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{{short description|Academic or professional degree}}
{{Other uses|Doctor (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Professors.JPG|thumb|American Academic doctors gather before the commencement exercises at [[Brigham Young University]] (April 2008). The American code for academic dress identifies academic doctors with 3 bands of velvet on the sleeve of the doctoral gown.]]
[[File:Claude Bernard's thesis for his doctorate Wellcome M0011459.jpg|thumb|The cover of the [[thesis]] presented by [[Claude Bernard]] to obtain his [[Doctor of Medicine]] degree (1843).]]

A '''doctorate''' (from [[Latin]] ''docere'', "to teach") or '''doctor's degree''' (from Latin ''doctor'', "teacher") or '''doctoral degree''', is an [[academic degree]] awarded by universities, derived from the ancient formalism ''licentia docendi'' ("licence to teach"). In most countries, it is a research degree that qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the degree's field, or to work in a specific [[profession]]. There are a number of doctoral degrees; the most common is the [[Doctor of Philosophy]] (PhD), which is awarded in many different fields, ranging from the [[humanities]] to [[science|scientific]] disciplines.

In the United States and some other countries, there are also some types of technical or [[professional degree]]s that include doctor in their name and are, in some of those countries, classified as doctorates. Professional doctorates historically came about to meet the needs of practitioners in a variety of disciplines. However, the necessity of these degrees may vary greatly across disciplines, making their significance unclear.

Many universities also award [[honorary doctorate]]s to individuals deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or for other contributions to the university or to society.

{{TOClimit|3}}

==History==

===Middle Ages===
The term ''doctor'' derives from Latin, meaning "teacher" or "instructor". The doctorate (Latin: ''doctoratus'') appeared in [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]] as a license to teach Latin (''licentia docendi'') at a [[medieval university|university]].<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Doctor, doctoratus">{{citation |last=Verger |first=J. |contribution=Doctor, doctoratus |title=Lexikon des Mittelalters |volume=3 |pages=1155–1156 |publisher=J.B. Metzler |place=Stuttgart |year=1999|title-link=Lexikon des Mittelalters }}</ref> Its roots can be traced to the [[early church]] in which the term ''doctor'' referred to the [[Apostles]], [[church fathers]], and other [[Christianity|Christian]] authorities who taught and [[Exegesis|interpreted the Bible]].<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Doctor, doctoratus" />

The right to grant a ''licentia docendi'' (i.e. the doctorate) was originally reserved to the [[Catholic church]], which required the applicant to pass a test, to take an [[oath of allegiance]] and to pay a fee. The [[Third Council of the Lateran]] of 1179 guaranteed access—at that time largely free of charge—to all able applicants. Applicants were tested for aptitude.<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Licentia">{{citation |last=Verger |first=J. |contribution=Licentia |title=Lexikon des Mittelalters |volume=5 |pages=1957–1958 |publisher=J.B. Metzler |place=Stuttgart |year=1999|title-link=Lexikon des Mittelalters }}</ref> This right remained a bone of contention between the church authorities and the universities, which were slowly distancing themselves from the Church. In 1213 the right was granted by the [[pope]] to the [[University of Paris]], where it became a universal license to teach (''licentia ubique docendi'').<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Licentia" /> However, while the ''licentia'' continued to hold a higher prestige than the [[bachelor's degree]] (''baccalaureus''), the latter was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the master's degree (''magister'') and doctorate, both of which now became the accepted teaching qualifications.<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Licentia" /> According to Keith Allan Noble (1994), the first doctoral degree<!--Keith 1994 does not specify the exact type of the first doctorates--> was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150 by the University of Paris.<ref>Keith Allan Noble, ''Changing doctoral degrees: an international perspective'', Society for Research into Higher Education, 1994, p. 8.</ref>

[[George Makdisi]] theorizes that the ''[[ijazah]]'' issued in early Islamic [[madrasah]]s was the origin of the doctorate later issued in medieval European [[universities]].<ref name=Makdisi>{{citation|doi=10.2307/604423|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|jstor=604423|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=109|issue=2|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 [175–77]}}</ref><ref name="stewart">{{cite book|last=Devin J. Stewart|first=Josef W. Meri|journal=[[Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia]]|title=Degrees, or Ijazah|date=2005|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781135455965|pages=201–203|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1ZsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201}}</ref> [[Alfred Guillaume]] and [[Syed Farid al-Attas]] agree that there is a resemblance between the ''ijazah'' and the ''licentia docendi''.<ref name="Alatas">{{cite journal |last1=Al-Attas |first1=Syed Farid |author1-link=Syed Farid al-Attas |title=From Jāmi' ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue |journal=[[Current Sociology]] |date=1 January 2006 |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=112–132 |doi=10.1177/0011392106058837 |issn=0011-3921 |quote=In the 1930s, the renowned Orientalist Alfred Guillaume noted strong resemblances between Muslim and Western Christian institutions of higher learning. An example he cited is the ijazah, which he recognized as being akin to the medieval licentia docendi, the precursor of the modern university degree.|url=https://zenodo.org/record/29439 }}</ref> However, [[Toby Huff]] and others reject Makdisi's theory.<ref>{{cite book|last=Huff|first=Toby E.|title=The rise of early modern science : Islam, China, and the West|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0521529945|edition=2. ed., repr.|location=Cambridge [u.a.]|page=155|quote=It remains the case that no equivalent of the bachelor's degree, the licentia docendi, or higher degrees ever emerged in the medieval or early modern Islamic ''madrasas''.|authorlink=Toby Huff}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Verger|first=J.|title=Lexikon des Mittelalters|volume=3|year=1999|at=cols 1155–1156|contribution=Doctor, doctoratus|place=Stuttgart|publisher=J.B. Metzler|title-link=Lexikon des Mittelalters}}</ref><ref>Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: ''[[A History of the University in Europe|A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages]]'', Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}, pp. XIX: "No other European institution has spread over the entire world in the way in which the traditional form of the European university has done. The degrees awarded by European universities – the bachelor's degree, the licentiate, the master's degree, and the doctorate – have been adopted in the most diverse societies throughout the world."</ref><ref>Norman Daniel: Review of "The Rise of Colleges. Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West by George Makdisi", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 104, No. 3 (Jul. – Sep., 1984), pp. 586–588 (587)</ref> [[Devin J. Stewart]] notes a difference in the granting authority (individual professor for the ''ijzazah'' and a corporate entity in the case of the university doctorate).<ref name="stewart3">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Devin J. Stewart|editor=Josef W. Meri|encyclopedia=[[Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia]]|title=Degrees, or Ijazah|date=2005|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781135455965|pages=201–203|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1ZsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201|quote=The license to teach law and issue legal opinions [...] is the type of ijazah that resembles the medieval European university degree most closely [...] The main difference between the two is that the granting authority is an individual professor, in the Islamic case, rather than a corporate institution in the case of the university. Despite this point, Makdisi has likened the ijazat al-ifta’ wa’l-tadris to the medieval Latin licentia docendi and suggests that it served as a model for that degree.|author-link=Devin J. Stewart}}</ref>

===17th and 18th centuries===
The [[doctorate of philosophy]] developed in Germany in the 17th century (likely c. 1652).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://erhard-weigel-gesellschaft.de.dedi2970.your-server.de/biographie-weigels/ |title=Erhard-Weigel-Gesellschaft: Biographie Weigels |website=Erhard-weigel-gesellschaft.de |accessdate=2016-10-29 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114124147/http://erhard-weigel-gesellschaft.de.dedi2970.your-server.de/biographie-weigels/ |archivedate=2016-11-14 }}</ref> The term "philosophy" does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of [[philosophy]], but is used in a broader sense in accordance with its original [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] meaning, which is "love of wisdom". In most of [[Europe]], all fields ([[history]], philosophy, [[social sciences]], [[mathematics]], and [[natural philosophy]]/[[natural sciences]])<ref>Sooyoung Chang, ''Academic Genealogy of Mathematicians'', World Scientific, 2010, p. 183.</ref> were traditionally known as philosophy, and in [[Germany]] and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of [[liberal arts]] was known as the "faculty of philosophy". The doctorate of philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though the degrees are not always for the study of philosophy. Chris Park explains that it was not until formal education and degree programs were standardized in the early 19th century that the doctorate of philosophy was reintroduced in Germany as a research degree,<ref name="Redefining the Doctorate">Park, C. (2007), [https://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/gradschool/about/external/publications/redefining-the-doctorate.pdf ''Redefining the Doctorate''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014331/https://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/gradschool/about/external/publications/redefining-the-doctorate.pdf |date=2016-10-06 }}, York, UK: The Higher Education Academy, p. 4.</ref> abbreviated as Dr. phil. (similar to Ph.D. in Anglo-American countries). Germany, however, differentiated then in more detail between doctorates in philosophy and doctorates in the natural sciences, abbreviated as [[Dr. rer. nat.]], and also doctorates in the social/political sciences, abbreviated as Dr. rer. pol., similar to the other traditional doctorates in medicine (Dr. med.) and law (Dr. jur.).

University doctoral training was a form of [[apprenticeship]] to a [[guild]]. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts" was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the [[master's degree]].

University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The first women to be granted doctorates were [[Juliana Morell]] in 1608 at Lyons<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Juliana_Morell|title=Juliana Morell|encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopaedia|date=1913|access-date=2016-10-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018200827/https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Juliana_Morell|archive-date=2016-10-18|url-status=live}}</ref> or maybe Avignog (she "defended theses" in 1606 or 1607, although claims that she received a doctorate in [[Canon law of the Catholic Church|canon law]] in 1608 have been discredited),{{cn|date=September 2020}} [[Elena Cornaro Piscopia]] in 1678 at the [[University of Padua]], [[Laura Bassi]] in 1732 at [[Bologna University]], [[Dorothea Erxleben]] in 1754 at [[Halle University]] and  [[María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda]] in 1785 at [[Complutense University]], Madrid.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uah.es/universidad/presentacion/historia_universidad.shtm|title=Universidad de Alcalá|author=Universidad de Alcala (UAH), Madrid|work=uah.es|access-date=2012-11-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007070354/http://www.uah.es/universidad/presentacion/historia_universidad.shtm|archive-date=2012-10-07|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Modern times===
The use and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, and is subject to regional variations. For instance, until the early 20th century few academic staff or professors in [[English (language)|English-speaking]] universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in [[Holy Orders|holy orders]]. After that time the [[Higher education in Germany|German practice]] of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread. Universities' shift to research-oriented education (based upon the scientific method, inquiry, and observation) increased the doctorate's importance. Today, a research doctorate (PhD) or its equivalent (as defined in the US by the [[National Science Foundation|NSF]]) is generally a prerequisite for an [[Academia|academic]] career, although many recipients do not work in academia.

Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward. The first professional doctorate to be offered in the United States was the [[Doctor of Medicine|M.D.]] at Kings College (now [[Columbia University]]) after the medical school's founding in 1767,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/content/history.html|title=A Brief History of Columbia|work=columbia.edu|access-date=2016-05-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160517080232/http://www.columbia.edu/content/history.html|archive-date=2016-05-17|url-status=live}}</ref> although this was not a professional doctorate in the modern American sense as it was awarded for further study after the qualifying Bachelor of Medicine (M.B.) rather than being a qualifying degree.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ps.columbia.edu/about-ps/history-college-physicians-and-surgeons|title=History of the College of Physicians and Surgeons|publisher=Columbia University|accessdate=7 October 2016|quote=King's College organized a medical faculty in 1767 and was the first institution in the North American Colonies to confer the degree of Doctor of Medicine. The first graduates in medicine from the College were Robert Tucker and Samuel Kissarn, who received the degree of Bachelor of Medicine in May 1769, and that of Doctor of Medicine in May 1770 and May 1771, respectively.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005185728/http://ps.columbia.edu/about-ps/history-college-physicians-and-surgeons|archive-date=5 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The MD became the standard first degree in medicine in the US during the 19th century, but as a three-year undergraduate degree; it did not become established as a graduate degree until 1930. The MD, as the standard qualifying degree in medicine, gave that profession the ability (through the [[American Medical Association]], established in 1847 for this purpose) to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/trainingforpubl00goog|author=Reed, A. |date=1921|title=Training for the Public Profession of the Law|work= Carnegie's Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Bulletin 15.|publisher=Boston: Merrymount Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/trainingforpubl00goog/page/n184 162]–164}}</ref><ref name=Medline>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001936.htm|title=Doctor of medicine profession (MD)|encyclopedia=Medical Encyclopedia|publisher=MedlinePlus|accessdate=7 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009184412/https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001936.htm|archive-date=9 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

The modern research degree, in the shape of the German-style PhD, was first awarded in the US in 1861, at [[Yale University]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yale.edu/timeline|title=Landmarks in Yale's history|work=yale.edu}}</ref> This differed from the MD in that the latter was a vocational "[[professional degree]]" that trained students to apply or practice knowledge, rather than generate it, similar to other students in vocational schools or institutes. In the UK, research doctorates initially took the form of higher doctorates in Science and Letters, first introduced at [[Durham University]] in 1882.<ref name="higher doctorates 2013" /> The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada, and was instituted at all British universities from 1917, with the first (titled a DPhil) being awarded at the [[University of Oxford]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=it-vAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72|title=A History of Foreign Students in Britain|author=H. Perraton|publisher=Springer|date=17 June 2014|isbn=9781137294951}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Doctoral_Characteristics.pdf|title=Doctoral degree characteristics|page=12|quote=The first Doctor of Philosophy (DPhil) in the UK was awarded by the University of Oxford in 1917|publisher=[[Quality Assurance Agency]]|date=September 2011|accessdate=18 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918065438/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Doctoral_Characteristics.pdf|archive-date=18 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Following the MD, the next professional doctorate in the US, the [[Juris Doctor]] (J.D.), was established by the University of Chicago in 1902. However it took a long time to be accepted, not replacing the Bachelor of Laws (LLB) until the 1960s, by which time the LLB was generally taken as a graduate degree. Notably, the curriculum for the JD and LLB were identical, with the degree being renamed as a doctorate, and it (like the MD) was not equivalent to the PhD, raising criticism that it was "not a 'true Doctorate{{'"}}.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jOyVvAPtTcwC&pg=PA20|pages=20–25|title=Comparing American and British Legal Education Systems: Lessons for Commonwealth African Law Schools|publisher=Cambria Press|date=2007|author=Kenneth K. Mwenda|isbn=9781621969594}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mobar.org/uploadedFiles/Home/Publications/Precedent/2013/Winter/doctors.pdf|title=HOW DID LAWYERS BECOME 'DOCTORS'? FROM THE LL.B. TO THE J.D.|author=David Perry|publisher=New York State Bar Association|date=June 2012|work=New York State Bar Association Journal|volume=84|issue=5|access-date=2016-10-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103015051/http://www.mobar.org/uploadedFiles/Home/Publications/Precedent/2013/Winter/doctors.pdf|archive-date=2017-01-03|url-status=live}}</ref> When professional doctorates were established in the UK in the late 1980s and early 1990s, they did not follow the US model but were instead set up as research degrees at the same level as PhDs but with some taught components and a professional focus for the research work.<ref name=FHEQ/>

The older-style doctorates, now usually called higher doctorates in the United Kingdom, take much longer to complete, since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are less common than the PhD in some countries and are often awarded ''[[honoris causa]]''. The [[habilitation]] is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU, and involves either a new long thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications. The habilitation (highest available degree) demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing, and, more recently, the ability to generate supportive funding. The habilitation follows the research doctorate, and in Germany it can be a requirement for appointment as a ''[[Privatdozent]]'' or professor.

