View source for History

{{Short description|Study of the past}}
{{About|the academic discipline|a general history of human beings|Human history|a general history of Earth|History of Earth|other uses}}
{{Featured article}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=December 2024}}
{{TopicTOC-History}}

'''History''' is the systematic study of the [[past]], focusing primarily on the [[Human history|human past]]. As an [[academic discipline]], it analyses and interprets [[evidence]] to construct [[narrative]]s about what happened and explain why it happened. Some theorists categorize history as a [[social science]], while others see it as part of the [[humanities]] or consider it a hybrid discipline. Similar debates surround the purpose of history—for example, whether its main aim is theoretical, to uncover the [[truth]], or practical, to learn lessons from the past. In a more general sense, the term ''history'' refers not to an academic field but to the [[past]] itself, times in the past, or to individual texts about the past.

[[Historical research]] relies on [[Primary source|primary]] and [[secondary sources]] to reconstruct past events and validate interpretations. [[Source criticism]] is used to evaluate these sources, assessing their authenticity, content, and reliability. Historians strive to integrate the perspectives of several sources to develop a coherent narrative. Different schools of thought, such as [[positivism]], the [[Annales school|''Annales'' school]], [[Marxism]], and [[postmodernism]], have distinct [[methodological]] approaches.

History is a broad discipline encompassing many branches. Some focus on specific [[Periodization|time periods]], such as [[ancient history]], while others concentrate on particular [[geographic]] regions, such as the [[history of Africa]]. Thematic categorizations include [[political history]], [[military history]], [[social history]], and [[economic history]]. Branches associated with specific research methods and sources include [[quantitative history]], [[comparative history]], and [[oral history]].

History emerged as a field of inquiry in [[Ancient history|antiquity]] to replace myth-infused narratives, with influential early traditions originating in [[ancient Greece|Greece]], [[ancient China|China]], and later in the [[Islamic world]]. Historical writing evolved throughout the ages and became increasingly professional, particularly during the 19th century, when a rigorous methodology and various academic institutions were established. History is related to many fields, including [[historiography]], [[philosophy]], [[education]], and [[politics]].

== Definition ==

As an [[academic discipline]], history is the study of the past with the main focus on the human past.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kragh|1987|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OX7d7u_2rF4C&pg=PA41 41]}} | {{harvnb|Little|2020|loc=§ 1. History and its representation}} | {{harvnb|Collingwood|1967|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MWDxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT133 § 4. History and the Philosophy of History]}} | {{harvnb|Ritter|1986|pp=193–194}} | {{harvnb|Collingwood|1993|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pTucAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 9]}} }}</ref> It conceptualizes and describes what happened by collecting and analysing [[evidence]] to construct [[narrative]]s. These narratives cover not only how events developed over time but also why they happened and in which contexts, providing an explanation of relevant background conditions and [[Causality|causal]] mechanisms. History further examines the meaning of historical events and the underlying [[Motivation|human motives]] driving them.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Little|2020|loc=§ 1. History and its representation}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=140–143}} | {{harvnb|Munslow|2001}} | {{harvnb|Evans|2001}} }}</ref>

In a slightly different sense, ''history'' refers to the past events themselves. Under this interpretation, history is what happened rather than the academic field studying what happened. When used as a [[countable noun]], ''a history'' is a representation of the past in the form of a history text. History texts are cultural products involving active [[Interpretation (philosophy)|interpretation]] and reconstruction. The narratives presented in them can change as historians discover new evidence or reinterpret already-known sources. The past itself, by contrast, is static and unchangeable.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tucker|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FeVdNxyFiKsC&pg=PA2 xii, 2]}} | {{harvnb|Arnold|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}} | {{harvnb|Evans|2002|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8-zMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} | {{harvnb|Ritter|1986|pp=193–194}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=140–143}} }}</ref> Some historians focus on the interpretative and explanatory aspects to distinguish histories from [[chronicle]]s, arguing that chronicles only catalogue events in chronological order, whereas histories aim at a comprehensive understanding of their causes, contexts, and consequences.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Evans|2002|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8-zMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} | {{harvnb|Ritter|1986|p=196}} }}</ref>{{efn|Some authors restrict the term ''history'' to the factual series of past events and use the term ''[[historiography]]'' for the study of those events. Others use the term ''history'' for the study and representation of the past. They characterize historiography as a [[metatheory]] studying the methods and historical development of this academic discipline.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tucker|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FeVdNxyFiKsC&pg=PA2 xii, 2]}} | {{harvnb|Arnold|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}} }}</ref>}}

