View source for Chola conquest of the Anuradhapura Kingdom

{{Short description|992–1017 Chola military campaign}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Chola conquest of the Anuradhapura Kingdom
| partof            = [[Chola–Sinhalese wars]]
| date              = 992–1017
| place             = [[Anuradhapura Kingdom]]
| image             =
| image_size = 
| caption = 
| coordinates       = 
| map_type          = 
| map_relief        = 
| map_size          = 
| map_marksize      = 
| map_caption       = 
| map_label         = 
| territory         = *[[Polonnaruwa]] made Chola administrative capital in Sri Lanka
*[[Rajarata]] annexed as a Chola province in 993 A.D
*[[Maya Rata]] and parts of [[Ruhuna]] annexed as a Chola Province in 1017 A.D{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=199-200}}
| result            = [[Chola]] victory
*[[Anuradhapura]] destroyed by the [[Chola]] forces.<ref>Spencer 1976, p. 411</ref>
*Plundering of Anuradhapura and the island's treasures.<ref>The Jungle Tide:“Collapse” in Early Mediaeval Sri Lanka STRICKLAND, KEIR, MAGALIE (2011) The Jungle Tide: “Collapse” in Early Mediaeval Sri Lanka. Doctoral thesis, Durham University. P.331 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/893/</ref>
| status            = 
| combatants_header = 
| combatant1        = [[File:Flag of Chola Kingdom.png|25px]]  [[Chola Empire]]
| combatant2        = [[File:Flag of King Dutugemunu.svg|25px]] [[Anuradhapura Kingdom]]
* [[File:Twin fish flag of Pandyas.svg|25px]] [[Pandya Dynasty|Pandyan Allies]]{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}
| combatant3        = 
| commander1        = '''(992–993 CE)'''<br>[[File:Flag of Chola Kingdom.png|20px]] [[Rajaraja Chola I]] (Emperor)<br/>[[File:Flag of Chola Kingdom.png|20px]] [[Rajendra Chola I]] (Prince)<br/>[[File:Flag of Chola Kingdom.png|20px]] [[Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan]] ([[Senapati|General]])
----
'''(1017 CE)'''<br>[[File:Flag of Chola Kingdom.png|20px]]  [[Rajendra Chola I]] (Emperor)<br/>[[File:Flag of Chola Kingdom.png|20px]]  Sanga Varma Chola (Prince)
----
'''(1042 CE)'''<br>[[File:Flag of Chola Kingdom.png|20px]]  Sanga Varma Chola (Chieftain)
| commander2        = '''(992–993 CE)'''<br>[[File:Flag of King Dutugemunu.svg|20px]] [[Mahinda V]]{{POW}}<br>
----
'''(1017 CE)'''<br>[[File:Flag of King Dutugemunu.svg|20px]] [[Kassapa VI]]<br>
----
'''(1042 CE)'''<br>[[File:Flag of King Dutugemunu.svg|20px]] [[Kassapa VI]]{{KIA}}<br>[[File:Twin fish flag of Pandyas.svg|20px]] Disposed Pandyan Princes{{KIA}}
| commander3        = 
| units1            = [[File:Flag of Chola Kingdom.png|20px]] [[Chola Navy]]<br>[[File:Flag of Chola Kingdom.png|20px]] [[Chola military|Chola Army]]
| units2            = [[File:Flag of King Dutugemunu.svg|20px]] [[Anuradhapura Kingdom#Army|Anuradhapura Army]]<br>[[File:Twin fish flag of Pandyas.svg|20px]] Pandyan Auxiliaries{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}
| units3            = 
| strength1         = 95,000<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GpNECgAAQBAJ&dq=chola+conquest+of+sri+lanka+95%2C000&pg=PT44|title=Military Manpower, Armies and Warfare in South Asia|isbn=9781317321279|last1=Roy|first1=Kaushik|date=6 October 2015|publisher=Routledge }}</ref>
| strength2         = Unknown
| strength3         = 
| casualties1       = Unknown
| casualties2       = Many Soldiers and Large number of Sinhalese civilians died
| casualties3       = 
| notes             = 
| campaignbox       = 
}}
{{Campaignbox Anuradhapura period conflicts}}
{{Campaignbox Polonnaruwa period conflicts}}
{{History of Sri Lanka}}

