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{{DISPLAYTITLE:''Guru–shishya'' tradition}}
{{Redirect|Sishya|the 1997 film|Sishya (film)}}
{{See also|Parampara (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Guru and DiscipleI.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The traditional guru–disciple relationship. Watercolour, Punjab Hills, India, 1740]]
The '''''guru–shishya''''' '''tradition''', or '''''parampara''''' ("lineage"), denotes a succession of teachers and disciples in traditional [[Vedic period|Vedic culture]] and [[Indian religions|religions]] such as [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]], [[Sikhism]] and [[Buddhism]]  (Tibetan and Zen tradition). Each parampara belongs to a specific [[sampradaya]], and may have its own [[akhara]]s and [[gurukula]]s. It is the tradition of spiritual relationship and mentoring where teachings are transmitted from a ''[[guru]]'' "teacher" ({{lang-sa|गुरु}}) to a ''śiṣya'' "disciple" ({{lang-sa|शिष्य}}) or ''chela''(Hinduism)|agamic]], [[architectural]], [[music]]al or [[spirituality|spiritual]], is imparted through the developing relationship between the guru and the disciple. It is considered that this relationship, based on the genuineness of the guru, and the respect which is not based on age or how old one looks, commitment, devotion and obedience of the student, is the best way for subtle or advanced knowledge to be conveyed. The student eventually masters the knowledge that the guru embodies.

==Etymology==
''Guru–shishya'' means "succession from [[guru]] to disciple".

''Paramparā'' ([[Sanskrit]]: परम्परा, ''paramparā'')  literally means ''an uninterrupted row or series, order, succession, continuation, mediation, tradition''.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Sanskrit-English Dictionary |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.31959 |author=Monier Monier-Williams |author-link=Monier Monier-Williams |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1899 |ol=6534982M |page=587(column a) }}</ref> In the traditional residential form of education, the shishya remains with his or her guru as a family member and gets the education as a true learner.<ref>[[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] ''Srimad Bhagavatam'' 7.12.1, The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 1976, {{ISBN|0-912776-87-0}}</ref>

==Historical background==
In the early oral traditions of the [[Upanishads]], the ''guru–shishya'' relationship had evolved into a fundamental component of Hinduism. The term "Upanishad" derives from the Sanskrit words ''"upa"'' (near), ''"ni"'' (down) and ''"ṣad"'' (to sit) — so it means "sitting down near" a spiritual teacher to receive instruction. The relationship between [[Krishna]] and [[Arjuna]] in the [[Bhagavad Gita]] portion of the [[Mahabharata]], and between [[Rama]] and [[Hanuman]] in the [[Ramayana]], are examples. In the Upanishads, gurus and disciples appear in a variety of settings (e.g. a husband answering questions about immortality; a teenage boy being taught by [[Yama (Hinduism)|Yama]], Hinduism's Lord of Death). Sometimes the sages are women, and the instructions may be sought by kings.

In the [[Vedas]], the knowledge of [[Brahman]] (''brahmavidya'') is communicated from guru to ''shishya'' by [[oral lore]].

==Common characteristics of the ''guru–shishya'' relationship==
[[File:Ekalavya's Guru Dakshina.jpg|thumb|Ekalavya's ''dakshina'' of his right hand thumb to his guru.]]
Within the broad spectrum of the Hindu religion, the ''guru–shishya'' relationship can be found in numerous variant forms including [[tantra]]. Some common elements in this relationship include:
* The establishment of a teacher/student relationship.
* A formal recognition of this relationship, generally in a structured initiation ceremony where the guru accepts the initiate as a ''shishya'' and also accepts responsibility for the spiritual well-being and progress of the new ''shishya''.
* Sometimes this initiation process will include the conveying of specific [[esoteric]] wisdom and/or [[meditation]] techniques.
* ''[[Gurudakshina]]'', where the ''shishya'' gives a gift to the ''guru'' as a token of gratitude, often the only monetary or otherwise fee that the student ever gives. Such tokens can be as simple as a piece of fruit or as serious as a [[thumb]], as in the case of ''[[Ekalavya]]'' and his guru ''[[Drona]]charya''.