==Types==
{{further|Doctor (title)}}
Since the [[Middle Ages]], the number and types of doctorates awarded by universities has proliferated throughout the world. Practice varies from one country to another. While a doctorate usually entitles one to be addressed as "doctor", use of the title varies widely, depending on the type and the associated occupation.

===Research doctorate===
Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of academic research that is publishable, at least in principle, in a [[Peer review|peer-reviewed]] [[academic journal]]. The best-known research degree title, in the [[English-speaking world]], is [[Doctor of Philosophy]] (abbreviated Ph.D.,<ref name="US Doctorate">{{cite web|url=http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/doctorate.doc |title=Structure of the U.S. Education System: Research Doctorate Degrees |publisher=[[U.S. Department of Education]] |accessdate=1 October 2016 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127015732/http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/doctorate.doc |archivedate=27 January 2012 }}</ref> PhD<ref name="QAA Doctorate"/> or, at some British universities, DPhil<ref>{{cite web|url = https://uni-of-oxford.custhelp.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/185|title = University of Oxford answers|date = |accessdate = |website = University of Oxford|publisher = |last = |first = |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151017035026/https://uni-of-oxford.custhelp.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/185|archive-date = 2015-10-17|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.buckingham.ac.uk/research/bucsis/research-programme|title=BUCSIS Research Programme|quote=We offer research degrees both at Master's level (represented by the two-year MPhil programme) and at DPhil (PhD level).|publisher=[[University of Buckingham]]|accessdate=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160622010519/http://www.buckingham.ac.uk/research/bucsis/research-programme|archive-date=22 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.economics.ox.ac.uk/Graduate/dphil-in-economics|title=DPhil in Economics|publisher=[[University of Oxford]] Department of Economics|quote=The DPhil is the name Oxford gives to its doctoral degree rather than the more familiar name PhD. used in most other universities, but the structure of the degree is identical to that of the PhD at leading economics graduate schools worldwide.|accessdate=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014652/http://www.economics.ox.ac.uk/Graduate/dphil-in-economics|archive-date=6 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>) awarded in many countries throughout the world. Other research doctorates include the [[Doctor of Education]] (Ed.D.<ref name="US Doctorate"/> or EdD<ref name="QAA Doctorate"/>),  [[Doctor of Arts]] (D.A.<ref name="US Doctorate"/>), [[Doctor of Juridical Science]] (J.S.D. or S.J.D.<ref name="US Doctorate"/>), [[Doctor of Musical Arts]] (D.M.A.<ref name="US Doctorate"/>), [[Doctor of Professional Studies]]/Professional Doctorate (ProfDoc or DProf),<ref name="QAA Doctorate"/> [[Doctor of Public Health]] (Dr.P.H.<ref name="US Doctorate"/>), [[Doctor of Social Science]] (D.S.Sc. or DSocSci<ref name="QAA Doctorate"/>),  [[Doctor of Management]] (D.M. or D.Mgt.),{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} [[Doctor of Business Administration]] (D.B.A.<ref name="US Doctorate" />  or DBA<ref name="QAA DBA" />), the UK [[Doctor of Management]] (DMan),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.herts.ac.uk/research/research-degrees-and-doctoral-college|title=Research degrees: Doctoral College|publisher=[[University of Hertfordshire]]|accessdate=4 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161004003451/http://www.herts.ac.uk/research/research-degrees-and-doctoral-college|archive-date=4 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> various doctorates in engineering, such as the US [[Doctor of Engineering]] (D.Eng., D.E.Sc. or D.E.S.<ref name="US Doctorate" />) (also awarded in Japan and South Korea), the UK [[Engineering Doctorate]] (EngD),<ref name="UK-EngD">{{cite web|url=http://www.epsrc.ac.uk/skills/students/coll/engdoctorate|title=Engineering doctorate|work=epsrc.ac.uk|access-date=2016-04-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604093547/https://www.epsrc.ac.uk/skills/students/coll/engdoctorate/|archive-date=2016-06-04|url-status=live}}</ref> the German engineering doctorate ''[[Doktoringenieur]]'' (''Dr.-Ing.'') the German natural science doctorate ''Doctor rerum naturalium'' (''[[Dr. rer. nat.]]'') and the economics and social science doctorate ''Doctor rerum politicarum (''[[Dr. rer. pol.]]'')'' The UK [[Doctor of Medicine]] (MD or MD (Res)) and [[Doctor of Dental Surgery]] (DDS) are research doctorates.<ref name="QAA Doctorate" /> The [[Doctor of Theology]] (Th.D.,<ref name="US Doctorate" /> D.Th. or ThD<ref name="QAA Doctorate" />), [[Doctor of Practical Theology]] (DPT)<ref name="QAA Doctorate"/> and the [[Doctor of Sacred Theology]] (S.T.D.,<ref name="US Doctorate"/> or D.S.Th.) are research doctorates in theology.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.americangraduateeducation.com/folder1/subfolder4/doctorate_programs.htm|title=Research Doctorate Programs|work=americangraduateeducation.com|access-date=2008-04-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080503033614/http://www.americangraduateeducation.com/folder1/subfolder4/doctorate_programs.htm|archive-date=2008-05-03|url-status=live}}</ref>

Criteria for research doctorates vary, but typically require completion of a substantial body of original research, which may be presented as a single [[thesis]] or dissertation, or as a portfolio of shorter project reports ([[thesis by publication]]). The submitted dissertation is assessed by a committee of examiners, and is then typically defended by the candidate during an oral examination (''viva'' in the UK and India) by the committee. Candidates may also be required to complete graduate-level courses in their field, as well as study research methodology.

Criteria for admission to doctoral programs varies. In the U.S. and the U.K., students may be admitted with a bachelor's degree, while elsewhere, e.g. in Finland, a master's degree is required. The time required to complete a research doctorate varies from three years, excluding undergraduate study, to six years or more.

===Licentiate===
{{Main|Licentiate (degree){{!}}Licentiate}}
Licentiate degrees vary widely in their meaning, and in a few countries are doctoral level qualifications. [[Sweden]] awards the licentiate degree as a two-year qualification at doctoral level and the doctoral degree (PhD) as a four-year qualification.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uhr.se/globalassets/_uhr.se/internationellt/nqf/12-5202-10-national-qualifications-framework.pdf|pages=14–15, 26|title=National Qualifications Framework|date=May 2011|accessdate=1 October 2016|publisher=Swedish National Agency for Higher Education|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014127/https://www.uhr.se/globalassets/_uhr.se/internationellt/nqf/12-5202-10-national-qualifications-framework.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Sweden originally abolished the Licentiate in 1969 but reintroduced it in response to demands from business.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.unica-network.eu/sites/default/files/Rectors_05_2005_Doctorate_studies_EU_%26_USA_status_%26_prospects-1.pdf|page=202|work=Doctoral Studies and Qualifications in Europe and the United States: Status and Prospects|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|editor=Jan Sadlak|date=2004|title=Sweden|author=Helena Mähler|accessdate=1 October 2016|isbn=92-9069-179-4|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002103857/http://www.unica-network.eu/sites/default/files/Rectors_05_2005_Doctorate_studies_EU_%26_USA_status_%26_prospects-1.pdf|archive-date=2 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Finland also has a two-year doctoral level licentiate degree, similar to Sweden's.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oph.fi/english/curricula_and_qualifications/higher_education/university_education/university_degrees|title=University Degrees|publisher=Finnish National Board of Education|accessdate=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014152/http://www.oph.fi/english/curricula_and_qualifications/higher_education/university_education/university_degrees|archive-date=6 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Outside of Scandinavia, the licentiate is normally a lower level qualification. In Belgium, the licentiate was the basic university degree prior to the [[Bologna Process]] and was approximately equivalent to a bachelor's degree,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fulbright.be/study-in-belgium-and-luxembourg/university-education/|title=University Education|publisher=[[Fulbright Commission]] Belgium and Luxembourg|accessdate=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002025243/http://www.fulbright.be/study-in-belgium-and-luxembourg/university-education/|archive-date=2 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://belgium.usembassy.gov/organizations/american-studies/|title=American Studies|publisher=[[Embassy of the United States]] Brussels|quote=The degree is open to everyone (including non-Belgians) who has earned the B.A. (in Belgium: licentiaat or licence) or an equivalent degree|accessdate=1 October 2016}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> while in France and other countries it is the bachelor's-level qualification in the Bologna process.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usa.campusfrance.org/en/page/licence-masters-doctorate-and-other-academic-programs|title=Licence, Master's, Doctorate and Other Academic Programs|publisher=Campus France|accessdate=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014111/http://www.usa.campusfrance.org/en/page/licence-masters-doctorate-and-other-academic-programs|archive-date=6 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the Pontifical system, the Licentiate in Sacred Theology (STL) is equivalent to an advanced master's degree, or the post-master's coursework required in preparation for a doctorate (i.e. similar in level to the Swedish/Finnish licentiate degree), while other licences (such as the Licence in Canon Law) are at the level of master's degrees.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.educatio.va/content/cec/it/studi-superiori-della-santa-sede/quadro-nazionale-delle-qualifiche/qualifications-framework.html|title=Quadro Nazionale delle Qualifiche della Santa Sede [National Qualifications Framework of the Holy See]|publisher=Congregazione per l'Educazione Cattolica|accessdate=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005000537/http://www.educatio.va/content/cec/it/studi-superiori-della-santa-sede/quadro-nazionale-delle-qualifiche/qualifications-framework.html|archive-date=5 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Higher doctorate and post-doctoral degrees {{anchor|Higher}}{{anchor|Post}}<!--[[Higher doctorate]] and [[Post-doctoral degree]] redirect here-->===
{{distinguish-redirect|Post-doctoral degree|Postdoctoral researcher}}
A higher tier of research doctorates may be awarded on the basis of a formally submitted portfolio of published research of a particularly high standard. Examples include the [[Doctor of Science]] (DSc) and [[Doctor of Letters]] (DLitt) degrees found in the UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries, and the traditional doctorates in [[Scandinavia]].

The École Saint-Thomas-d'Aquin of the [[Université catholique de Louvain]], for instance, has offered the opportunity for students who had already earned a doctorate to earn the degree of Maître Agrégé (M.AGG.)(''Magister Aggregatus'').<ref>{{cite web |url=http://philosophy.cua.edu/faculty/wippel/cv/ |title=CV John F. Wippel – CUA Philosophy |website=Philosophy.cua.edu |accessdate=2016-10-29 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161030080003/http://philosophy.cua.edu/faculty/wippel/cv/ |archivedate=2016-10-30 }}</ref>

The [[habilitation]] teaching qualification (''facultas docendi'' or "faculty to teach") under a university procedure with a thesis and an exam is commonly regarded as belonging to this category in [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[France]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Switzerland]], [[Poland]], etc. The degree developed in Germany in the 19th century "when holding a doctorate seemed no longer sufficient to guarantee a proficient transfer of knowledge to the next generation."<ref>Christian Fleck, ''Sociology in Austria'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.</ref> In many federal states of Germany, the habilitation results in an award of a formal "Dr. habil." degree or the holder of the degree may add "habil." to their research doctorate such as "Dr. phil. habil." or "Dr. rer. nat. habil." In some European universities, especially in [[German language|German]]-speaking countries, the degree is insufficient to have teaching duties without professor supervision (or to teach and supervise PhD students independently) without an additional teaching title such as [[Privatdozent]].  In Austria, the habilitation bestows the graduate with the ''facultas docendi'', ''venia legendi'' and, since 2004, the honorary title of "Privatdozent" (prior to this, completing the habilitation resulted in appointment as a civil servant). In many countries of [[Central and Eastern Europe]], the degree gives ''venia legendi'', Latin for "the permission to lecture," or ''ius docendi'', "the right to teach," a specific academic subject at universities for a lifetime. The French academic system used to have a higher doctorate, called the "state doctorate" (''doctorat d'État''), but it was superseded by the habilitation (''habilitation à diriger des recherches'', "accreditation to supervise research", abbreviated HDR) in 1984.

Higher doctorates are often also awarded ''[[honoris causa]]'' when a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's achievements and contributions to a particular field.

