itō |first1=Chūta |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1080553211 |title=Zhongguo jian zhu shi |last2=伊藤忠太 |date=2017 |others=Yizhuang Liao, 廖伊庄 |isbn=978-7-5146-1318-6 |edition=Di 1 ban |location=Beijing Shi |oclc=1080553211}}</ref><ref name="Cartwright-2023"/>

Chinese architecture varies widely based on status or affiliation, such as whether the structures were constructed for emperors, commoners, or for religious purposes. Other variations in Chinese architecture are shown in vernacular styles associated with different [[Geography|geographic]] regions and different ethnic heritages, such as the [[Stilt house]]s in the south, the [[Yaodong|Yaodong buildings]] in the northwest, the [[Yurt|yurt buildings]] of nomadic people, and the [[Siheyuan|Siheyuan buildings]] in the north.<ref>{{Cite book |last=徐怡涛. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/862669376 |title=Zhong guo jian zhu |date=2010 |publisher=Gao deng jiao yu chu ban she |others=Xu yi tao, 徐怡涛. |isbn=978-7-04-027421-9 |location=Bei jing |oclc=862669376}}</ref>

=== Music ===
{{Main|Music of China|C-pop|Chinese opera}}

Chinese music covers a highly diverse range of music from traditional music to modern music. Chinese music dates back before the pre-imperial times. [[Traditional Chinese musical instruments]] were traditionally grouped into eight categories known as ''bayin'' (八音). Traditional Chinese opera is a form of musical theatre in China originating thousands of years and has regional style forms such as Beijing opera and [[Cantonese opera]].<ref>{{cite web|title = A Brief History of Chinese Opera|url = https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-chinese-opera-195127|access-date=14 September 2020|website=ThoughtCo}}</ref> Chinese pop (C-Pop) includes [[mandopop]] and [[cantopop]]. [[Chinese rap]], [[Chinese hip hop]] and [[Hong Kong hip hop]] have become popular in contemporary times.<ref>{{cite web|title = Why Chinese rappers don't fight the power|url = https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20191106-why-chinese-rappers-dont-fight-the-power|access-date=23 November 2021|publisher=BBC}}</ref>

=== Cinema ===
{{Main|Cinema of China}}

Cinema was first introduced to China in 1896 and the first Chinese film, ''[[Dingjun Mountain (film)|Dingjun Mountain]],'' was released in 1905.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hays|first=Jeffrey|title = Early history of chinese film {{!}} Facts and Details|url = http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat7/sub42/item1630.html|access-date=14 September 2020|website=factsanddetails.com}}</ref> China has the largest number of movie screens in the world since 2016,<ref name="hr">{{cite web|last=Brzeski|first=Patrick|date=20 December 2016|title=China Says It Has Passed U.S. as Country With Most Movie Screens|url = https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/china-says-has-passed-us-as-country-movie-screens-957849|access-date=21 December 2016|work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]}}</ref> China became the largest cinema market in the world in 2020.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tartaglione|first=Nancy|date=15 November 2016|title=China Will Overtake U.S. In Number Of Movie Screens This Week: Analyst|url=https://deadline.com/2016/11/china-cinema-screens-overtake-us-box-office-2019-1201852359/|access-date=15 November 2016|work=[[Deadline Hollywood]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=PricewaterhouseCoopers|title=Strong revenue growth continues in China's cinema market|url=https://www.pwccn.com/en/press-room/press-releases/pr-170619.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303120239/https://www.pwccn.com/en/press-room/press-releases/pr-170619.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 March 2020|access-date=14 September 2020|website=PwC}}</ref> The top 3 [[List of highest-grossing films in China|highest-grossing films in China]] {{as of|2023|lc=y}} were ''[[The Battle at Lake Changjin]]'' (2021), ''[[Wolf Warrior 2]]'' (2017), and ''[[Hi, Mom (2021 film)|Hi, Mom]]'' (2021).<ref name="Alltimedomestic">{{cite web |title=内地总票房排名 |script-title= |trans-title=All-Time Domestic Box Office Rankings |url=http://www.endata.com.cn/BoxOffice/BO/History/Movie/Alltimedomestic.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216170558/http://www.endata.com.cn/BoxOffice/BO/History/Movie/Alltimedomestic.html |archive-date=16 February 2020 |access-date=2 March 2020 |work=China Box Office |publisher= |language=zh}}</ref>