The '''Chola conquest of the Anuradhapura Kingdom''' was the military invasion and conquest of the [[Anuradhapura Kingdom|Kingdom of Anuradhapura]] by the [[Chola Empire]]. The period of Chola entrenchment in entire Sri Lanka lasted in total about three-quarters of a century, from roughly 993 <small>CE</small> (the date of Rajaraja's first invasion) to 1070 <small>CE</small>, when [[Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa|Vijayabahu I]] recaptured the north, east and central Sri Lanka and expelled the Chola forces restoring Sinhalese sovereignty.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=409}}

The Chola conquest followed an initial conflict between Chola and the Pandya-Sinhalese alliance during conquest of the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya Kingdom]] by Chola king [[Parantaka I]].<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Wijetunga |first=Wijetunga Mudalige Karunaratna |title=The rise and decline of Chola power in Ceylon |pages=75–107 |publication-date=1962 |chapter=First Phase: Relations between the Sinhalese and the Cholas up to the time of Rajaraja I |year=1962 |doi=10.25501/SOAS.00029338}}</ref>
After the defeat, Pandya king Rajasimha took his crown and the other regalia and sought refuge in Anuradhapura.<ref name=":0" /> The Paranthka made several futile attempts to regain regalia, including invasion of Sri Lanka on a date between 947 and 949 <small>CE</small> during the reign of Sinhalese king Udaya IV (946–954 <small>CE</small>).<ref name=":0" /> One of the driving motives behind the invasions of Anuradhapura by the Cholas' was their desire to possess these royal treasures.<ref name=":0" />

The Cholas fought many subsequent wars to conquer the Sinhalese kingdom as the Sinhalese were allies of their arch-enemies, the [[Pandyas]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/CholasI |title=Cholas I}}</ref> It started with the invasion of the [[Anuradhapura Kingdom]] in 993 <small>CE</small> by [[Rajaraja I]] when he sent a large Chola army to conquer the kingdom and absorb it into the [[Chola Empire]].This invasion was successful and conquered the North and central part of Island.{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=172–173}} Entire island was subsequently conquered by 1017 <small>CE</small> and incorporated as a province of the vast [[Rajendra Chola I#Overseas conquests|Chola empire]] during the reign of his son [[Rajendra Chola I]].{{sfn|Chattopadhyaya|1994|p=7–9}}{{sfn|Kulke|Kesavapany|Sakhuja|2009|p=195–}}{{sfn|Gunawardena|2005|p=71–}}{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=200}}  The Chola occupation would be overthrown in 1070 <small>CE</small> through a campaign of [[Sinhalese Resistance]] led by [[Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa|Prince Kitti]], a Sinhalese royal.

==History==
===Background===
{{Main|Anuradhapura period}}

Military expeditions from South Indian forces into [[Anuradhapura Kingdom|Anuradhapura]] had been brief ad hoc up until the mid-tenth century. These were designed to facilitate short-term gains with minimal involvement followed by a withdrawal to the mainland. However, with the ascension of more ambitious and aggressive imperial Chola kings, Rajaraja I (985–1014) and his son Rajendra I (1012–1044), a new strategy of ruthless plunder and destruction of major political and religious centers on the island occurred, followed by the establishment of semi-permanent and fortified encampments, from where wide-ranging raids could be carried out in other parts of the island.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=409}}

===Fall of Anuradhapura===
{{See also|Anuradhapura Kingdom}}
[[File:Rajendra map new.png|right|thumb|450x450px|The [[Chola Empire]] under [[Rajendra Chola I]] in 1030 A.D]]