===Professional doctorate===
{{see also| Professional degree|List of doctoral degrees in the US}}

Depending on the country, professional doctorates may either be research degrees at the same level as [[PhD]]s or [[professional degree]]s with little or no research content. Many professional doctorates are named "Doctor of [subject name] and abbreviated using the form "D[subject abbreviation]" or "[subject abbreviation]D",<ref name="QAA Doctorate"/> or may use the more generic titles "Professional Doctorate", abbreviated "ProfDoc" or "DProf",<ref name="QAA Doctorate"/> "[[Doctor of Professional Studies]]" (DPS) <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fordham.edu/info/25472/doctor_of_professional_studies_program|title=Doctor of Professional Studies Program|website=[[Gabelli School of Business]]|publisher=[[Fordham University]]|accessdate=5 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017221544/https://www.fordham.edu/info/25472/doctor_of_professional_studies_program|archive-date=17 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stjohns.edu/academics/schools-and-colleges/college-professional-studies/programs-and-majors/homeland-security-doctor-professional-studies|title=Homeland Security, Doctor of Professional Studies {{!}} St. John's University|website=www.stjohns.edu|language=en|access-date=2018-08-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180823111155/https://www.stjohns.edu/academics/schools-and-colleges/college-professional-studies/programs-and-majors/homeland-security-doctor-professional-studies|archive-date=2018-08-23|url-status=live}}</ref> or "Doctor of Professional Practice" (DPP).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rgu.ac.uk/health-professions/study-options/postgraduate-research/doctorate-for-professional-practice1/|title=Doctorate of Professional Practice|publisher=[[Robert Gordon University]]|accessdate=5 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017221603/http://www.rgu.ac.uk/health-professions/study-options/postgraduate-research/doctorate-for-professional-practice1/|archive-date=17 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://soa.cmu.edu/dpp|title=Doctor of Professional Practice|publisher=[[Carnegie Mellon University]]|accessdate=5 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008180818/http://soa.cmu.edu/dpp/|archive-date=8 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the US, professional doctorates (formally "doctor's degree – professional practice" in government classifications) are defined by the [[US Department of Education]]'s National Center for Educational Statistics as degrees that require a minimum of six years of university-level study (including any pre-professional bachelor's or associate degree) and meet the academic requirements for professional [[licensure]] in the discipline. The definition does not include a dissertation or study beyond master's level, in contrast to the definition for research doctorates ("doctor's degree – research/scholarship"), although individual programs may have different requirements.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://surveys.nces.ed.gov/ipeds/VisGlossaryPopup.aspx?idlink=942|title=Doctor's degree-professional practice|website=National Center for Educational Statistics|publisher=[[US Department of Education]]|accessdate=1 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902084332/https://surveys.nces.ed.gov/ipeds/VisGlossaryPopup.aspx?idlink=942|archive-date=2 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://surveys.nces.ed.gov/ipeds/VisGlossaryPopup.aspx?idlink=941|title=Doctor's degree-research/scholarship|website=National Center for Educational Statistics|publisher=[[US Department of Education]]|accessdate=1 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902151628/https://surveys.nces.ed.gov/ipeds/VisGlossaryPopup.aspx?idlink=941|archive-date=2 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> There is also a category of "doctor's degree – other" for doctorates that do not fall into either the "professional practice" or "research/scholarship" categories.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://surveys.nces.ed.gov/ipeds/VisGlossaryPopup.aspx?idlink=943|title=Doctor's degree-other|website=National Center for Educational Statistics|publisher=[[US Department of Education]]|accessdate=1 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902084414/https://surveys.nces.ed.gov/ipeds/VisGlossaryPopup.aspx?idlink=943|archive-date=2 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> All of these are considered doctoral degrees.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/glossary.asp|website=National Center for Educational Statistics|publisher=[[US Department of Education]]|title=Glossary|accessdate=2 September 2018|quote=Doctor's degree: The highest award a student can earn for graduate study. The doctor's degree classification includes such degrees as Doctor of Education, Doctor of Juridical Science, Doctor of Public Health, and the Doctor of Philosophy degree in any field such as agronomy, food technology, education, engineering, public administration, ophthalmology, or radiology. The doctor's degree classification encompasses three main subcategories—research/scholarship degrees, professional practice degrees, and other degrees—which are described below.<br />Doctor's degree-research/scholarship: A Ph.D. or other doctor's degree that requires advanced work beyond the master's level, including the preparation and defense of a dissertation based on original research, or the planning and execution of an original project demonstrating substantial artistic or scholarly achievement. Examples of this type of degree may include the following and others, as designated by the awarding institution: the Ed.D. (in education), D.M.A. (in musical arts), D.B.A. (in business administration), D.Sc. (in science), D.A. (in arts), or D.M (in medicine).<br />Doctor's degree—professional practice: A doctor's degree that is conferred upon completion of a program providing the knowledge and skills for the recognition, credential, or license required for professional practice. The degree is awarded after a period of study such that the total time to the degree, including both preprofessional and professional preparation, equals at least 6 full-time-equivalent academic years. Some doctor's degrees of this type were formerly classified as first-professional degrees. Examples of this type of degree may include the following and others, as designated by the awarding institution: the D.C. or D.C.M. (in chiropractic); D.D.S. or D.M.D. (in dentistry); L.L.B. or J.D. (in law); M.D. (in medicine); O.D. (in optometry); D.O. (in osteopathic medicine); Pharm.D. (in pharmacy); D.P.M., Pod.D., or D.P. (in podiatry); or D.V.M. (in veterinary medicine).<br />Doctor's degree—other: A doctor's degree that does not meet the definition of a doctor's degree—research/scholarship or a doctor's degree—professional practice.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902220649/https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/glossary.asp|archive-date=2 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

In contrast to the US, many countries reserve the term "doctorate" for research degrees and if, as in Canada and Australia, professional degrees bear the name "Doctor of ...", etc., it is made clear that these are not doctorates. Examples of this include Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD), Doctor of Medicine (MD), Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS), Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP), and Juris Doctor (JD). For example, Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), Doctor of Education (EdD) and Doctor of Social Science (DSS) qualify as full academic doctorates in Canada though they normally incorporate aspects of professional practice in addition to a full dissertation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cmec.ca/Publications/Lists/Publications/Attachments/95/QA-Statement-2007.en.pdf|title=Canadian Degree Qualifications Framework|publisher=Council of Ministers of Education, Canada|quote=Though considered to be bachelor's programs in academic standing, some professional programs yield degrees with other nomenclature. Examples: DDS (Dental Surgery), MD (Medicine), LLB, or JD (Juris Doctor)|accessdate=3 October 2016|work=Ministerial Statement on Quality Assurance of Degree Education in Canada|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314190602/http://www.cmec.ca/Publications/Lists/Publications/Attachments/95/QA-Statement-2007.en.pdf|archive-date=14 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aqf.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/AQF-qualification-titles-PDF-2B3-1b.pdf|title=AQF qualification titles|publisher=Australian Qualifications Framework Council|accessdate=3 October 2016|date=June 2013|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213104206/http://www.aqf.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/aqf-qualification-titles-pdf-2b3-1b.pdf|archivedate=13 December 2016}}</ref> In the Philippines, the University of the Philippines Open University offers a Doctor of Communication (DComm) professional doctorate.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fics.upou.edu.ph/programs/doctor-of-communication/|title=Doctor of Communication – Faculty of Information and Communication Studies|language=en-US|access-date=2019-01-18}}</ref>

In the UK and Ireland, all doctorates are third cycle qualifications in the [[Bologna Process]], comparable to US research doctorates. Although all doctorates are research degrees, professional doctorates normally include taught components while the name PhD/DPhil is normally used for doctorates purely by thesis. Professional and practice-based doctorates such as the EdD, DClinPsy, MD, DHSc, DBA and EngD are full doctorates at the same level as the PhD in the national qualifications frameworks; they are not first professional degrees but are "often post-experience qualifications".<ref name=FHEQ>{{cite web|quote='doctoral degree' is used only in respect of qualifications at level 8 on the FHEQ/SCQF level 12 on the FQHEIS.|pages=16–17, 30, 36|url=http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/qualifications-frameworks.pdf|title=The Frameworks for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies|publisher=[[Quality Assurance Agency]]|date=November 2014|access-date=2016-09-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305083730/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/qualifications-frameworks.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-05|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="QAA Doctorate">{{cite web|url=http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Doctoral-Degree-Characteristics-15.pdf|title=Characteristics Statement: Doctoral Degree|date=September 2015|publisher=[[Quality Assurance Agency]]|accessdate=16 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014333/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Doctoral-Degree-Characteristics-15.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="QAA DBA">{{cite web|url=http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Status-DBA-in-the-UK-2016.pdf|title=Status of the Doctorate of Business Administration (DBA) in the UK|publisher=[[Quality Assurance Agency]]|date=2016|accessdate=16 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917161418/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Status-DBA-in-the-UK-2016.pdf|archive-date=17 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eua.be/eua/jsp/en/upload/Review%20of%20Professional%20Doctorates_Ireland2006.1164040107604.pdf|title=Review of Professional Doctorates|publisher=National Qualifications Authority of Ireland|date=October 2006|website=[[European Universities Association]]|accessdate=16 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006040606/http://www.eua.be/eua/jsp/en/upload/Review%20of%20Professional%20Doctorates_Ireland2006.1164040107604.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2009 there were 308 professional doctorate programs in the UK, up from 109 in 1998, with the most popular being the EdD (38 institutions), DBA (33), EngD/DEng (22), MD/DM (21), and DClinPsy/DClinPsych/ClinPsyD (17).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/gradschool/about/external/publications/professional.pdf|title=Professional Doctorate Awards in the UK|author=Kathryn Brown|author2=Carlton Cooke|last-author-amp=yes|publisher=UK Council for Graduate Education|website=[[University of Leicester]]|accessdate=16 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014317/https://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/gradschool/about/external/publications/professional.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Similarly in Australia, the term "professional doctorate" is sometimes applied to the ''[[Doctor of Juridical Science#Australia|Scientiae Juridicae Doctor]]'' (SJD),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.handbook.uts.edu.au/courses/c02027.html |title=C02027v4 Doctor of Juridical Science |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100814155125/http://www.handbook.uts.edu.au/courses/c02027.html |archive-date=2010-08-14 |accessdate=26 October 2010 |date=30 October 2009 |publisher=[[University of Technology Sydney]] |website=UTS Handbook |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://courses.handbooks.uwa.edu.au/courses/c2/2081|website=UWA Handbooks 2010|title=Doctor of Juridical Science (20810)|date=24 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101010094002/http://courses.handbooks.uwa.edu.au/courses/c2/2081|archive-date=10 October 2010|accessdate=26 October 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> which, like the UK professional doctorates, is a research degree.<ref>[http://www.atax.unsw.edu.au/study/docs/research-programs.pdf Doctor of Philosophy. Doctor of Juridical Science. Master of Laws by Research. Master of Taxation by Research. Faculty of Law] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706120526/http://www.atax.unsw.edu.au/study/docs/research-programs.pdf |date=2011-07-06 }}, The University of New South Wales 2009</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.law.monash.edu.au/research/sjd.html|title=Higher Degrees by Research|work=monash.edu.au|access-date=2009-09-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090912173054/http://law.monash.edu.au/research/sjd.html|archive-date=2009-09-12|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Honorary doctorate===
{{main|Honorary degree}}
When a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's contributions to a particular field or [[philanthropy|philanthropic]] efforts, it may choose to grant a doctoral degree {{lang|la|honoris causa}} ('for the sake of the honor'), waiving the usual requirements for granting the degree.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://berkley-u.edu/hon_deg.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2008-04-20 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930110055/http://berkley-u.edu/hon_deg.html |archivedate=2008-09-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cmu.edu/cmnews/extra/040510_doctorates.html|title=Three to Receive Honorary Degrees for Contributions to Science and Technology, and Public Policy|work=cmu.edu|access-date=2008-04-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080709031847/http://www.cmu.edu/cmnews/extra/040510_doctorates.html|archive-date=2008-07-09|url-status=live}}</ref> Some universities do not award honorary degrees, for example, [[Cornell University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ezra.cornell.edu/posting.php?timestamp%3D1052974800#question19 |title=Dear Uncle Ezra: Question 19|publisher = Cornell University|date = 15 May 2003 |accessdate=2010-09-05 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825190643/http://ezra.cornell.edu/posting.php?timestamp=1052974800#question19 |archivedate=2010-08-25 }}</ref> the [[University of Virginia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.virginia.edu/registrar/records/05-06gradrec/chapter4/chapter4-1.htm#honorary|title=University Regulations: Academic Regulations: Graduate Record 2005–2006|work=virginia.edu|access-date=2008-04-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010224513/http://www.virginia.edu/registrar/records/05-06gradrec/chapter4/chapter4-1.htm#honorary|archive-date=2008-10-10|url-status=live}}</ref> the [[California Institute of Technology]], [[Rice University]], and [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/commdegrees.html|title=No honorary degrees is an MIT tradition going back to ... Thomas Jefferson|date=8 June 2001|work=MIT News|access-date=10 December 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060414025857/http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/commdegrees.html|archive-date=14 April 2006|url-status=live}}</ref>

==National variations==
{{main|List of doctoral degrees awarded by country}}
{{see also|Doctor (title)#Worldwide usage|Doctor of Philosophy#Degrees around the globe}}
{{More citations needed section|date=April 2008}}
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===Argentina===
In [[Argentina]] the doctorate ({{lang|es|doctorado}})<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.coneau.edu.ar/index.php?item%3D29%26apps%3D16%26id%3D428%26act%3Dver# |title= Tipos de posgrado |website = Coneau|language = Spanish |accessdate=2008-04-25 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612113035/http://www.coneau.edu.ar/index.php?item=29&apps=16&id=428&act=ver |archivedate=2008-06-12 }}</ref> is the highest academic degree. The intention is that candidates produce original contributions in their field knowledge within a frame of academic excellence.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web|url=http://www.gfme.org/global_guide/pdf/13-18%20Argentina.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2010-04-28 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061031095524/http://www.gfme.org/global_guide/pdf/13-18%20Argentina.pdf |archivedate=2006-10-31 }}</ref> A dissertation or thesis is prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director. It is reviewed by a Doctoral Committee composed of examiners external to the program and at least one examiner external to the institution. The degree is conferred after a successful dissertation defence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coneau.edu.ar/index.php?item%3D29%26apps%3D16%26id%3D428%26act%3Dver%26idioma%3Den |title= Types of Graduate Programs |website = Coneau |accessdate=2010-04-28 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825184546/http://www.coneau.edu.ar/index.php?item=29&apps=16&id=428&act=ver&idioma=en |archivedate=2010-08-25 }}</ref> Currently, there are approximately 2,151 postgraduate careers in the country, of which 14% were doctoral degrees.<ref name="autogenerated2" /> Doctoral programs in Argentina are overseen by the [[:es:Comisión Nacional de Evaluación y Acreditación Universitaria|National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://spuweb.siu.edu.ar/studyinargentina/pages/study1103.php |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2008-06-20 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916080225/http://spuweb.siu.edu.ar/studyinargentina/pages/study1103.php |archivedate=2008-09-16 }}</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2018}} an agency in Argentina's Ministry of Education, Science and Technology.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.coneau.edu.ar/index.php?item%3D3%26apps%3D64%26idioma%3Den |title=Origin|website = Coneau |accessdate=2008-04-28 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206183421/http://www.coneau.edu.ar/index.php?item=3&apps=64&idioma=en |archivedate=2008-12-06 }}</ref>

===Brazil===
Doctoral candidates are normally required to have a [[master's degree]] in a related field. Exceptions are based on their individual academic merit. A second and a third foreign language are other common requirements, although the requirements regarding proficiency commonly are not strict. The admissions process varies by institution. Some require candidates to take tests while others base admissions on a research proposal application and interview only. In both instances however, a faculty member must agree prior to admission to supervise the applicant.