=== Fashion ===
{{Main|Chinese clothing|Hanfu}}

[[Hanfu]] is the historical clothing of the Han people in China. The [[Cheongsam|qipao]] or cheongsam is a popular Chinese female dress.<ref>{{cite web|title=Qipao {{!}} dress|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/qipao|access-date=14 September 2020|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> The [[hanfu movement]] has been popular in contemporary times and seeks to revitalize Hanfu clothing.<ref>{{cite web|title=Current and Former EXO Members Are Some of China's Most Expensive Singers|url = https://www.jaynestars.com/news/current-and-former-exo-members-are-some-of-chinas-most-expensive-singers/|access-date=14 September 2020|website=JayneStars.com}}</ref>

=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sport in China|China at the Olympics|China at the Paralympics}}

China has one of the [[Sport in China|oldest sporting cultures]] in the world. There is evidence that [[archery]] (''shèjiàn'') was practiced during the [[Western Zhou dynasty]]. Swordplay (''jiànshù'') and ''[[cuju]]'', a sport loosely related to [[association football]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Soccer|year=2011|publisher=Scarecrow Press|page=2|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9j1wbp2t1usC&pg=PA2|isbn=978-0-8108-7188-5 }}</ref> date back to China's early dynasties as well.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.theworldofchinese.com/2013/08/sport-in-ancient-china/|title = Sport in Ancient China|publisher = JUE LIU (刘珏) (The World of Chinese)|date = 31 August 2013|access-date = 28 June 2014|archive-date = 10 October 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152027/http://www.theworldofchinese.com/2013/08/sport-in-ancient-china/|url-status = dead}}</ref>

[[File:FloorGoban.JPG|thumb|[[Go (game)|Go]] is an abstract strategy board game for two players, in which the aim is to surround more territory than the opponent and was invented in China more than 2,500 years ago.]]