The ''tirumagal'' inscription of [[Rajaraja I]] dated to 993 AD first mentions [[Anuradhapura]] among the emperor's conquests. [[Mahinda V of Anuradhapura|Mahinda V]] (981–1017) distracted by a revolt of his own [[Tamil immigration to Sri Lanka|Tamil mercenary troops]] fled to the south-eastern province of [[Principality of Ruhuna|Rohana]]. Taking advantage of this internal strife Rajaraja I invaded Anuradhapura sometime in 993 AD and conquered the northern part of the country and incorporated it into his kingdom as a province named "Mummudi-sola-mandalam" after himself.{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=172–173}} The [[Culavamsa]] says that the capital at Anuradhapura was "utterly destroyed in every way by the Chola army.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=411}} The capital of the conquered Rajarata was moved to [[Polonnaruwa]] which was then renamed "Jananathamangalam", a title of Rajaraja. The Chola official Tali Kumaran erected a [[Shiva]] temple called Rajarajeshvara ("Lord of Rajaraja") in the town of Mahatirtha (modern Mantota, Mannar), which was renamed Rajaraja-pura.{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=173}} Comparing Rajaraja's campaign to the invasion of [[Lanka]] by the legendary hero [[Rama]], the Thiruvalangadu Plates states:{{sfn|Dehejia|1990|p=51}}{{cquote
| quote = "Rama built with the aid of [[vanara|monkeys]], a causeway across the sea, and then with great difficulties defeated the [[Ravana|King of Lanka]] by means of sharp edged arrows. But Rama was excelled by this king whose powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the kingdom of Lanka."
| source = Thiruvalangadu Copper Plates{{sfn|Dehejia|1990|p=51}}
| align = center
| width = 75%
}}

A partial consolidation of Chola power in [[Rajarata]] had followed the initial season of plunder. With the intention to transform Chola encampments into more permanent military enclaves, Saivite temples were constructed in Polonnaruwa and in the emporium of Mahatirtha. Taxation was also instituted, especially on merchants and artisans by the Cholas.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=416}} In 1014 Rajaraja I died and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I, perhaps the most aggressive king of his line. Chola invasion were launched southward from Rajarata into Rohana. By his fifth year, Rajendra claimed to have completely conquered the Ceylon and incorporated it into the Chola Empire. Thus The Rajendra's success was complete and whole of the island became a Chola Province.{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=200}}  {{sfn|Spencer|1976|pp=416–417|ps=: "Under Rajendra Chola 1, perhaps the most aggressive king of his line, Chola invasion were launched southward from Rajarata to Rohana. By his fifth year, Rajendra claimed to have completely conquered Ceylon, a claim that has led some historians to assert that Rajendra" completed "the conquest Rajaraja had begun" Rajendra's success was complete and whole of the island became a Chola Province.{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=200}} "But the Cholas never really strengthened their control over southern Ceylon, which in any case lacked large and prosperous settlements to tempt long-term Chola occupation." "Kassapa assumed the title of VikkamabahuI and ruled" in Rohana for several years(c. I029-Io4I)."}} As per the Sinhalese chronicle ''[[Mahavamsa]]'', the conquest of Anuradhapura was completed in the 36th year of the reign of the Sinhalese monarch Mahinda V, i.e. about 1017–18.{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=199–200}} Rajendra's success was complete and whole of the island became a Chola Province.{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=200}} But the Cholas never really consolidated their control over southern Sri Lanka, which in the case lacked large and prosperous settlements to tempt long-term Chola occupation.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=416}} According to the Culavamsa and Karandai plates, Rajendra Chola led a large army into Rohana and captured Mahinda's crown, queen, daughter, a vast amount of wealth, and the king himself whom he took as a prisoner to India, where he eventually died in exile in 1029.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=417}}{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=199–200}}

==Resistance==
[[File:Vijayabahu I's battle plan.png|thumb|right|Vijayabahu I sent three armies to attack Polonnaruwa. One was sent along the western shore to Mahatittha and Polonnaruwa, another from the east across Magama, and the third and main force across Mahiyanga.]]

In 1029, Eleven years after the Chola conquest of Rohana, Prince Kassapa, son of Mahinda, hid in Rohana, where Chola forces vainly searched for him. Soon after the death of his father Kassapa assumed the [[Sinhalese monarchy|monarchy]] as [[Kassapa VI]] (also known as Vikramabahu) and "ruled" in Rohana for several years (c. 1029–1040) while attempting to organize a campaign of liberation and unification. He became the king of Rohana after 11 years of Chola rule in Rohana. But he died before he could consolidate his power, and a series of ephemeral aspirants to the throne subsequently appeared, got defeated by Cholas and disappeared in Rohana without dislodging the Cholas from the north.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=417}} Kassapa VI's lost his life in the Cola war and that his diadem fell into the hands of Räjädhirāja.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sastry |first=Nilakanda |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.35382/page/220/mode/1up|title=The Colas Vol 1}}</ref> so, his death in 1040, brought an end to the war. His successor [[Mahalana-Kitti]] (1040–1042) tried to lead an unsuccessful revolt against the Cholas.