In some traditions there is never more than one active master at the same time in the same ''guruparamaparya'' (lineage).<ref>Padoux, André. "The Tantric Guru" in [[David Gordon White]] (ed.) 2000. ''Tantra in Practice'', p. 44. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press {{OCLC|43441625}}</ref>

==Titles of gurus==
In paramapara, not only is the immediate guru revered, the three preceding gurus are also worshipped or revered. These are known variously as the ''kala-guru'' or as the "four gurus" and are designated as follows:<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/tantra/maha/maha06.htm Mahanirvana Tantra]</ref>
*Guru – the immediate guru
*Parama-guru – the guru of the Parampara or specific tradition (e.g. for the [[Sankaracharya|Śankaracharya]]s this is [[Adi Sankara|Adi Śankara]])
*Parātpara-guru – the guru who is the source of knowledge for many traditions (e.g. for the Śankaracharya's this is [[Vyasa|Vedavyāsa]])
*Parameṣṭhi-guru – the highest guru, who has the power to bestow mokṣa (usually depicted as [[Śiva|Lord Śiva]], being the highest guru)

==''Parampara'', ''Sampradaya'' and ''Akhara''==
{{main|Sampradaya|Akhara}}

Traditionally the word used for a succession of teachers and disciples in ancient [[Hinduism|Indian]] culture is ''parampara'' (''{{IAST|paramparā}}'' in [[IAST]]).<ref>Bg. 4.2 ''{{IAST|evaṁ paramparā-prāptam imaṁ rājarṣayo viduḥ}} - This supreme science was thus received through the chain of disciplic succession, and the saintly kings understood it in that way.''.</ref><ref name = SDG/>  In the ''parampara'' system, knowledge (in any field) is believed to be passed down through successive generations. The [[Sanskrit]] word figuratively means "an uninterrupted series or succession". Sometimes defined as "the passing down of Vedic knowledge", it is believed to be always entrusted to the ''[[Acharya|{{IAST|ācāryas}}]]''.<ref name = SDG/> An established ''[[parampara]]'' is often called ''{{IAST|sampradāya}}'', or school of thought. For example, in [[Vaishnavism]] a number of ''sampradayas'' are developed following a single teacher, or an [[acharya]]. While some argue for freedom of interpretation others maintain that "Although an ''{{IAST|ācārya}}'' speaks according to the time and circumstance in which he appears, he upholds the original conclusion, or ''[[siddhanta|{{IAST|siddhānta}}]]'', of the Vedic literature."<ref name = SDG>
{{Cite journal
| first = dasa Goswami 
| last = Satsvarupa
| author-link = Satsvarupa dasa Goswami
| title =Readings in Vedit Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself
| publisher = Assoc Publishing Group| year = 1976| pages = 240 pages | isbn = 0-912776-88-9
| location = S.l.
}}</ref>

[[Akhara]] is a place of practice with facilities for boarding, lodging and training, both in the context of [[Indian martial art]]ists or a ''Sampradaya'' monastery for religious renunciates.<ref name=hin>[https://books.google.co.nz/books?id=9XC9bwMMPcwC&pg=RA16-PA200&dq=1954+Kumbh+stampede#PRA16-PA200,M1 Akharas and Kumbh Mela] ''What Is Hinduism?: Modern Adventures Into a Profound Global Faith'', by Editors of Hinduism Today, Hinduism Today Magazine Editors. Published by Himalayan Academy Publications, 2007. {{ISBN|1-934145-00-9}}. ''243-244''.</ref> For example, in the context of the [[Dashanami Sampradaya]] sect, the word denotes both martial arts and religious monastic aspects of the trident wielding martial regiment of renunciate [[sadhu]]s.<ref name="Lochtefeld2002">{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/23|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/23 23–4]}}</ref>

==''Guru–shishya'' relationship types==

There is a variation in the level of authority that may be granted to the guru. The highest is that found in [[bhakti]] [[yoga]], and the lowest is in the ''[[pranayama]]'' forms of yoga such as the Sankara Saranam movement. Between these two there are many variations in degree and form of authority.{{Original research inline|date=May 2008}}