[[Physical fitness]] is widely emphasized in Chinese culture, with morning exercises such as ''[[qigong]]'' and [[tai chi]] widely practiced,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Thornton|first1=E. W.|last2=Sykes|first2=K. S.|last3=Tang|first3=W. K.|year=2004|title=Health benefits of Tai Chi exercise: Improved balance and blood pressure in middle-aged women|journal=[[Health Promotion International]]|volume=19|issue=1|pages=33–38|doi=10.1093/heapro/dah105|pmid=14976170}}</ref> and commercial [[gym]]s and private fitness clubs are gaining popularity across the country.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://chinasportsbiz.com/2011/07/01/huge-potential-of-fitness-market-in-china/|title=China health club market – Huge potential & challenges|website=China Sports Business|date=1 July 2011|access-date=31 July 2012 }}</ref> Basketball is currently the most popular spectator sport in China.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.wenzhou.gov.cn/art/2014/8/7/art_9113_318011.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151109001344/http://www.wenzhou.gov.cn/art/2014/8/7/art_9113_318011.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 November 2015|script-title=zh:2014年6岁至69岁人群体育健身活动和体质状况抽测结果发布|website=Wenzhou People's Government|date=7 August 2014|access-date=23 November 2015}}</ref> The [[Chinese Basketball Association]] and the American [[National Basketball Association]] also have a huge national following amongst the Chinese populace, with native-born and NBA-bound Chinese players and well-known national household names such as [[Yao Ming]] and [[Yi Jianlian]] being held in high esteem among Chinese basketball fans.<ref name="Beech2003">{{cite magazine|url = http://www.time.com/time/asia/2003/heroes/yao_ming.html|title=Yao Ming|access-date=30 March 2007|last=Beech|first=Hannah|magazine=Time|date=28 April 2003|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110705191234/http://www.time.com/time/asia/2003/heroes/yao_ming.html|archive-date=5 July 2011 }}</ref> China's professional football league, now known as [[Chinese Super League]], was established in 1994, it is the largest football market in East Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://sports.sohu.com/20130714/n381558488.shtml|script-title=zh:足球不给劲观众却不少 中超球市世界第9亚洲第1|website=[[Sohu]] Sports|date=14 July 2013|access-date=17 July 2015}}</ref> Other popular sports in the country include [[Chinese martial arts|martial arts]], [[table tennis]], [[badminton]], [[swimming (sport)|swimming]] and [[snooker]]. [[Board game]]s such as [[Go (board game)|go]] (known as ''wéiqí'' in Chinese), [[xiangqi]], [[mahjong]], and more recently [[chess]], are also played at a professional level.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120512103553/http://thestar.com.my/lifestyle/story.asp?file=%2F2011%2F9%2F2%2Flifeliving%2F9398979&sec=lifeliving "Chinese players dominate at Malaysia open chess championship"]. ''Toronto Star''. 2 September 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2011.</ref> In addition, China is home to a huge number of [[cycling|cyclists]], with an estimated 470 million bicycles {{As of|2012|lc=y}}.<ref name="470MBikes">{{cite news |date=17 August 2012 |title=Bike-Maker Giant Says Fitness Lifestyle Boosting China Sales |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |agency= |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-08-16/bicycle-maker-giant-says-fitness-lifestyle-boosting-china-sales.html |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> Many more traditional sports, such as [[dragon boat]] racing, [[Mongolian wrestling|Mongolian-style wrestling]] and [[horse racing]] are also popular.<ref name="Ref_abcden">Qinfa, Ye. [http://chineseculture.about.com/library/weekly/aa032301a.htm "Sports History of China"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303183246/http://chineseculture.about.com/library/weekly/aa032301a.htm|date=3 March 2009}}. [[About.Com]]. Retrieved 21 April 2006.</ref>