Requirements usually include satisfactory performance in advanced graduate courses, passing an oral qualifying exam and submitting a thesis that must represent an original and relevant contribution to existing knowledge. The thesis is examined in a final public oral exam administered by at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external. After completion, which normally consumes 4 years, the candidate is commonly awarded the degree of ''Doutor'' (Doctor) followed by the main area of specialization, e.g. ''Doutor em Direito'' (Doctor of Laws), ''Doutor em Ciências da Computação'' (Doctor of Computer Sciences), ''Doutor em Filosofia'' (Doctor of Philosophy), ''Doutor em Economia'' (Doctor of Economics), ''Doutor em Engenharia'' (Doctor of Engineering) or ''Doutor em Medicina'' (Doctor of Medicine). The generic title of ''Doutor em Ciências'' (Doctor of Sciences) is normally used to refer collectively to doctorates in the natural sciences (i.e. Physics, Chemistry, Biological and Life Sciences, etc.)

All graduate programs in Brazilian public universities are tuition-free (mandated by the [[Constitution of Brazil|Brazilian constitution]]). Some graduate students are additionally supported by institutional scholarships granted by federal government agencies like CNPq (''Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico'') and CAPES (''Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento do Pessoal de Ensino Superior''). Personal scholarships are provided by the various FAP's (''Fundações de Amparo à Pesquisa'') at the state level, especially FAPESP in the state of [[São Paulo state|São Paulo]], FAPERJ in the state of [[Rio de Janeiro]] and FAPEMIG in the state of [[Minas Gerais]]. Competition for graduate financial aid is intense and most scholarships support at most 2 years of Master's studies and 4 years of doctoral studies. The normal monthly stipend for doctoral students in Brazil is between US$500 and $1000.

A degree of ''Doutor'' usually enables an individual to apply for a junior faculty position equivalent to a US [[assistant professor]]. Progression to full professorship, known as ''Professor Titular'' requires that the candidate be successful in a competitive public exam and normally takes additional years. In the federal university system, doctors who are admitted as junior faculty members may progress (usually by seniority) to the rank of associate professor, then become eligible to take the competitive exam for vacant full professorships. In São Paulo state universities, associate professorships and subsequent eligibility to apply for a full professorship are conditioned on the qualification of [[:pt:Livre-docência|Livre-docente]] and requires, in addition to a doctorate, a second thesis or cumulative portfolio of peer-reviewed publications, a public lecture before a panel of experts (including external members from other universities), and a written exam.

In recent years some initiatives as jointly supervised doctorates (e.g. "cotutelles") have become increasingly common in the country, as part of the country's efforts to open its universities to international students.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Olavo Leite|first1=André|last2=Carmo|first2=Valter Moura|title=Os doutorados em cotutela no Brasil e em seus principais parceiros acadêmicos|journal=Revista Brasileira de Pós-Graduação|date=2014|volume=11|issue=26|pages=969–997|url=http://ojs.rbpg.capes.gov.br/index.php/rbpg/article/view/560|access-date=2015-05-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150522063228/http://ojs.rbpg.capes.gov.br/index.php/rbpg/article/view/560|archive-date=2015-05-22|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Denmark===
[[Denmark]] offers four levels of degrees: 1) a three-year bachelor's degree (e.g. Bachelor of Arts degree); 2) a five-year candidate's degree (e.g. ''Candidatus/Candidata Magisterii''), generally compared to a master's degree; 3) a ph.d.<!-- "ph.d." is the correct spelling of this Danish degree. It should not be confused with the English Ph.D. --> degree, which replaced the [[Licentiate (degree)|licentiate]] in 1988; 4) a doctor's degree (e.g. ''Doctor Philosophiae''), which is the higher doctorate. (A three-year extended research program, leading to the magister's degree was phased out to meet the international standards of the [[Bologna Process]].)

For the Ph.D. degree, the candidate writes a thesis and defends it orally at a formal [[disputation]]. In the disputation, the candidate defends their thesis against three official opponents as well as opponents from the [[auditorium]] ''(ex auditorio)''.

For the higher doctorate, the candidate writes a major thesis and has to defend it orally in which the candidate (called ''præses'') defends this thesis against two official opponents as well as opponents from the auditorium (''ex auditorio'').

===Egypt===
In Egypt, the highest degree doctorate is awarded by [[Al-Azhar University]] est. 970, which grants ( العالمية Ālimiyya\ [[Habilitation]]).

The Medical doctorate (abbreviated as M.D.) is equivalent to the [[Ph.D.]] degree.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180413220705/http://www.seci.info/staff23.htm ]</ref> To earn an M.D. in a science specialty, one must have a master's degree (M.Sc.) (or two diplomas before the introduction of M.Sc. degree in Egypt) before applying. The M.D. degree involves courses in the field and defending a dissertation. It takes on average three to five years.

Many postgraduate medical and surgical specialties students earn a doctorate. After finishing a 6-year medical school and one-year internship (house officer), physicians and surgeons earn the M.B. B.Ch. degree, which is equivalent to a US [[Doctor of Medicine|MD]] degree. They can then apply to earn a master's degree or a speciality diploma, then an MD degree in a specialty.

The Egyptian M.D. degree is written using the name of one's specialty. For example, M.D. (Geriatrics) means a doctorate in [[Geriatrics]], which is equivalent to a Ph.D. in Geriatrics.<!--\
Academic sciences like Microbiology earn a Ph.D. degree.-->

===Finland===
The Finnish requirement for the entrance into doctoral studies is a master's degree or equivalent. All universities have the right to award doctorates.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/alkup/2004/20040794 |title=Valtioneuvoston asetus yliopistojen tutkinnoista 794/2004 – Säädökset alkuperäisinä – FINLEX ® |website=Finlex.fi |date= |accessdate=2016-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019024939/http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/alkup/2004/20040794 |archive-date=2016-10-19 |url-status=live }}</ref> The ''ammattikorkeakoulu'' institutes (institutes of higher vocational education that are not universities but often called "Universities of Applied Sciences" in English) do not award doctoral or other academic degrees. The student must:

* Demonstrate understanding of their field and its meaning, while preparing to use scientific or scholarly study in their field, creating new knowledge.
* Obtain a good understanding of development, basic problems and research methods
* Obtain such understanding of the general theory of science and letters and such knowledge of neighbouring research fields that they are able to follow the development of these fields.

The way to show that these general requirements have been met is:

* Complete graduate coursework.
* Demonstrate critical and independent thought
* Prepare and publicly defend a dissertation (a [[monograph]] or a [[compilation thesis]] of peer-reviewed articles). In fine arts, the dissertation may be substituted by works and/or performances as accepted by the faculty.

Entrance to a doctoral program is available only for holders of a master's degree; there is no honors procedure for recruiting Bachelors. Entrance is not as controlled as in undergraduate studies, where a strict [[numerus clausus#Numerus clausus in Finland|numerus clausus]] is applied. Usually, a prospective student discusses their plans with a professor. If the professor agrees to accept the student, the student applies for admission. The professor may recruit students to their group.<ref>{{in lang|fi}} [https://archive.today/20120530044420/https://oa.doria.fi/handle/10024/42487 Peura, A (2004) Tohtoriksi tulemisen tarina]. Kasvatustieteen laitoksen tutkimuksia 219. Page 27. University of Helsinki. {{ISBN|978-952-10-4386-4}}. Retrieved 1-14-2009.</ref> Formal acceptance does not imply funding. The student must obtain funding either by working in a research unit or through private scholarships. Funding is more available for natural and engineering sciences than in letters. Sometimes, normal work and research activity are combined.<ref>{{in lang|fi}} [https://archive.today/20120530044420/https://oa.doria.fi/handle/10024/42487 Peura, A (2004) Tohtoriksi tulemisen tarina]. Kasvatustieteen laitoksen tutkimuksia 219. Page 108. University of Helsinki. {{ISBN|978-952-10-4386-4}}. Retrieved 1-14-2009.</ref>

Prior to introduction of the Bologna process, Finland required at least 42 credit weeks (1,800 hours) of formal coursework. The requirement was removed in 2005, leaving the decision to individual universities, which may delegate the authority to faculties or individual professors. In Engineering and Science, required coursework varies between 40 and 70 [[European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System|ECTS]].

The duration of graduate studies varies. It is possible to graduate three years after the master's degree, while much longer periods are not uncommon. The study ends with a dissertation, which must present substantial new scientific/scholarly knowledge. The dissertation can either be a monograph or it an edited collection of 3 to 7 journal articles. Students unable or unwilling to write a dissertation may qualify for a [[Licentiate (degree)|licentiate]] degree by completing the coursework requirement and writing a shorter thesis, usually summarizing one year of research.

When the dissertation is ready, the faculty names two expert pre-examiners with doctoral degrees from the outside the university. During the pre-examination process, the student may receive comments on the work and respond with modifications.<ref>{{in lang|fi}} [https://archive.today/20120530044420/https://oa.doria.fi/handle/10024/42487 Peura, A (2004) Tohtoriksi tulemisen tarina]. Kasvatustieteen laitoksen tutkimuksia 219. Pages 29 and 125–126. University of Helsinki. {{ISBN|978-952-10-4386-4}}. Retrieved 1-14-2009.</ref> After the pre-examiners approve, the doctoral candidate applies the faculty for permission to print the thesis. When granting this permission, the faculty names the ''opponent'' for the thesis defence, who must also be an outside expert, with at least a doctorate. In all Finnish universities, long tradition requires that the printed dissertation hang on a cord by a public university noticeboard for at least ten days prior to for the dissertation defence.<ref>{{in lang|fi}} [https://archive.today/20120530044420/https://oa.doria.fi/handle/10024/42487 Peura, A (2004) Tohtoriksi tulemisen tarina]. Kasvatustieteen laitoksen tutkimuksia 219. Pages 29 and 129. University of Helsinki. {{ISBN|978-952-10-4386-4}}. Retrieved 1-14-2009.</ref>

The doctoral dissertation takes place in public. The opponent and the candidate conduct a formal debate, usually wearing [[white tie]], under the supervision of the thesis supervisor. Family, friends, colleagues and the members of the research community customarily attend the defence. After a formal entrance, the candidate begins with an approximately 20-minute popular lecture (''lectio praecursoria''), that is meant to introduce laymen to the thesis topic. The opponent follows with a short talk on the topic, after which the pair critically discuss the dissertation. The proceedings take two to three hours. At the end the opponent presents their final statement and reveals whether he/she will recommend that the faculty accept it. Any member of the public then has an opportunity to raise questions, although this is rare. Immediately after the defence, the supervisor, the opponent and the candidate drink coffee with the public. Usually, the attendees of the defence are given the printed dissertation.<ref>{{in lang|fi}} [https://archive.today/20120530044420/https://oa.doria.fi/handle/10024/42487 Peura, A (2004) Tohtoriksi tulemisen tarina]. Kasvatustieteen laitoksen tutkimuksia 219. Pages 130–160. University of Helsinki. {{ISBN|978-952-10-4386-4}}. Retrieved 1-14-2009.</ref> In the evening, the passed candidate hosts a dinner ({{lang-fi|karonkka}}) in honour of the opponent. Usually, the candidate invites their family, colleagues and collaborators.<ref>{{in lang|fi}} [https://archive.today/20120530044420/https://oa.doria.fi/handle/10024/42487 Peura, A (2004) Tohtoriksi tulemisen tarina]. Kasvatustieteen laitoksen tutkimuksia 219. Pages 160–180. University of Helsinki. {{ISBN|978-952-10-4386-4}}. Retrieved 1-14-2009.</ref>

Doctoral graduates are often Doctors of Philosophy (''filosofian tohtori''), but many fields retain their traditional titles: Doctor of Medicine (''lääketieteen tohtori''), Doctor of Science in Technology (''tekniikan tohtori''), Doctor of Science in Arts (Art and Design), etc.

The doctorate is a formal requirement for a docenture or professor's position, although these in practice require [[postdoctoral research]] and further experience. Exceptions may be granted by the university governing board, but this is uncommon, and usually due to other work and expertise considered equivalent.

===France<!--'Doctorat', 'Doctorat d'université', 'Doctorat de troisième cycle', and 'Doctorat de spécialité' redirect here-->===
;History
Before 1984 three research doctorates existed in France: the [[State doctorate]] (''doctorat d'État'', "DrE", the old doctorate introduced in 1808), the third cycle doctorate (''Doctorat de troisième cycle'', also called doctorate of specialty, ''Doctorat de spécialité'', created in 1954 and shorter than the State doctorate) and the [[diploma]] of doctor-engineer (''diplôme de docteur-ingénieur'' created in 1923), for technical research.

During the first half of the 20th century, following the submission of two theses (primary thesis, ''thèse principale'', and secondary thesis, ''thèse complémentaire'') to the Faculty of Letters (in France, "letters" is equivalent to "[[humanities]]") at the [[University of Paris]], the doctoral candidate was awarded the ''[[Doctorat ès lettres]]''. There was also the less prestigious "university doctorate" ''Doctorat d'université'' which could be received for the submission of a single thesis.

In the 1950s, the ''Doctorat ès lettres'' was renamed to ''Doctorat d'État''.<ref name="Schrift p. 208">Alan D. Schrift (2006), ''Twentieth-Century French Philosophy: Key Themes And Thinkers'', Blackwell Publishing, p. 208.</ref> In 1954 (for the [[Natural science|sciences]]) and 1958 (for letters and [[human sciences]]), the less demanding ''Doctorat de troisième cycle'' degree was created on the model of the American [[Ph.D.]] with the purpose to lessen what had become an increasingly long period of time between the typical students' completion of their Diplôme d'études supérieures, roughly equivalent to a [[Master of Arts]]) and their ''Doctorat d'État''.<ref name="Schrift p. 208"/>

After 1984, only one type of doctoral degree remained: the "doctorate" (''Doctorat''). A special diploma was created called the "accreditation to supervise research" (''Habilitation à diriger des recherches''), a professional qualification to supervise doctoral work. (This diploma is similar in spirit to the older State doctorate, and the requirements for obtaining it are similar to those necessary to obtain [[tenure]] in other systems.) Before only professors or senior full researchers of similar rank were normally authorized to supervise a doctoral candidate's work.<ref>H. D. Lewis, ''The French Education System'', Routledge, 1985, {{ISBN|0-7099-1683-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7099-1683-3}}</ref> Now habilitation is a prerequisite to the title of professor in university (''Professeur des universités'') and to the title of Research Director (''Directeur de recherche'') in national public research agency such as [[French National Centre for Scientific Research|CNRS]], [[Institut national de recherche en informatique et en automatique|INRIA]], or [[Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique|INRAE]].