[[Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa|Vijayabahu]] I (1039–1110), descended from or at least claimed to be descended from the [[House of Lambakanna II|Sinhalese royal house]]. He had defeated his most powerful rivals in Rohana and was anxious to take on the Cholas, by the age of seventeen.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=417}} The crisis in the country left a scattering of turbulent chiefs and intractable rebels whose allegiance, if any, was at best opportunistic which proved a problem to both sides in the conflict, frustrating both the Sinhalese kings and the Cholas. Vijayabahu, from his base in Rohana, faced a similar difficulty; he had to contend with the hostility of local chiefs who regarded him as a greater threat to their independence than the Cholas were.

For that reason, the Cholas occasionally succeeded in recruiting nominal support from rebel chiefs in Rohana, as a result, Vijayabahu had difficulty consolidating a firm territorial base from which to launch a decisive campaign against the Cholas. On the other hand, the Cholas were unable to eliminate similar opposition to themselves in the north. Gradually the wider conflict developed into a prolonged, back-and-forth struggle of raids and counter-raids, with the forces of Vijayabahu advancing upon Polonnaruva and then falling back to fortresses in [[Dakkhinadesa]] and Rohana to withstand retaliatory Chola attacks and sieges.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=417}}

With time on the side of the insurgent forces, The Chola's determination began to gradually falter. Vijayabahu possessed strategic advantages, even without a unified "national" force behind him. A prolonged war of attrition was of greater benefit to the Sinhalese than to the Cholas. After the accession of [[Virarajendra Chola]] (1063–69) to the Chola throne, the Cholas were increasingly on the defensive, not only in Sri Lanka but also in peninsular India, where they were hard-pressed by the attacks of the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukyas]] from the Deccan.

Vijayabahu eventually launched a successful two-pronged attack upon Anuradhapura and Polonnaruva, when he could finally establish a firm base in southern Sri Lanka. Anuradhapura quickly fell and Polonnaruva was captured after a prolonged siege of the isolated Chola forces.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=417}} Virarajendra Chola was forced to dispatch an expedition from the mainland to recapture the settlements in the north and carry the attack back into Rohana, in order to stave off total defeat.

In the battles that ensued, two powerful Sinhalese chiefs, Ravideva and Cala, crossed over with their men from Vijayabahu's side to the Chola commander. One of Vijayabahu's Tamil commanders, Kurukulattaraiyan, a Tamil [[Karaiyar]] chieftain, fell in battle.<ref name="Indrapala6">{{cite book |last1=Indrapala |first1=K.|title=The Evolution of an Ethnic Identity – The Tamils of Sri Lanka 300 B.C.E to 1200 C.E. |date=2005|isbn=0-646-42546-3}} p. 249</ref> What had begun as a profitable incursion and occupation was now deteriorating into desperate attempts to retain a foothold in the north. After a further series of indecisive clashes, the occupation finally ended in the withdrawal of the Cholas.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=418}}

===End of occupation===
In 1070, when [[Kulottunga I]] (1070–1122) came to the Chola throne, after a period of political crisis at the Chola court, he initially concentrated on consolidating his authority in India. His most pressing task was to defend the Chola territories against the inroads of the [[Western Chalukya Empire]]. All this meant that the defence of Sri Lanka was given a low priority.<ref name="Indrapala6" />

The conquest of the Sinhalese kingdom had been associated with his three immediate predecessors (Rajendra Chola I, Rajendra Chola II, and Virarajendra Chola, all sons of Rajaraja I), no longer seemed to be worthwhile. Kulottunga had less personal prestige involved in the conquest, so he simply terminated it with little attempt to recoup Chola losses.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=418}}

Vijayabahu attacked and captured Pulatthinagara and drove the Cholas out of the city. Kulottunga sent a large army that engaged Vijayabahu in a pitched battle near Anuradhapura. The Cholas succeeded in driving Vijayabahu to seek refuge in Vatagiri but Vijayabahu took Mahanagakula on the Walaweganga and conducted his resistance from there. Pulatthinagara and Anuradhapura fell to Vijayabahu and Mahatittha were soon occupied.Then Cholas was forced to dispatch an expedition from the mainland to recapture the settlements in the north and carry the attack back into Rohana, in order to stave off total defeat. What had begun as a profitable incursion and occupation was now deteriorating into desperate attempts to retain a foothold in the north. {{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=417-419}}
But the occupation ended in Chola withdrawal after a further series of indecisive clashes.{{sfn|Spencer|1976|p=418}}