China has [[China at the Olympics|participated in the Olympic Games]] since 1932, although it has only participated as the PRC [[China at the 1952 Summer Olympics|since 1952]]. China hosted the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] in Beijing, where its athletes received 48 gold medals – [[2008 Summer Olympics medal table|the highest number of gold medals]] of any participating nation that year.<ref name="Ref_abcdeo">{{cite news|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/7583735.stm|title=China targets more golds in 2012|work=BBC Sport|date=27 August 2008|access-date= 27 November 2011 }}</ref> China also won the most medals of any nation at the [[2012 Summer Paralympics]], with 231 overall, including 95 gold medals.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.london2012.com/paralympics/medals/medal-count/|title=Medal Count|website=London2012.com|access-date=9 September 2012 |url-status=dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120830230101/http://www.london2012.com/paralympics/medals/medal-count/ |archive-date=30 August 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url = https://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/story/2012/09/9/china-dominates-medals-us-falls-short-at-paralympics/57719222/1|title=China dominates medals; U.S. falls short at Paralympics|newspaper=[[USA Today]]|date=9 September 2012|access-date=19 June 2013}}</ref> In 2011, Shenzhen in Guangdong, China hosted the [[2011 Summer Universiade]]. China hosted the [[2013 East Asian Games]] in Tianjin and the [[2014 Summer Youth Olympics]] in Nanjing; the first country to host both regular and Youth Olympics. Beijing and its nearby city [[Zhangjiakou]] of [[Hebei province]] collaboratively hosted the [[2022 Winter Olympics]], making Beijing the first dual olympic city in the world by holding both the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics.<ref>{{cite web|title=Beijing: The world's first dual Olympic city |url=https://olympics.com/en/news/100-days-to-go-beijing-worlds-first-dual-olympic-city|publisher=olympics.com|access-date=6 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.olympic.org/beijing-2022|title = Beijing 2022 Winter Games Olympics – results & video highlights|date= 23 February 2018|publisher=International Olympic Committee|access-date= 23 February 2018}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Outline of China]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist|1}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{Main list|Bibliography of Chinese history}}
{{refbegin|40em}}
* Farah, Paolo (2006). "Five Years of China's WTO Membership: EU and US Perspectives on China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism". ''Legal Issues of Economic Integration''. Kluwer Law International. Volume 33, Number 3. pp.&nbsp;263–304. [https://ssrn.com/abstract=916768 Abstract].
* Heilig, Gerhard K. (2006/2007). ''[http://www.china-profile.com/bib/bib_start.htm China Bibliography – Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105234238/http://www.china-profile.com/bib/bib_start.htm|date=5 November 2015 }}.'' China-Profile.com.
* [[Martin Jacques|Jacques, Martin]] (2009).''[[When China Rules the World: The End of the Western World and the Birth of a New Global Order]]''. Penguin Books. Rev. ed. (28 August 2012). {{ISBN|978-1-59420-185-1}}
* Jaffe, Amy Myers, "Green Giant: Renewable Energy and Chinese Power", ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'', vol. 97, no. 2 (March / April 2018), pp.&nbsp;83–93.
* [[Ian Denis Johnson|Johnson, Ian]], "What Holds China Together?", ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXVI, no. 14 (26 September 2019), pp.&nbsp;14, 16, 18. "The [[Manchus]]{{nbsp}}... had [in 1644] conquered the last ethnic Chinese empire, the [[Ming empire|Ming]] [and established Imperial China's last dynasty, the [[Qing]]]{{nbsp}}... The Manchus expanded the empire's borders northward to include all of [[Mongolia]], and westward to [[Tibet]] and [[Xinjiang]]." [p.&nbsp;16.] "China's rulers have no faith that anything but force can keep this sprawling country intact." [p.&nbsp;18.]
* {{cite book|last=Lagerwey|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WAOOzQi0dCkC|year=2010|title=China: A Religious State|publisher=University of Hong Kong Press|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-988-8028-04-7 }}
* {{cite book|last=Meng|first=Fanhua|title=Phenomenon of Chinese Culture at the Turn of the 21st century|year=2011|publisher=Silkroad Press|location=Singapore|isbn=978-981-4332-35-4}}
* {{cite book|author = Sang Ye|title = China Candid: The People on the People's Republic|year=2006|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|isbn=978-0-520-24514-3 }}
* {{cite book|last=Selden|first=Mark|title=The People's Republic of China: Documentary History of Revolutionary Change|year=1979|publisher=Monthly Review Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-85345-532-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/peoplesrepublico0000unse }}
* {{cite book|last = Shambaugh|first = David L.|year = 2008|title = China's Communist Party: Atrophy and Adaptation|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aMpj-MboMR4C|publisher = University of California Press|location = Washington, DC; Berkeley, CA|isbn = 978-0-520-25492-3 }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
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=== Government ===
* [http://english.gov.cn/ The Central People's Government of People's Republic of China] {{in lang|en}}

=== General information ===
* [http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/china/home.html China at a Glance] from ''[[People's Daily]]''
* {{Britannica|111803}}    
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13017877 Country profile – China] at [[BBC News]]
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/ China]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120609183901/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/china.htm China, People's Republic of] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* {{Curlie|Regional/Asia/China}}

=== Maps ===
* [https://maps.google.com/maps?q=China&ll=30.600094,103.710938&spn=64.10009,177.1875&om=1 Google Maps—China]
* {{Wikiatlas|the People's Republic of China}}
* {{OSM relation|270056}}

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