;Admission
Today, the doctorate (''doctorat'') is a research-only degree. It is a national degree and its requirements are fixed by the minister of higher education and research. Only public institutions award the doctorate. It can be awarded in any field of study. The [[Master's degree in Europe|master's degree]] is a prerequisite. The normal duration is three years. The writing of a comprehensive thesis constitutes the bulk of the doctoral work. While the length of the thesis varies according to the discipline, it is rarely less than 150 pages, and often substantially more. Some 15,000 new doctoral matriculations occur every year and ~10,000 doctorates are awarded.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/cid20185/doctorat.html |title=La formation doctorale – ESR |website=Enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr |date= |accessdate=2016-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202110630/http://www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/cid20185/doctorat.html |archive-date=2016-12-02 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Doctoral candidates can apply for a three-year fellowship. The most well known is the ''Contrat Doctoral'' (4,000 granted every year with a gross salary of 1758 euros per months {{as of|2016|September|lc=y}}).

Since 2002 candidates follow in-service training, but there is no written examination for the doctorate. The candidate has to write a thesis that is read by two external reviewers. The head of the institution decides whether the candidate can defend the thesis, after considering the external reviews. The jury members are designated by the head of the institution. The candidate's supervisor and the external reviewers are generally jury members. The maximum number of jury members is 8. The defense generally lasts 45 minutes in scientific fields, followed by 1 – 2 and a half hours of questions from the jury or other doctors present. The defense and questions are public. The jury then deliberates in private and then declares the candidate admitted or "postponed". The latter is rare. New regulations were set in 2016 and do not award distinctions.

The title of doctor (''docteur'') can also be used by medical and pharmaceutical practitioners who hold a doctor's State diploma (''diplôme d'État de docteur''). The diploma is a first-degree.

===Germany<!--'Promotion (Germany)' and 'Inaugural thesis' redirect here-->===
Doctoral degrees in Germany are research doctorates and are awarded by a process called '''''Promotion'''''<!--italics per MOS:Ety; boldface per BP:R#PLA--> ("promotion"). The concept of a US-style [[professional doctorate]] as an entry-level professional qualification does not exist. However, in medicine, "doctoral" dissertations are often written alongside undergraduate study. The [[European Research Council]] decided in 2010 that such Dr. med. degrees do not meet the international standards of a Ph. D. research degree.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sueddeutsche.de/bildung/qualitaet-medizinischer-promotionen-kommt-ein-doktor-zum-arzt--1.2673150|work=[[Süddeutsche Zeitung]]|date=1 October 2015|title=Kommt ein Doktor zum Arzt ...|author=Sarah Schmidt|access-date=14 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180406172355/http://www.sueddeutsche.de/bildung/qualitaet-medizinischer-promotionen-kommt-ein-doktor-zum-arzt--1.2673150|archive-date=6 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/lebenundlernen/uni/von-der-leyen-in-der-kritik-schlechte-promotionen-sind-in-der-medizin-ueblich-a-1055039.html|title=Akademische Ramschware|work=[[Der Spiegel]]|date=28 September 2015|author=Bernd Kramer|access-date=14 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624133658/http://www.spiegel.de/lebenundlernen/uni/von-der-leyen-in-der-kritik-schlechte-promotionen-sind-in-der-medizin-ueblich-a-1055039.html|archive-date=24 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> The duration of the doctorate depends on the field: a doctorate in medicine may take less than a full-time year to complete; those in other fields, two to six years. Most doctorates are awarded with specific Latin designations for the field of research (except for engineering, where the designation is German), instead of a general name for all fields (such as the [[Ph.D.]]). The most important degrees are:
* ''[[Dr. rer. nat.]]'' (''rerum naturalium''; [[Natural science|natural]] and [[Formal science|formal]] sciences, i.e. physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, computer science and information technology, or psychology);
* ''Dr. phil.'' (''philosophiae''; humanities such as philosophy, philology, history, and social sciences such as sociology, political science, or psychology as well);
* ''Dr. iur.'' (''iuris''; law);
* ''Dr. oec.'' (''oeconomiae''; economics);
* ''Dr. rer. pol.'' (''rerum politicarum''; economics, business administration, political science);
* ''Dr. theol.'' (''theologiae''; theology);
* ''Dr. med.'' (''medicinae''; medicine);
* ''Dr. med. dent.'' (''medicinae dentariae''; dentistry);
* ''Dr. med. vet.'' (''medicinae veterinariae''; veterinary medicine);
* ''[[Doktoringenieur|Dr.-Ing.]]'' (engineering).

Over fifty such designations exist, many of them rare or no longer in use. As a title, the degree is commonly written in front of the name in abbreviated form, e.g., ''Dr. rer. nat. Max Mustermann'' or ''Dr. Max Mustermann'', dropping the designation entirely. However, leaving out the designation is only allowed when the doctorate degree is not an honorary doctorate, which must be indicated by ''Dr. h.c.'' (from Latin honoris causa). Although the honorific does not become part of the name, holders can demand that the title appear in official documents. The title is not mandatory. The honorific is commonly used in formal letters. For holders of other titles, only the highest title is mentioned. Multiple holders of doctorate degrees can be addressed as ''Dres.'' (from Latin ''doctores''). Professional doctorates obtained in other countries, not requiring a thesis or not being third cycle qualifications under the Bologna process, can only be used postnominally, e.g., "Max Mustermann, MD", and do not allow the use of the title Dr.<ref>{{cite web| title = Führung ausländischer Hochschulgrade| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090411040259/http://www.kmk.org/wissenschaft-hochschule/internationale-hochschulangelegenheiten/fuehrung-auslaendischer-hochschulgrade.html| archive-date = 11 April 2009| url = http://www.kmk.org/wissenschaft-hochschule/internationale-hochschulangelegenheiten/fuehrung-auslaendischer-hochschulgrade.html| url-status = dead}}</ref> In contrast to English, in which a person's name is preceded by at most one title (except in very ceremonious usage), the formal German mode of address permits several titles in addition to "Herr" or "Frau" (which, unlike "Mr" or "Ms", is not considered a title at all, but an ''Anrede'' or "address"), including repetitions in the case of multiple degrees, as in "Frau Prof. Dr. Dr. Schmidt",<ref>{{cite web| title=Duden: Professorinnen und Professoren anschreiben oder anreden | url=https://www.duden.de/sprachwissen/sprachratgeber/Professorinnen-und-Professoren-anschreiben-oder-anreden}}</ref> for a person who would be addressed as "Prof. Schmidt" in English.

In the German university system it is common to write two doctoral theses, the inaugural thesis ('''''Inauguraldissertation''''')<!--italics per MOS:Ety; boldface per BP:R#PLA-->, completing a course of study, and the [[habilitation]] thesis (''[[Habilitationsschrift]]''), which opens the road to a professorship.<ref>Carl Brockelmann, ''History of the Arabic Written Tradition'', Volume 1, BRILL, 2016, p. vii.</ref> Upon completion of the habilitation thesis, a ''Habilitation'' is awarded, which is indicated by appending ''habil.'' (''habilitata/habilitatus'') to the doctorate, e.g., ''Dr. rer. nat. habil. Max Mustermann''. It is considered as an additional academic qualification rather than an academic degree formally. It qualifies the owner to teach at German universities (''facultas docendi''). The holder of a ''Habilitation'' receives the authorization to teach a certain subject (''venia legendi''). This has been the traditional prerequisite for attaining [[Privatdozent|''Privatdozent'' (PD)]] and employment as a full university [[professor]]. With the introduction of ''Juniorprofessuren''—around 2005—as an alternative track towards becoming a professor at universities (with tenure), ''Habilitation'' is no longer the only university career track.

===India===
In [[India]], doctorates are offered by universities. Entry requirements include master's degree. Some universities consider undergraduate degrees in professional areas such as engineering, medicine or law as qualifications for pursuing doctorate level degrees. Entrance examinations are held for almost all programs. In most universities, coursework duration and thesis is 5–6 years. The most common doctoral degree is Ph.D.

===Italy===
Italy uses a three-level degree system. The first-level degree, called a "[[laurea]]" (''Bachelor's degree''), requires three years and a short thesis. The second-level degree, called a "[[Laurea|laurea magistrale]]" (''Master's degree''), is obtained after two additional years, specializing in a branch of the field. This degree requires more advanced thesis work, usually involving academic research or an internship. The final degree is called a "[[Laurea|dottorato di ricerca]]" (''Ph.D.'') and is obtained after three years of academic research on the subject and a thesis.

Alternatively, after obtaining the ''laurea'' or the ''laurea magistrale'' one can complete a "Master's" (first-level Master's after the ''laurea''; second-level Master's after the ''laurea magistrale'') of one or two years, usually including an internship. An Italian "Master's" is not the same as a master's degree; it is intended to be more focused on professional training and practical experience.

Regardless of the field of study, the title for Bachelors Graduate students is ''[[Dottore]]/Dottoressa'' (abbrev. ''Dott.''/''Dott.ssa'', or as ''Dr.''), not to be confused with the title for the Ph.D., which is instead ''Dottore/Dottoressa di Ricerca''. A ''laurea magistrale'' grants instead the title of ''Dottore/Dottoressa magistrale''. Graduates in the fields of Education, Art and Music are also called ''Dr. Prof.'' (or simply ''Professore'') or ''Maestro''. Many professional titles, such as ''ingegnere'' (engineer) are awarded only upon passing a post-graduation examination (''esame di stato''), and registration in the relevant professional association.

The first institution in [[Italy]] to create a [[doctoral]] program ([[Ph.D.]]) was [[Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa]] in 1927 under the historic name ''"Diploma di Perfezionamento"''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://download.sns.it/SNSguida_eng.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-02-02 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426041947/http://download.sns.it/SNSguida_eng.pdf |archivedate=2012-04-26 }}</ref><ref name="sns.it">{{in lang|it}} [http://www.sns.it/scuola/istituzionale/regolamentointerno/download/statuto_sns.pdf STATUTO DELLA SCUOLA NORMALE SUPERIORE DI PISA (legge 18 giugno 1986, n. 308)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217040548/http://www.sns.it/scuola/istituzionale/regolamentointerno/download/statuto_sns.pdf |date=2012-02-17 }}</ref> Further, the [[research]] [[doctorates]] or [[Ph.D.]] ([[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Dottorato di ricerca'') in [[Italy]] were introduced with law and [[Presidential Decree]] in 1980 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20111104111953/http://www.italgiure.giustizia.it/nir/1980/lexs_88887.html Law of February 21, 1980, No. 28] and the [[Presidential Decree]] [http://www.edscuola.it/archivio/norme/decreti/dpr382_80.html No. 382 of 11 July 1980]), referring to the reform of academic teaching, training and experimentation in organisation and teaching methods.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.italgiure.giustizia.it/nir/1980/lexs_88887.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-02-02 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104111953/http://www.italgiure.giustizia.it/nir/1980/lexs_88887.html |archivedate=2011-11-04 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Dario Cillo |url=http://www.edscuola.it/archivio/norme/decreti/dpr382_80.html |title=Decreto Presidente Repubblica 11 luglio 1980, n. 382 |website=Edscuola.it |date= |accessdate=2016-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160929114656/http://www.edscuola.it/archivio/norme/decreti/dpr382_80.html |archive-date=2016-09-29 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Hence the [[Superior Graduate Schools in Italy]] ([[Grandes écoles]])<ref name="ricercaitaliana.it">{{in lang|it}} [http://www.ricercaitaliana.it/scuole_eccellenza.htm Ricerca Italiana, Scuole di Eccellenza] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307161729/http://www.ricercaitaliana.it/scuole_eccellenza.htm |date=2012-03-07 }}</ref> ([[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Scuola Superiore Universitaria''),<ref name="bompard2000">{{cite web|url=http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=150222&sectioncode=26|title=Italy's big six form network for elite|work=Times Higher Education|access-date=2012-02-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120923152548/http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=150222&sectioncode=26|archive-date=2012-09-23|url-status=live}}</ref> also called ''Schools of Excellence'' ([[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Scuole di Eccellenza'')<ref name="ricercaitaliana.it" /><ref>{{in lang|it}} [http://scuoledieccellenza.it/ Scuole di Eccellenza] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120522045557/http://scuoledieccellenza.it/ |date=2012-05-22 }}</ref> such as [[Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa]] and [[Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies]] keep their historical ''"Diploma di Perfezionamento"'' [[Ph.D.]] title by [[law]]<ref name="sns.it" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.sssup.it/UploadDocs/7768_Legge_istitutiva_SSSA.pdf |title=Article 3 of the Law of 14 February 1987, No.41 {{!}} L. 14 febbraio 1987, n. 41 Istituzione della Scuola superiore di studi universitari e di perfezionamento S. Anna di Pisa |access-date=2 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214031210/http://www.sssup.it/UploadDocs/7768_Legge_istitutiva_SSSA.pdf |archive-date=14 February 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[MIUR]] [http://www.istruzione.it/alfresco/d/d/workspace/SpacesStore/8efd760c-b779-4716-9566-2338ddff59e1/07_allegato_4_equipollenze_perfezionamenti_e_dottorati.pdf Decree].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.istruzione.it/alfresco/d/d/workspace/SpacesStore/8efd760c-b779-4716-9566-2338ddff59e1/07_allegato_4_equipollenze_perfezionamenti_e_dottorati.pdf |title=Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (MIUR) Decree |access-date=2012-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320060520/http://www.istruzione.it/alfresco/d/d/workspace/SpacesStore/8efd760c-b779-4716-9566-2338ddff59e1/07_allegato_4_equipollenze_perfezionamenti_e_dottorati.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-20 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://guidalaureebiennali.miur.it/pdf/2008/05_Universita.pdf |title=2005 Universita in Italia Guida |language=it |website=Guidalaureebiennali.miur.it |date= |accessdate=2016-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107000344/http://guidalaureebiennali.miur.it/pdf/2008/05_Universita.pdf |archive-date=2017-01-07 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Japan===