===Advaita Vedanta===
{{Main|Advaita Guru Paramparā}}
[[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita Vedānta]] requires anyone seeking to study Advaita Vedānta to do so from a [[guru]] (''teacher''). The guru must have the following qualities:<ref name=MU>''[[Mundaka Upanishad]]'' 1.2.12</ref>

#''Śrotriya'' — must be learned in the [[Hindu scriptures|Vedic scriptures]] and ''[[sampradaya]]''<ref name=MU/>
#''Brahmanişţha'' — figuratively meaning "established in [[Brahman]]"; must have ''realised'' the oneness of [[Brahman]] in everything and in himself.<ref name=MU/>

The seeker must serve the guru and submit his questions with all humility so that doubt may be removed.<ref>''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' 4.34</ref> According to Advaita, the seeker will be able to attain ''[[moksha|liberation from the cycle of births and deaths]]'' (''moksha'').

===''Śruti'' tradition===
{{Main|Śrauta}}
The ''guru–shishya'' tradition plays an important part in the [[Shruti]] tradition of [[Vaidika dharma]]. The [[Hindus]] believe that the [[Vedas]] have been handed down through the ages from [[guru]] to ''[[shishya]]''. The [[Vedas]] themselves prescribe for a young [[Brahmacharya|brahmachari]] to be sent to a [[Gurukul]] where the [[Guru]] (referred to also as [[acharya]]) teaches the pupil the [[Vedas]] and [[Vedangas]]. The pupil is also taught the ''Prayoga'' to perform [[yajnas]]. The term of stay varies ([[Manu Smriti]] says the term may be 12 years, 36 years or 48 years). After the stay at the Gurukul the brahmachari returns home after performing a ceremony called [[samavartana]].

The word Śrauta is derived from the word Śruti meaning that which is heard. The Śrauta tradition is a purely oral handing down of the Vedas, but many modern Vedic scholars make use of books as a teaching tool.<ref>[http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part17/chap1.htm Hindu Dharma]</ref>

===Shaktipat tradition===
{{main|Shaktipat}}
The guru passes his knowledge to his disciples by virtue of the fact that his purified consciousness enters into the [[Atman (Hinduism)|selves]] of his disciples and communicates its particular characteristic. In this process the disciple is made part of the spiritual family ([[Kaula (Hinduism)|kula]]) - a family which is not based on blood relations but on people of the same knowledge.<ref>Abhinavagupta: The Kula Ritual, as Elaborated in Chapter 29 of the Tantrāloka, John R. Dupuche, Page 131</ref>

===Bhakti yoga===

The best known form of the ''guru–shishya'' relationship is that of [[bhakti]]. Bhakti (devotion) means surrender to [[God]] or guru. Bhakti extends from the simplest expression of devotion to the ego-destroying principle of [[prapatti]], which is total surrender. The bhakti form of the ''guru–shishya'' relationship generally incorporates three primary beliefs or practices:

# Devotion to the guru as a divine figure or [[Avatar]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}}
# The belief that such a guru has transmitted, or will impart [[moksha]], [[diksha]] or [[shaktipat]] to the (successful) ''shishya''.
# The belief that if the ''shishya's'' act of focusing their bhakti upon the guru is sufficiently strong and worthy, then some form of spiritual merit will be gained by the ''shishya''.{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}}

=== Prapatti ===

In the ego-destroying principle of ''prapatti'' (Sanskrit, "Throwing oneself down"), the level of the submission of the will of the ''shishya'' to the will of God or the guru is sometimes extreme, and is often coupled with an attitude of personal helplessness, self-effacement and resignation. This doctrine is perhaps best expressed in the teachings of the four ''Samayacharya'' saints, who shared a profound and mystical love of Siva expressed by:

* Deep humility and self-effacement, admission of [[sin]] and weakness;
* Total surrender to God as the only true refuge; and
* A relationship of lover and beloved known as bridal [[mysticism]], in which the devotee is the bride and [[Shiva|Siva]] the bridegroom.