A. D. 1070, Vijayabahu I succeeded at last where so many of his predecessors had failed and restored the independence of Ceylon; a detailed account of the steps leading to the success of Vijayabahu belongs to the reign of Kulottunga.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sastri |first=K. A. Nilakanta |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.35382/page/300/mode/1up?view=theater&q=Vikramabahu |title=Colas vol.1 |date=1935}}</ref>

Having liberated the whole of Sri Lanka from Chola rule, Vijayabahu crowned himself king of [[Kingdom of Polonnaruwa|Polonnaruwa]] in 1076–77.

==Legacy==
{{Main|Kingdom of Polonnaruwa}}
{{See also|Capital of Sri Lanka}}

The Chola conquest had one permanent result, the kingdom of [[Anuradhapura]], which lasted for over a millennium, was destroyed by the Cholas. [[Polonnaruwa]], a military outpost of the Sinhalese kingdom,{{NoteTag|as noted by its native name of Ballot Nuvara (the camp city)}} was renamed Jananathamangalam, after a title assumed by Rajaraja I, and become the new center of administration for the Cholas. This was because earlier Tamil invaders had only aimed at overlordship of [[Rajarata]] in the north, but the Cholas were bent on control of the whole island. When Sinhalese sovereignty was restored under Vijayabahu I, he crowned himself at Anuradhapura but continued to have his capital at Polonnaruwa for it being more central and made the task of controlling the turbulent province of [[Principality of Ruhuna|Rohana]] much easier.{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=172–173}}

==See also==
* [[Kalinga Magha]]
* [[Pandyan Civil War (1169–1177)]]
* [[Anuradhapura invasion of Pandya]]

==Notes==
{{NoteFoot}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last = Codrington |first=H | title = A short history of Ceylon | publisher = Asian Educational Services | location = New Delhi, Madras, India | year = 1994 | isbn = 81-206-0946-8 }}
* {{cite book |last1=De Silva |first1=K. M. |title=A history of Sri Lanka |date=2014 |publisher=Vijitha Yapa Publications |location=Colombo |isbn=978-955-8095-92-8 |edition=[Revised.]}}
* {{cite book |last1=Dehejia |first1=Vidya |title=Art of the Imperial Cholas |date=18 October 1990 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-51524-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=23F7vTn3hBMC |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kulke| first1=Hermann |last2=Kesavapany |first2=K |last3=Sakhuja |first3=Vijay |title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2swhCXJVRzwC&pg=PA195|year=2009|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|location=Singapore|isbn=978-981-230-937-2|pages=195–}}
* {{cite book |last=Chattopadhyaya| first= Haraprasad | year= 1994| title= Ethnic Unrest in Modern Sri Lanka: An Account of Tamil-Sinhalese Race Relations| publisher= MD publications Pvt Limited | location= New Delhi}}
* {{cite book |last=Gunawardena | first= Charles A. |title=Encyclopedia of Sri Lanka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hWLQSMPddikC&pg=PA71|year=2005|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-1-932705-48-5|pages=71–}}
* {{cite book |last=Sastri |author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri | first= K. A | orig-year= 1935| year= 2000| title= The CōĻas| publisher= University of Madras | location= Madras |url=https://archive.org/stream/K.A.NilakantaSastriBooks/K.%20A.%20Nilakanta%20Sastri/Colas}}
* {{cite journal |last=Spencer |first = George W. |date=May 1976 | title = The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh-Century Ceylon | journal = The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=405–419 | doi = 10.2307/2053272 | jstor = 2053272|s2cid = 154741845 }}
{{refend}}

{{Anuradhapura period topics}}
{{Polonnaruwa period topics}}

[[Category:Polonnaruwa period]]
[[Category:Chola–Sinhalese wars]]
[[Category:Sri Lankan Tamil history]]
[[Category:Overseas empires]]
[[Category:1017 establishments]]
[[Category:11th-century establishments in Sri Lanka]]
[[Category:1077 disestablishments in Asia]]
[[Category:11th-century disestablishments in Sri Lanka]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 1010s]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 1070s]]
[[Category:Invasions of Sri Lanka]]