====Dissertation-only====
Until the 1990s, most natural science and engineering doctorates in Japan were earned by industrial researchers in Japanese companies. These degrees were awarded by the employees' former university, usually after years of research in industrial laboratories. The only requirement is submission of a dissertation, along with articles published in well-known journals. This program is called {{nihongo|''ronbun hakase''|論文博士}}. It produced the majority of engineering doctoral degrees from national universities. University-based doctoral programs called {{nihongo|''katei hakase''|課程博士}}, are gradually replacing these degrees. By 1994, more doctoral engineering degrees were earned for research within university laboratories (53%) than industrial research laboratories (47%).<ref>[https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf97324/chp4.htm The Science and Technology Resources of Japan: A Comparison with the United States] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305013537/http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf97324/chp4.htm |date=2016-03-05 }} Nsf.gov (2004-11-10). Retrieved on 2010-10-26.</ref> Since 1978, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) has provided tutorial and financial support for promising researchers in Asia and Africa. The program is called JSPS RONPAKU.<ref>[http://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-ronpaku/index.html Ronpaku (Dissertation Phd) Program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090424062653/http://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-ronpaku/index.html |date=2009-04-24 }}. JSPS. Retrieved on 2010-10-26.</ref>

====Professional degree====
The only professional doctorate in Japan is the Juris Doctor, known as ''Hōmu Hakushi'' (法務博士)<ref>The Justice System Reform Council (2001). ''For a Justice System to Support Japan in the 21st Century''.</ref> The program generally lasts two or three years. This curriculum is professionally oriented,<ref>Yokohama National University Law School.[http://www.iblaw.ynu.ac.jp/english/law/program_i.html Program Introduction and Dean's Message] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090910032346/http://www.iblaw.ynu.ac.jp/english/law/program_i.html |date=2009-09-10 }}. Retrieved April 7, 2008.</ref> but unlike in the US the program does not provide education sufficient for a law license. All candidates for a bar license must pass the bar exam (''Shihou shiken''), attend the Legal Training and Research Institute and pass the practical exam (''Nikai Shiken'' or ''Shihou Shushusei koushi'').<ref>Foote, D. (2005). [http://www.reds.msh-paris.fr/communication/docs/foote.pdf Justice System Reform in Japan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090320130621/http://www.reds.msh-paris.fr/communication/docs/foote.pdf |date=2009-03-20 }}. Annual meeting of the Research Committee of Sociology of Law, Paris. European Network on Law and Society.</ref>

===Netherlands and Flanders===
The traditional academic system of the [[Netherlands]] provided basic academic diploma: ''propaedeuse'' and three academic degrees: ''kandidaat'' (the lowest degree), depending on gender ''doctorandus'' or ''doctoranda'' (drs.) (with equivalent degrees in engineering – ir. and law – mr.) and ''doctor'' (dr.). After successful completion of the first year of university, the student was awarded the propaedeutic diploma (not a degree). In some fields, this diploma was abolished in the 1980s. In physics and mathematics, the student could directly obtain a ''kandidaats (candidate)'' diploma in two years. The candidate diploma was all but abolished by 1989. It used to be attained after completion of the majority of courses of the academic study (usually after completion of course requirements of the third year in the program), after which the student was allowed to begin work on their doctorandus thesis. The successful completion of this thesis conveyed the ''[[doctorandus|doctoranda/us]]'' title, implying that the student's initial studies were finished. In addition to these 'general' degrees, specific titles equivalent to the ''doctorandus'' degree were awarded for law: ''meester'' (master) (mr.), and for engineering: ''ingenieur'' (engineer)(ir.). Following the Bologna protocol the Dutch adopted the Anglo-Saxon system of academic degrees. The old candidate's degree was revived to become the bachelor's degree and the doctorandus' (mr and ir degree) were replaced by master's degrees. Dutch university programmes tend to include advanced subject matter that e.g., at Harvard is taught in Ph.D.-courses (for instance advanced [[quantum mechanics]] or [[general relativity]] in a Dutch course for the master's degree in [[theoretical physics]]).

Students can only enroll in a doctorate system after completing a research university level master's degree; although dispensation can be granted on a case by case basis after scrutiny of the individual's portfolio. The most common way to conduct doctoral studies is to work as ''promovendus''/''assistant in opleiding'' (aio)/''onderzoeker in opleiding'' (oio) ([[research assistant]] with additional courses and supervision), perform extensive research and write a dissertation consisting of published articles (over a period of four or more years, averaging about 5.5 to 6). Research can also be conducted without official research assistant status, for example through a business-sponsored research laboratory.

Every Ph.D. thesis has to be promoted by a full university professor who has the role of principal advisor. The promotor (professor) determines whether the thesis quality suffices and can be submitted to the committee of experts. A committee of experts in the field review the thesis. Failures at this stage are rare because supervisors withhold inadequate work. The supervisors and promotor lose prestige among their colleagues should they allow a substandard thesis to be submitted.

After reviewer approval, the candidate publishes the thesis (generally more than 100 copies) and sends it to colleagues, friends and family with an invitation to the public defense. The degree is awarded in a formal, public, defense session, in which the thesis is defended against critical questions of the "opposition" (the review committee). Failure during this session is possible, but rare. Before the defense there may or may not be a public presentation, lasting 10 minutes (e.g. Eindhoven University) to exactly half hour (e.g. Delft University). The actual defense lasts exactly the assigned time slot (45 minutes to 1 hour exactly depending on the university) after which the defense is stopped by the [[bedel]] who closes the process.

The doctor's title is the highest academic degree in the Netherlands. In research doctorates the degree is always Ph.D. with no distinction between disciplines. Three Dutch universities of technology ([[Eindhoven University of Technology]], [[Delft University of Technology]], and [[University of Twente]]) also award a (lower ranked) [[Professional Doctorate in Engineering]] ([[Professional Doctorate in Engineering|PDEng]]).

Although the title doctor is informally called Ph.D., legally no Ph.D. degree exists. All other university titles (B.Sc./B.Ba./LL.B./B.A. M.Sc./M.B.A./LL.M./M.A.) are protected by law, while Ph.D. is not. Any person thus can adopt the Ph.D. title, but not the doctor title, which is protected. Those who obtained a degree in a foreign country can only use the Dutch title drs. mr. ir. or dr. if approved by the ''Dienst Uitvoering Onderwijs''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ib-groep.nl/international_visitors/Diploma_assessment/Coming_to_the_Netherlands/s20_an_academic_title.asp |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2011-01-07 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217152308/http://ib-groep.nl/international_visitors/Diploma_assessment/Coming_to_the_Netherlands/s20_an_academic_title.asp |archivedate=2010-12-17 }}</ref> though according to the [[opportunity principle]], little effort monitors such frauds. Dutch doctors may use the letter D behind their name instead of the uncapitalized shortcut dr. before their name.<ref name="postbus">{{cite web |url=http://www.postbus51.nl/nl/home/themas/onderwijs/diploma-s-en-certificaten/titulatuur/welke-titel-mag-ik-voeren-als-ik-gepromoveerd-ben.html |title=Informatie van de Rijksoverheid &#124; Rijksoverheid.nl |website=Postbus51.nl |date= |accessdate=2016-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323030145/http://www.postbus51.nl/nl/home/themas/onderwijs/diploma-s-en-certificaten/titulatuur/welke-titel-mag-ik-voeren-als-ik-gepromoveerd-ben.html |archive-date=2010-03-23 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Those who have multiple doctor (dr.) titles may use the title dr.mult.<ref name="postbus" /> Those who have received honoris causa doctorates may use dr.h.c. before their own name.<ref name="postbus" />

In [[Belgium]]'s [[Flemish Community]] the doctorandus title was only used by those who actually started their doctoral work. Doctorandus is still used as a synonym for a Ph.D. student. The ''licentiaat'' (licensee) title was in use for a regular graduate until the Bologna reform changed the licentiaat degree to the master's degree (the Bologna reform abolished the two-year kandidaat degree and introduced a three-year academic bachelor's degree instead).
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===Nepal===
In Nepal, doctorate level degrees are offered by the universities or institutions of national level importance deemed to be universities. Entry requirements for doctorates by most of the universities include good academic background at masters level (post graduate degree). Some universities also consider undergraduate degrees in professional areas such as engineering, medicine or law for entrance to doctorate level degrees. Entrance examinations are held for almost all the universities for admission to doctoral level degrees. The duration of the coursework and thesis for award of the degree is 2 – 3 years after Ph.D. registration.
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===Pakistan===
Research Degrees are Ph.D. (Doctor of Philosophy) awarded after extensive research work including a compulsory one year of course work and written examination. To get admission in Ph.D. you must be admitted to the MPhil program for which you need to pass NTS or GRE (subjective or General) and should have good grades throughout your career. Exemption from MPhil is possible if you have MS from a reputable University.
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===Poland===
The Polish system is similar to the one adopted in Germany, with Ph.D. as a first level doctorate and [[habilitation]] (''habilitacja'') as second. The award of the title of ''doktor'' (Ph.D.) is usually preceded by 4–5 years of doctoral study (a post-graduate study offered at most universities, during which candidate is employed by this university and is usually obligated to teach some classes) and a doctoral exam. Doctoral studies usually consist of seminars, lectures, research and teaching. In order to become a ''doktor habilitowany'' (i.e. to be awarded a second level doctorate) a candidate has to publish a dissertation that is the culmination of several years of deep field studies, as well as have a recognized research record. While, according to current Polish law, candidates without [[habilitation]] are theoretically eligible to become professors, in practice it is extremely rare. Since 1993 only Master-degree holders are allowed to become a doctor, while prior to that time it was possible (but rare) to gain doctorate without Master studies (for example [[Stefan Banach]]).

First, a prospective doctor must have published some works (articles, books). To become a doctor one needs to go through the process called doctoral proceedings (''przewód doktorski''). This proceedings include the writing of a [[dissertation]] (varying in length), which then must be accepted by a panel of professors during a so-called ''defence of the dissertation'' (''obrona pracy doktorskiej''). There are several other requirements, like passing an exam in a foreign language and subject related to the dissertation title.

The title of a first level doctor is abbreviated as ''dr'' (without a full stop) before the surname of a person, e.g. ''dr Kowalski'' and a second level ''dr hab.''. After becoming a doctor ''mgr'' is omitted, e.g. ''mgr'' → ''dr'', ''mgr inż.'' → ''dr inż.''.

''Doktor'' is also a common form of addressing a physician, but that does not indicate that the person actually holds a doctoral degree. Doctors of medicine have the abbreviation ''dr n. med.'' (doctor of medical science) before or after their surname.

Other specific doctoral titles include ''dr n.t.'' (doctor of engineering) and ''dr n. farm'' (doctor of pharmaceutical science). ''Dr n.hum.'' means doctor of humanities (incl. psychology and sociology), but is rarely used to differentiate from doctors of other fields. All other doctorates have no indications of their field.
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===Portugal===
*Doutor (Doctor)
All doctoral programs are of research nature. Usually 3 or 4 years of study are required, mostly as a period of research. The student must write their thesis presenting a new discovery or original contribution to the field. If approved by his/her supervisor, the study will be presented to a panel of distinguished scholars. If approved, he or she will receive the doctorate.
*Male title: "Dr." and "Doutor". Female title: "Dra." and "Doutora".
In Portugal it is common to use the title "Dr." (supposedly the abbreviation of "Doutor") in reference to people with "Licenciatura" or "Mestrado" degrees.
Thus "Doutor" is commonly used in the extended form to denote someone with a doctorate. "Professor Doutor" is usually used for university professors.

Before the [[Bologna process|Bologna Process]] reform, a "Licenciatura" was something between a Bachelor ("Bacharelato" in Portugal) and it represented 4 to 6 years of graduate studies.

After the [[Bologna process|Bologna Process]] reform in Portugal, the new "Licenciatura" degree is equivalent to the old "Bacharelato" (Bachelor with 3 or 4 years). There are also the "Mestrado" (Master's degree) and the "Mestrado Integrado" (integrated bachelor's and master's degree with 5 or 6 years, required for access to some professional fields).
Some professionals have, however, different titles. For example: "Eng." (Engenheiro, such as the Master of Engineering), "Arq." (Arquitecto, Architect). The term "Dr." in Portugal is also used for people from other professional fields. For Example, Dentists, Lawyers and Physicians.
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===Russia===
Many post-Soviet countries, including [[Russian Federation]], have a two-stage path to obtain research degrees, generally similar to the doctorate system in Europe. The first stage is named ''"[[Kandidat]](Кандидат наук) of <...> Sciences"'' (the literal translation means "Candidate of Sciences",) (for instance, [[Kandidat]] of Medical Sciences, of Chemical Sciences, of Philological Sciences etc.). The Kandidat of Sciences degree is usually recognised as an equivalent of the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree and requires at least (and typically more than) three, four or five years of post-graduate research which is finished by defence of [[Dissertation]] or rarely—[[thesis]]. Additionally, a seeker of the degree has to pass three examinations (a so-called "Kandidate's minimum"): in his/her special field, in a foreign language, and in the history and philosophy of science, which originates from the course of [[Communist Ideology]] named similar in Soviet times. After additional certification by the corresponding experts, the Kandidat degree may be recognized internationally as an equivalent of the Ph.D. (An unconditional Ph.D. equivalence has been recognized before the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], and the additional certification in many countries has become a requirement following the steep increased flow of post-Soviet emigration.) The second stage, [[Doktor nauk]], ''"Doctor of <...> Sciences"'', requires many years of research experience, and writing of a second dissertation. Obtaining [[Doktor nauk]] degree is usually associated with approval for a professorial position in Russian universities, while holders of [[Kandidat]] degree are rarely allowed to hold this administrative post. The degrees of Kandidat and Doktor of Sciences are only awarded by the special governmental agency ([[Higher Attestation Commission]]); only the university or scientific institute where the thesis was defended can recommend the award of this degree to candidates.
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===Russia===
In the [[Russian Empire]] the academic degree "doctor of the sciences" (''[[doktor nauk]]'') marked the highest academic degree that can be achieved by an examination. (The "doctor nauk" degree was introduced in Russia in 1819, abolished in 1917, and revived in the [[USSR]] in 1934.)<ref>Leitenberg, Milton and Raymond A. Zilinskas (2012), ''The Soviet Biological Weapons Program: A History'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2012, Table 2.1.</ref> This system was generally adopted by the [[USSR]]/[[Russia]] and many post-Soviet countries. A lower degree, "[[Candidate of Sciences|candidate [doctor] of the sciences]]" (''kandidat nauk''; first introduced in the USSR on January 13, 1934, by a decision of the [[Sovnarkom|Council of People's Commissars of the USSR]]), is, roughly, the Russian equivalent to the research doctorate in other countries.