In its most extreme form it sometimes includes:

* The assignment of all or many of the material possessions of the ''shishya'' to the guru.
* The strict and unconditional adherence by the ''shishya'' to all of the commands of the guru. An example is the legend that ''[[Karna]]'' silently bore the pain of a [[wasp]] stinging his thigh so as not to disturb his ''guru'' ''[[Parashurama]]''.
* A system of various titles of implied superiority or deification which the guru assumes, and often requires the ''shishya'' to use whenever addressing the guru.
* The requirement that the ''shishya'' engage in various forms of physical demonstrations of affection towards the guru, such as bowing, kissing the hands or feet of the guru, and sometimes agreeing to various physical punishments as may sometimes be ordered by the guru.
* Sometimes the authority of the guru will extend to all aspects of the ''shishya's'' life, including sexuality, livelihood, social life, etc.

Often a guru will assert that he or she is capable of leading a ''shishya'' directly to the highest possible state of spirituality or consciousness, sometimes referred to within Hinduism as [[moksha]]. In the bhakti ''guru–shishya'' relationship the guru is often believed to have supernatural powers, leading to the deification of the guru.

=== Buddhism ===

In the Pali Buddhist tradition, magae the Bhikkus are also known as Sekhas (SN XLVIII.53 Sekha Sutta).
In the [[Theravada]] Buddhist tradition, the teacher is a valued and honoured mentor worthy of great respect and a source of inspiration on the path to [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Thurman, Robert A. F. |author2=Huntington, John |author3=Dina Bangdel |title=Beginning the process: The Great Masters and Selecting a Teacher - The Guru-Disciple relationship; in: The Circle of Bliss: Buddhist Meditational Art |publisher=Serindia Publications |location=London |year=2003 |isbn=1-932476-01-6 }}</ref> In the [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan tradition]], however, the teacher is viewed as the very root of spiritual realization and the basis of the entire path.<ref>{{cite book |author=Dreyfus, Georges B. J. |title=The sound of two hands clapping: the education of a Tibetan Buddhist monk |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |year=2003 |pages= 61–3|isbn=0-520-23260-7 }}</ref> Without the teacher, it is asserted, there can be no experience or insight. The guru is seen as [[Buddhahood|Buddha]]. In Tibetan texts, emphasis is placed upon praising the virtues of the guru. [[Tantra|Tantric]] teachings include generating visualisations of the guru and making offerings praising the guru. The guru becomes known as the ''vajra'' (figuratively "diamond") guru, the one who is the source of initiation into the tantric deity. The disciple is asked to enter into a series of vows and commitments that ensure the maintenance of the spiritual link with the understanding that to break this link is a serious downfall.{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}}

In [[Vajrayana]] ([[Tantra|tantric]] Buddhism) as the guru is perceived as ''the way'' itself.  The guru is not an individual who initiates a person, but the person's own Buddha-nature reflected in the personality of the guru. In return, the disciple is expected to show great devotion to his or her guru, who he or she regards as one who possesses the qualities of a [[Bodhisattva]]. A guru is regarded as one which has not only mastered the words of the tradition, but one that with which the student has an intense personal relationship; thus, devotion is seen as the proper attitude toward the guru.<ref name="isbn0-8264-1113-4">{{cite book |author=Gross, Rita M. |title=Soaring and settling: Buddhist perspectives on contemporary social and religious issues |publisher=Continuum |location=London |year=1998 |isbn=0-8264-1113-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/soaringsettlingb00gros/page/184 184] |url=https://archive.org/details/soaringsettlingb00gros/page/184 }}</ref>

The [[Dalai Lama]], speaking of the importance of the guru, said: "Rely on the teachings to evaluate a guru: Do not have blind faith, but also no blind criticism." He also observed that the term 'living Buddha' is a translation of the Chinese words ''huo fuo''.<ref name="urlThe Teacher - The Guru">{{cite web |url=http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/spiritual_teacher_guru.html |title=The Teacher - The Guru |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514220738/http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/spiritual_teacher_guru.html |archive-date=2008-05-14 }}</ref>

== Order and service ==
{{See also|Sikh gurus|Hukamnama|Dakshina|Cult of personality}}
In Indic religions namely Jainism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism selfless service to Guru, accepting and following all his/her orders carries very significant and valued part of relationship of Shishya (disciple) with his/her  Guru. Orders of Guru are referred as Guru Agya/Adnya/Hukam,  Service of Guru is referred as Guru Seva.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Copeman|first=Jacob|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r2O3W7mkAwAC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&hl=en|title=The Guru in South Asia: New Interdisciplinary Perspectives|last2=Ikegame|first2=Aya|date=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-51019-6|language=en}}</ref> In [[Sikhism]], the scripture [[Guru Granth Sahib|Adi granth]] is considered to be last Guru hence [[Bibliolatry|the book is worshiped]] as like human Guru.