===Spain===
[[File:Birrete doctoral.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|The ancient ceremony of bestowing [[Complutense]]'s Doctoral ''[[biretta]]''.]]
Doctoral degrees are regulated by Royal Decree (R.D. 778/1998),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.upm.es/laupm/organos_gobierno/normativa/NormativaDoctorado0203.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2007-12-30 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216045313/http://www.upm.es/laupm/organos_gobierno/normativa/NormativaDoctorado0203.pdf |archivedate=2008-02-16 }}</ref> ''Real Decreto'' (in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]). They are granted by the university on behalf of the king. Its diploma has the force of a public document. The Ministry of Science keeps a national registry of theses called TESEO.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.micinn.es/teseo/listarBusqueda.do |title=Página no encontrada – Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte |website=Micinn.es |date= |accessdate=2016-10-29 }}{{dead link|date=December 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> According to the National Institute of Statistics (INE), less than 5% of M.Sc. degree holders are admitted to Ph.D. programmes.

All doctoral programs are research-oriented. A minimum of 4 years of study is required, divided into 2 stages:

* A 2-year (or longer) period of studies concludes with a public dissertation presented to a panel of 3 Professors. Upon approval from the university, the candidate receives a "Diploma de Estudios Avanzados" (part qualified doctor, equivalent to M.Sc.). From 2008 it is possible to substitute the former diploma by a recognized master program.
* A 2-year (or longer) research period includes extensions for up to 10 years. The student must present a thesis describing a discovery or original contribution. If approved by their thesis director, the study is presented to a panel of 5 distinguished scholars. Any Doctor attending the public defense is allowed to challenge the candidate with questions. If approved, the candidate receives the doctorate. Four marks used to be granted: Unsatisfactory (''Suspenso''), Pass (''Aprobado''), Remarkable (''Notable''), "Cum laude" (''Sobresaliente''), and "Summa cum laude" (''Sobresaliente Cum Laude''). Those Doctors granted their degree "Summa Cum Laude" were allowed to apply for an "Extraordinary Award".

Since September 2012 and regulated by Royal Decree (R.D. 99/2011) (in Spanish),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2011/02/10/pdfs/BOE-A-2011-2541.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2013-01-03 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609114041/http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2011/02/10/pdfs/BOE-A-2011-2541.pdf |archivedate=2012-06-09 }}</ref> three marks can be granted: Unsatisfactory (''No apto''), Pass (''Apto'') and "Cum laude" (''Apto Cum Laude'') as maximum mark. In the public defense the doctor is notified if the thesis has passed or not passed. The ''Apto Cum Laude'' mark is awarded after the public defense as the result of a private, anonymous vote. Votes are verified by the university. A unanimous vote of the reviewers nominates Doctors granted ''Apto Cum Laude'' for an "Extraordinary Award" (''Premio Extraordinario de Doctorado'').

In the same Royal Decree the initial 3-year study period was replaced by a Research master's degree (one or two years; Professional master's degrees do not grant direct access to Ph.D. Programs) that concludes with a public dissertation called "Trabajo de Fin de Máster" or "Proyecto de Fin de Máster". An approved project earns a master's degree that grants access to a Ph.D. program and initiates the period of research.

A doctorate is required in order to teach at the university.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2007/10/30/pdfs/A44037-44048.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2014-06-05 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727124120/http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2007/10/30/pdfs/A44037-44048.pdf |archivedate=2014-07-27 }}</ref>

Only [[Ph.D.]] holders, [[Grandees]] and [[Duke]]s can sit and cover their heads in the presence of the King.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.protocolo.org/gest_web/proto_Seccion.pl?rfID=459&arefid=2871&pag=8|title=Raíces de las normas y tradiciones del protocolo y ceremonial universitario actual: las universidades del Antiguo Régimen y los actos de colación.|work=Protocolo y Etiqueta|access-date=2007-12-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080304102729/http://www.protocolo.org/gest_web/proto_Seccion.pl?rfID=459&arefid=2871&pag=8|archive-date=2008-03-04|url-status=live}}</ref>

From 1857, [[Complutense University]] was the only one in Spain authorised to confer the doctorate. This law remained in effect until 1954, when the [[University of Salamanca]] joined in commemoration of its septcentenary. In 1970, the right was extended to all Spanish universities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://es.wikisource.org/wiki/Ley_Moyano_de_Instrucci%C3%B3n_P%C3%BAblica_de_1857:_14|title=Ley Moyano de Instrucción Pública de 1857: 14|work=wikisource.org|access-date=2010-12-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307073556/http://es.wikisource.org/wiki/Ley_Moyano_de_Instrucci%C3%B3n_P%C3%BAblica_de_1857:_14|archive-date=2012-03-07|url-status=live}}</ref>

All doctorate holders are reciprocally recognised as equivalent in Germany and Spain (according to the "Bonn Agreement of November 14, 1994").<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boe.es/g/es/bases_datos/doc.php?coleccion=iberlex&id=1995/12243&codmap=|title=BOE.es, Documento BOE-A-1995-12243|work=boe.es|access-date=2018-12-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081219025837/http://www.boe.es/g/es/bases_datos/doc.php?coleccion=iberlex&id=1995%2F12243&codmap=|archive-date=2008-12-19|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===United Kingdom===

====History of the UK doctorate====

The doctorate has long existed in the UK as, originally, the second degree in divinity, law, medicine and music. But it was not until the late 19th century that the research doctorate, now known as the higher doctorate, was introduced. The first higher doctorate was the [[Doctor of Science]] at [[Durham University]], introduced in 1882.<ref name="higher doctorates 2013">{{cite book|url=http://www.ukcge.ac.uk/Media/Download.aspx?MediaId=1328|format=PDF|publisher=UK Council for Graduate Education|title=Higher Doctorates in the UK 2013|author=Tina Barnes|date=2013| page=6|  isbn =978-0-9563812-7-9|quote=The UK higher doctorate has a long history with the first (a DSc) being offered by Durham University in 1882}}</ref> This was soon followed by other universities, including the [[University of Cambridge]] establishing its ScD in the same year, the [[University of London]] transforming its DSc from an advanced study course to a research degree in 1885, and the [[University of Oxford]] establishing its [[Doctor of Letters]] (DLitt) in 1900.<ref name="maths PhD history">{{cite web |author=John Aldrich |url=http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/Doc1.htm |title=The Mathematics PhD in the United Kingdom: Historical Notes for the Mathematics Genealogy Project |access-date=2016-01-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304103452/http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/Doc1.htm |archive-date=2016-03-04 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[[M.G. Brock]] and M.C Curthouys, eds., ''The History of the University of Oxford.'', vol. VII, part 2: ''Nineteenth Century Oxford'', (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 619.</ref>

[[File:Ph.D. gown, Cambridge University.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Ph.D. Gown, University of Cambridge]]

The PhD was adopted in the UK following a joint decision in 1917 by British universities, although it took much longer for it to become established. Oxford became the first university to institute the new degree, although naming it the DPhil.<ref name="maths PhD history"/> The PhD was often distinguished from the earlier higher doctorates by distinctive academic dress. At Cambridge, for example, PhDs wear a master's gown with scarlet facings rather than the full scarlet gown of the higher doctors, while the [[University of Wales]] gave PhDs crimson gowns rather than scarlet.<ref>{{cite book|title=Academical Dress of British and Irish Universities|author=George W. Shaw|date=1995|pages=35,40,219–220|isbn=0-85033-974-X|publisher=Phillmore & Co. Ltd.}}</ref> Professional doctorates were introduced in Britain in the 1980s and 1990s. The earliest professional doctorates were in the social sciences, including the [[Doctor of Business Administration]] (DBA), [[Doctor of Education]] (EdD) and [[Doctor of Clinical Psychology]] (DClinPsy).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://professionaldoctorates.org.uk/professional-doctorates|title=Professional Doctorates|publisher=International Association for Practice Doctorates|accessdate=27 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160930025431/http://professionaldoctorates.org.uk/professional-doctorates|archive-date=30 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

====British doctorates today====
Today, except for those awarded ''honoris causa'', all doctorates granted by British universities are research doctorates, in that their main (and in many cases only) component is the submission of an extensive and substantial thesis or portfolio of original research, examined by an expert panel appointed by the university.  UK doctorates are categorised as:<ref name="QAA Doctorate"/>
;Junior doctorates
:# ''Subject specialist doctorates'' – normally PhD/DPhil; the most common form of doctorate
:#* ''Integrated subject specialist doctorates'' – integrated PhDs including teaching at master's level 
:# ''Doctorates by publication'' – PhD by Published Works; only awarded infrequently
:# ''Professional and practice-based (or practitioner) doctorates'' – e.g. EdD, ProfDoc/DProf, EngD, etc.; usually include taught elements and have a professional, rather than academic, orientation
;Higher doctorates: e.g. DD, LLD, DSc, DLitt; higher level than junior doctorates, usually awarded either for a substantial body of work over an extended period or as honorary degrees.

The [[Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education|Quality Assurance Agency]] states in the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies (which covers junior doctorates but not higher doctorates) that:<ref name=FHEQ/>
{{Quotation|text='''Doctoral degrees are awarded to students who have demonstrated:'''
* the creation and interpretation of new knowledge, through original research or other advanced scholarship, of a quality to satisfy peer review, extend the forefront of the discipline, and merit publication
* a systematic acquisition and understanding of a substantial body of knowledge which is at the forefront of an academic discipline or area of professional practice
* the general ability to conceptualise, design and implement a project for the generation of new knowledge, applications or understanding at the forefront of the discipline, and to adjust the project design in the light of unforeseen problems
* a detailed understanding of applicable techniques for research and advanced academic enquiry}}

In the UK, the (junior) doctorate is a qualification awarded at FHEQ level 8/level 12 of the FQHEIS on the [[National qualifications frameworks in the United Kingdom|national qualifications frameworks]].<ref name=FHEQ/><ref name="QAA Doctorate"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ofqual.gov.uk/help-and-advice/comparing-qualifications/|title=Compare different qualifications|work=ofqual.gov.uk|access-date=2012-12-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116181912/http://www.ofqual.gov.uk/help-and-advice/comparing-qualifications/|archive-date=2013-01-16|url-status=dead}}</ref> The higher doctorates are stated to be "A higher level of award", which is not covered by the qualifications frameworks.<ref name="QAA Doctorate"/>

====Subject specialist doctorates====

These are the most common doctorates in the UK and are normally awarded as PhDs. While the master/apprentice model was traditionally used for British PhDs, since 2003 courses have become more structured, with students taking courses in research skills and receiving training for professional and personal development. However, the assessment of the PhD remains based on the production of a thesis or equivalent and its defence at a ''[[oral exam|viva voce]]'' oral examination, normally held in front of at least two examiners, one internal and one external.<ref name="QAA Doctorate"/> Access to PhDs normally requires an [[British degree classification|upper second class or first class]] [[bachelor's degree]], or a [[master's degree]]. Courses normally last three years, although it is common for students to be initially registered for [[MPhil]] degrees and then formally transferred onto the PhD after a year or two. Students who are not considered likely to complete a PhD may be offered the opportunity to complete an MPhil instead.<ref name="Prospects PhD">{{cite web|url=https://www.prospects.ac.uk/postgraduate-study/phd-study/what-is-a-phd|title=What is a PhD?|publisher=Graduate Prospects Ltd.|accessdate=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014106/https://www.prospects.ac.uk/postgraduate-study/phd-study/what-is-a-phd|archive-date=6 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

Integrated doctorates, originally known as 'New Route PhDs', were introduced from 2000 onwards. These integrate teaching at master's level during the first one or two years of the degree, either alongside research or as a preliminary to starting research. These courses usually offer a master's-level exit degree after the taught courses are completed. While passing the taught elements is often required, examination of the final doctorate is still by thesis (or equivalent) alone.<ref name="QAA Doctorate"/> The duration of integrated doctorates is a minimum of four years, with three years spent on the research component.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Masters-Degree-Characteristics-15.pdf|title=Characteristics Statement: Master's Degree|date=September 2015|page=6|publisher=[[Quality Assurance Agency]]|accessdate=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014405/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Masters-Degree-Characteristics-15.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2013, [[Research Councils UK]] issued a 'Statement of Expectations for Postgraduate Training', which lays out the expectations for training in PhDs funded by the research councils.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vitae.ac.uk/news/rcuk-unveils-expectations-for-doctoral-training-support|title=RCUK unveils expectations for doctoral training support|publisher=Vitae.ac.uk|accessdate=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006015535/https://www.vitae.ac.uk/news/rcuk-unveils-expectations-for-doctoral-training-support|archive-date=6 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> In the latest version (2016), issued together with [[Cancer Research UK]], the [[Wellcome Trust]] and the [[British Heart Foundation]], these include the provision of careers advice, in-depth advanced training in the subject area, provision of transferable skills, training in experimental design and statistics, training in good research conduct, and training for compliance with legal, ethical and professional frameworks. The statement also encourages peer-group development through cohort training and/or Graduate schools.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rcuk.ac.uk/documents/skills/statementofexpectation-pdf/|date=September 2016|title=Statement of Expectations for Postgraduate Training|accessdate=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001235637/http://www.rcuk.ac.uk/documents/skills/statementofexpectation-pdf/|archive-date=1 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Higher doctorates====
Higher doctorates are awarded in recognition of a substantial body of original research undertaken over the course of many years. Typically the candidate submits a collection of previously published, peer-refereed work, which is reviewed by a committee of internal and external academics who decide whether the candidate deserves the doctorate. The higher doctorate is similar in some respects to the [[habilitation]] in some European countries. However, the purpose of the award is significantly different. While the habilitation formally determines whether an academic is suitably qualified to be a university professor, the higher doctorate does not qualify the holder for a position but rather recognises their contribution to research.<ref name="higher doctorates 2013"/>

Higher doctorates were defined by the UK Council for Graduate Education (UKCGE) in 2013 as:<ref name="higher doctorates 2013"/>
{{quote|an award that is at a level above the PhD (or equivalent professional doctorate in the discipline), and that is typically gained not through a defined programme of study but rather by submission of a substantial body of research-based work.}}

In terms of number of institutions offering the awards, the most common doctorates of this type in UKCGE surveys carried out in 2008 and 2013 were the [[Doctor of Science]] (DSc), [[Doctor of Letters]] (DLitt), [[Doctor of Law]] (LLD), [[Doctor of Music]] (DMus) and [[Doctor of Divinity]] (DD); in the 2008 survey the [[Doctor of Technology]] (DTech) tied with the DD.<ref name="higher doctorates 2013"/> The DSc was offered by all 49 responding institutions in 2008 and 15 out of 16 in 2013 and the DLitt by only one less in each case, while the DD was offered in 10 responding institutions in 2008 and 3 in 2013. In terms of number of higher doctorates awarded (not including honorary doctorates) the DSc was most popular, but the number of awards was very low: the responding institutions had averaged an award of at most one earned higher doctorate per year over the period 2003–2013.<ref name="higher doctorates 2013"/>

====Honorary degrees====
Most British universities award degrees ''honoris causa'' to recognise individuals who have made a substantial contribution to a particular field. Usually an appropriate higher doctorate is used in these circumstances, depending on the candidate's achievements. However, some universities differentiate between honorary and substantive doctorates, using the degree of [[Doctor of the University]] (D.Univ.) for these purposes, and reserve the higher doctorates for formal academic research.