==Psychological aspects==
Rob Preece, in ''The Wisdom of Imperfection,''<ref name="Preece">Preece, Rob. "The teacher-student relationship" in ''[http://www.snowlionpub.com/html/product_8734.html The Wisdom of Imperfection: The Challenge of Individuation in Buddhist Life]'', Snow Lion Publications, 2006, {{ISBN|1-55939-252-5}}, p. 155 ff. At mudra.co.uk (author's website): [http://www.mudra.co.uk/mudra_teacher_part1.html Part 1], [http://www.mudra.co.uk/mudra_teacher_part2.html Part 2]</ref> writes that while the teacher/disciple relationship can be an invaluable and fruitful experience, the process of relating to spiritual teachers also has its hazards.

As other authors had done before him,<ref name="Schnabel1982V">{{in lang|nl}} [[Paul Schnabel|Schnabel]], ''Tussen stigma en charisma'' ("Between stigma and charisma"), 1982. [http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/schn016tuss01_01/schn016tuss01_01_0012.htm Ch. V, p. 142], quoting [[Jan van der Lans]], ''Volgelingen van de goeroe: Hedendaagse religieuze bewegingen in Nederland''. Ambo, Baarn, 1981, {{ISBN|90-263-0521-4}}<br />(''note'': "overdracht" is the Dutch term for "transference")</ref> Preece mentions the notion of [[transference]] to explain the manner in which the guru/disciple relationship develops from a more Western psychological perspective. He writes:

{{quote|In its simplest sense transference occurs when unconsciously a person endows another with an attribute that actually is projected from within themselves.<ref name="Preece"/>}}

Preece writes that when we transfer an inner quality onto another person we may be giving that person a power over us as a consequence of the projection, carrying the potential for great insight and inspiration, but also the potential for great danger.

{{quote|In giving this power over to someone else they have a certain hold and influence over us it is hard to resist, while we become enthralled or spellbound by the power of the [[archetype]].<ref name="Preece"/>}}

==See also==

* [[Apostolic succession]]
* [[Sampradaya]]
* [[Lineage (Buddhism)]]
* [[List of Hindu gurus]]
* [[List of Indian yoga gurus]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |author=Neuman, Daniel M. |title=The life of music in north India: the organization of an artistic tradition |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |year=1990 |isbn=0-226-57516-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofmusicinnor00neum }}
*Federico Squarcini, 2011, [https://books.google.com/books?id=1etcIIqQq9QC&pg=PA26&dq=sampradaya+and+parampara&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjG_ce-xsLaAhVHsY8KHX_fBSYQ6AEIKzAB#v=onepage&q=sampradaya%20and%20parampara&f=false Boundaries, Dynamics and Construction of Traditions in South Asia].
*Leela Prasad, 2012, [https://books.google.com/books?id=tZcdTw0toXsC&pg=PA247&dq=sampradaya+and+parampara&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjG_ce-xsLaAhVHsY8KHX_fBSYQ6AEIRTAG#v=onepage&q=sampradaya%20and%20parampara&f=false Poetics of Conduct: Oral Narrative and Moral Being in a South Indian Town].
*[[Monika Boehm-Tettelbach|Monika Horstmann]], Heidi Rika Maria Pauwels, 2009, [https://books.google.com/books?id=kv0xPCZ6e9sC&pg=PA170&dq=sampradaya+and+parampara&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjG_ce-xsLaAhVHsY8KHX_fBSYQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&q=sampradaya%20and%20parampara&f=false Patronage and Popularisation, Pilgrimage and Procession].

==External links==
*{{Commonscatinline}}

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