===United States===
[[File:Woolsey Hall, Yale University.jpg|thumb|In 1861, [[Yale University]] awarded the first [[Doctor of Philosophy|Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)]] degree in the United States.]]

The structure of US doctoral programs is more formal and complex than some others. US research doctorates are awarded for successfully completing and defending independent research presented in the form of a dissertation, along with advanced study. Multiple professional degrees use the term "doctor" in their title, such as [[Juris Doctor]] and [[Doctor of Medicine]], but these degrees do not always contain an independent research component or always require a dissertation and should not be confused with Ph.D./D.Phil./[[Doctor of Education|Ed.D./D.Ed.]] degrees or other research doctorates.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/professional.doc |format=DOC |title=Credential Creep |website=2.ed.gov |accessdate=2016-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160823140419/http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/professional.doc |archive-date=2016-08-23 |url-status=live }}</ref> Law school graduates, although awarded the J.D. degree, are not normally addressed as "doctor".  In legal studies the Ph.D. equivalent is the much rarer [[Doctor of Juridical Science]].

Many universities offer Ph.D./D.Phil. followed by a professional doctorate or joint Ph.D./D.Phil. with the professional degree. Most often, Ph.D. work comes sequential to the professional degree, e.g., Ph.D./D.Phil. in law after a J.D. or equivalent<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.law.yale.edu/graduate/PHD_program.htm |title=Ph.D. Program – Yale Law School |website=Law.yale.edu |date= |accessdate=2016-10-29 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6JdreJjL9?url=http://www.law.yale.edu/graduate/PHD_program.htm |archive-date=2013-09-15 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.le.ac.uk/study/research/phd/law/distance-learning|title=Distance Learning Ph.D. in Law|work=le.ac.uk|access-date=2013-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020131814/http://www2.le.ac.uk/study/research/phd/law/distance-learning|archive-date=2013-10-20|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.law.berkeley.edu/jsp.htm|title=Berkeley Law, Ph.D. Program (JSP)|work=berkeley.edu|access-date=2013-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020012211/http://www.law.berkeley.edu/jsp.htm|archive-date=2013-10-20|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.law.washington.edu/phd/|title=Ph.D. Program, UW School of Law|work=washington.edu|access-date=2013-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020091143/http://www.law.washington.edu/phd/|archive-date=2013-10-20|url-status=live}}</ref> in [[physical therapy]] after DPT,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.drexel.edu/physicalTherapy/programs/phdRehabilitation/admissions/|title=Ph.D. in Rehabilitation Sciences|work=College of Nursing and Health Professions|access-date=2013-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024070207/http://www.drexel.edu/physicalTherapy/programs/phdRehabilitation/admissions/|archive-date=2013-10-24|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="apta.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.apta.org/PostprofessionalDegree/PhDScDPrograms/|title=Directory of Postprofessional Ph.D. and ScD/DSc Programs|work=apta.org|access-date=2013-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020100519/http://www.apta.org/PostprofessionalDegree/PhDScDPrograms/|archive-date=2013-10-20|url-status=live}}</ref> in [[pharmacy]] after Pharm.D.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pharmacy.ucsf.edu/pharmdphd/|title=PharmD/Ph.D. Combined Degree Program|work=ucsf.edu|access-date=2013-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020054426/http://pharmacy.ucsf.edu/pharmdphd/|archive-date=2013-10-20|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.utexas.edu/pharmacy/research/pharmd_phd/description.html|title=University of Texas, College of Pharmacy, Pharm. D./Ph.D.|work=utexas.edu|access-date=2013-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024043800/http://www.utexas.edu/pharmacy/research/pharmd_phd/description.html|archive-date=2013-10-24|url-status=dead}}</ref> Such professional degrees are referred to as an entry level doctorate program<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pharmacy.ufl.edu/education/doctor-of-pharmacy-degree-pharmd/|title=Doctor of Pharmacy Degree (Pharm.D.)|work=ufl.edu|access-date=2013-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020051153/http://pharmacy.ufl.edu/education/doctor-of-pharmacy-degree-pharmd/|archive-date=2013-10-20|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pharmacy.osu.edu/futurestudents/?subsec=pharmd|title=PharmD Program|work=osu.edu|access-date=2013-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020062746/http://pharmacy.osu.edu/futurestudents/?subsec=pharmd|archive-date=2013-10-20|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ferris.edu/HTMLS/colleges/pharmacy/admissions/faq/program/difference.htm|title=What is the difference between a Pharm.D. and a Ph.D. degree?: College of Pharmacy|work=ferris.edu|access-date=2013-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020061851/http://www.ferris.edu/HTMLS/colleges/pharmacy/admissions/faq/program/difference.htm|archive-date=2013-10-20|url-status=dead}}</ref> and Ph.D. as a post-professional doctorate.<ref name="apta.org" />

====Research degrees====
{{Main|Graduate science education in the United States| List of doctoral degrees in the US}}

The most common research doctorate is the [[Doctor of Philosophy]] (Ph.D. or D.Phil.). This degree was first awarded in the U.S. at the 1861 [[Yale University]] commencement.<ref name="web.archive.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.yale.edu/opa/newsr/97-04-21-01.all.html |title=Office of Public Affairs at Yale – News Release |accessdate=2015-01-16 |url-status=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060909180355/http://www.yale.edu/opa/newsr/97-04-21-01.all.html |archivedate=September 9, 2006 }}. Retrieved on 2010-10-26.</ref> The [[University of Pennsylvania]] followed in 1871,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=0UoHIAeSKvAC&lpg=RA3-PA457&ots=qFADSNpmrF&dq=upenn%20first%20phd%201871&pg=RA3-PA457#v=onepage&q=&f=false American higher education in the ... – Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150913110715/https://books.google.com/books?id=0UoHIAeSKvAC&lpg=RA3-PA457&ots=qFADSNpmrF&dq=upenn%20first%20phd%201871&pg=RA3-PA457#v=onepage&q=&f=false |date=2015-09-13 }}. Books.google.com. Retrieved on 2010-10-26.</ref> with [[Cornell University|Cornell]] (1872),<ref>[http://www.gradschool.cornell.edu/index.php?p=36 Cornell University Graduate School – Our History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090829090937/http://www.gradschool.cornell.edu/index.php?p=36 |date=2009-08-29 }}. Gradschool.cornell.edu. Retrieved on 2010-10-26.</ref> [[Harvard]] (1873),<ref>[http://gsas.harvard.edu/publications/history_and_organization.php] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091030082049/http://gsas.harvard.edu/publications/history_and_organization.php |date=October 30, 2009 }}</ref> [[University of Michigan|Michigan]] (1876) <ref>[http://bicentennial.umich.edu/our-history/timeline/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160621190617/http://bicentennial.umich.edu/our-history/timeline/ |date=2016-06-21 }}. Bicentennial Timeline</ref>  and [[Princeton University|Princeton]] (1879)<ref>[http://gradschool.princeton.edu/about/history/ History & Purpose – The Graduate School – Princeton University] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090719105842/http://gradschool.princeton.edu/about/history/ |date=2009-07-19 }}. Gradschool.princeton.edu (2010-10-01). Retrieved on 2010-10-26.</ref> following suit. Unlike the introduction of the professional doctorate M.D., considerable controversy and opposition followed the introduction of the Ph.D. into the U.S. educational system, lasting into the 1950s, as it was seen as an unnecessary artificial transplant from a foreign (Germany) educational system, which corrupted a system based on England's [[Oxbridge]] model.<ref>Prior, Moody E. (1965). "The Doctor of Philosophy Degree." in Walters, E. ed. Graduate Education Today. American Council on Education. Washington, D.C. p. 32.</ref>

Ph.D.s and other research doctorates in the U.S. typically entail successful completion of pertinent classes, passing a [[comprehensive examination]], and [[Thesis defense|defending a dissertation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://math.arizona.edu/gradprogram/handbook/phdrequirements.html|title=Graduate Degree Requirements|work=arizona.edu|access-date=2008-04-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080413091816/http://math.arizona.edu/gradprogram/handbook/phdrequirements.html|archive-date=2008-04-13|url-status=live}}</ref>

The median number of years for completion of US doctoral degrees is seven.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> Doctoral applicants were previously required to have a [[master's degree]], but many programs accept students immediately following undergraduate studies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/Programs/phd/phd-admissions/index.cfm |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-01-16 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613180335/http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/Programs/phd/phd-admissions/index.cfm |archivedate=2010-06-13 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mgmt.purdue.edu/programs/phd/admissions/|title=Admissions Information|work=purdue.edu|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225221743/http://www.mgmt.purdue.edu/programs/phd/admissions/|archivedate=2009-02-25}}</ref> Many programs gauge the potential of a student applying to their program and grant a master's degree upon completion of the necessary Ph.D. course work. When so admitted, the student is expected to have mastered the material covered in the master's degree despite not holding one, though this tradition is under heavy criticism.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tradition of Oxbridge 'free' Masters degrees under fire|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/universityeducation/8843640/Tradition-of-Oxbridge-free-Masters-degrees-under-fire.html|website=Telegraph.co.uk|accessdate=22 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508101917/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/universityeducation/8843640/Tradition-of-Oxbridge-free-Masters-degrees-under-fire.html|archive-date=8 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Finishing Ph.D. qualifying exams confers Ph.D. candidate status, allowing dissertation work to begin.

While not authoritative, the International Affairs Office of the U.S. Department of Education listed over 20 "frequently" awarded research doctorate titles identified by the [[National Science Foundation]] (NSF) in a 2008 document as representing degrees equivalent in research content to the Ph.D. at the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/doctorate.doc |format=DOC |title=Structure of the U.S. Education System : Research Doctorate Degrees |website=Ed.gov |accessdate=2016-10-30 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127015732/http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/doctorate.doc |archivedate=2012-01-27 }}</ref> The 2008 version of the NSF list of research doctorates included in the Survey of Earned Doctorates (SED), contained 18 awards. The Doctor of Music and Doctor of Industrial Technology were removed in 2008, after the study evaluation identified that these were fully professional, rather than research-based, doctorates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2016/nsf16300/technotes.cfm|title=Technical Notes|work=Doctorate Recipients from U.S. Universities: 2014|date=December 2015|publisher=[[National Science Foundation]]|accessdate=4 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014144/https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2016/nsf16300/technotes.cfm|archive-date=6 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The current list (as of the 2016 SED, published in March 2018) contains the same 18 awards.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2018/nsf18304/datatables/taba1.htm|title=Table A-1. Types of research doctoral degrees recognized by the Survey of Earned Doctorates: 2016|accessdate=1 September 2018|publisher=National Science Foundation|date=March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902084341/https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2018/nsf18304/datatables/taba1.htm|archive-date=2 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Professional degrees====
{{Main|List of doctoral degrees in the US}}
Many fields offer professional doctorates (or professional master's) such as [[pharmacy]], [[medicine]], [[public health]], [[dentistry]], [[optometry]], [[psychology]], [[speech-language pathology]],  [[physical therapy]], [[occupational therapy]], [[health science]], [[advanced practice registered nurse]], [[chiropractic]], [[naturopathic medicine]], [[law]], [[architecture]], [[education]], [[teaching]], [[Trade|business]], [[management]], and others that require such degrees for professional practice or [[licensure]]. Some of these degrees are also termed "[[first professional degree]]s," since they are the first field-specific master's or doctoral degrees.

A Doctor of Pharmacy is awarded as the professional degree in pharmacy replacing a bachelor's degree. It is the only professional pharmacy degree awarded in the US. Pharmacy programs vary in length between 4 years for matriculants with a B.S./B.A. to 6 years for others.

In the twenty-first century professional doctorates appeared in other fields, such as the [[Doctor of Audiology]] in 2007. Advanced Practice Registered Nurses were expected to completely transition to the [[Doctor of Nursing Practice]] by 2015, and physical therapists to the [[Doctor of Physical Therapy]] by 2020. Professional associations play a central role in this transformation amid criticisms on the lack of proper criteria to assure appropriate rigor. In many cases Masters level programs were relabeled as doctoral programs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.csun.edu/pubrels/clips/June07/06-18-07M.pdf |title=The Chronicle of Higher education : The Faculty : Credential Creep |website=Csun.edu |accessdate=2016-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329171116/http://www.csun.edu/pubrels/clips/June07/06-18-07M.pdf |archive-date=2017-03-29 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Revocation==
{{Expand section|date=December 2018}}
A doctoral degree can be revoked or rescinded by the university that awarded it. Possible reasons include plagiarism, criminal or unethical activities of the author, or malfunction or manipulation of academic evaluation processes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usnews.com/education/best-global-universities/articles/2012/05/02/10-high-profile-people-whose-degrees-were-revoked|title=10 High-Profile People Whose Degrees Were Revoked|website=Usnews.com|accessdate=2016-10-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160814200929/http://www.usnews.com/education/best-global-universities/articles/2012/05/02/10-high-profile-people-whose-degrees-were-revoked|archive-date=2016-08-14|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Compilation thesis]]
* [[Habilitation|Habilitation thesis]]
* [[Doctor (title)]]
* [[Eurodoctorate]]
* [[List of fields of doctoral studies]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

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{{Academic degrees}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Doctoral degrees| ]]
[[Category:Academic degrees of the United States]]