History has been primarily concerned with written documents. It focused on [[recorded history]] since the [[invention of writing]], leaving [[prehistory]]{{efn|Some theorists identify [[protohistory]] as a distinct period after prehistory that spans from the invention of writing to the first attempts to record history.<ref>{{harvnb|Kipfer|2000|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XneTstDbcC0C&pg=PA457 457–458]}}</ref>}} to other fields, such as [[archaeology]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA300 300]}} | {{harvnb|Renfrew|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4CooTRuA3kAC&pg=PA172 172]}} }}</ref> Its scope broadened in the 20th century as historians became interested in the human past before the invention of writing.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA299 299–300]}} | {{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008|p=xvii}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LMMtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 17–18]}} | {{harvnb|Tuniz|Vipraio|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR5 v, 1]}} }}</ref>{{efn|Big History, formulated by the historian David Christian in the late 1980s, reaches back even further to the Big Bang, covering the cosmological development of the universe and the biological evolution of life in addition to human history.<ref name="auto4">{{harvnb|Hesketh|2023|pp=1–4, 41}}</ref>}}

Historians debate whether history is a [[social science]] or forms part of the [[humanities]]. Like social scientists, historians formulate [[hypotheses]], gather objective evidence, and present arguments based on this evidence. At the same time, history aligns closely with the humanities because of its reliance on subjective aspects associated with interpretation, [[storytelling]], human experience, and [[cultural heritage]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Arnold|2000|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA114 114–115]}} | {{harvnb|Parrott|Hake|1983|pp=121–122}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=50–52}} | {{harvnb|Ritter|1986|pp=196–197}} }}</ref> Some historians strongly support one or the other classification while others characterize history as a hybrid discipline that does not belong to one category at the exclusion of the other.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=50–52}} | {{harvnb|Ritter|1986|pp=196–197, 415–416}} }}</ref> History contrasts with ''[[pseudohistory]]'', a label used to describe practices that deviate from historiographical standards by relying on disputed historical evidence, selectively ignoring genuine evidence, or using other means to distort the historical record. Often motivated by specific [[Ideology|ideological agendas]], pseudohistorical practices mimic [[historical method]]ology to promote biased, misleading narratives that lack rigorous analysis and scholarly consensus.<ref name="auto1">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Allchin|2004|pp=179–180}} | {{harvnb|Välimäki|Aali|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3kmHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57]}} }}</ref>

=== Purpose ===
Various suggestions about the purpose or value of history have been made. Some historians propose that its primary function is the pure discovery of [[truth]] about the past. This view emphasizes that the disinterested pursuit of truth is an [[end in itself]], while external purposes, associated with ideology or [[politics]], threaten to undermine the accuracy of historical research by distorting the past. In this role, history also challenges traditional [[myth]]s lacking factual support.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Southgate|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PR11 xi–xii, 1, 57]}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=50–52}} }}</ref>{{efn|Early historians, such as Herodotus and Thucydides, already criticised the accounts of Homer and other poets as fantastic and inaccurate.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lefkowitz|2008|pp=353–354}} | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 21–24]}} | {{harvnb|Shankman|Durrant|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oTn7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 96]}} }}</ref>}}

A different perspective suggests that the main value of history lies in the lessons it teaches for the present. This view is based on the idea that an [[Historical consciousness|understanding of the past]] can guide [[decision-making]], for example, to avoid repeating previous mistakes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Arnold|2000|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 120–121]}} | {{harvnb|Southgate|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PA11 11–12, 57–58]}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=26, 50–52}} }}</ref> A related perspective focuses on a general understanding of the [[human condition]], making people aware of the diversity of [[human behavior|human behaviour]] across different contexts{{em dash}}similar to what one can learn by visiting foreign countries.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Arnold|2000|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 121–122]}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=50–52}} }}</ref> History can also foster [[social cohesion]] by providing people with a [[collective identity]] through a shared past, helping to preserve and cultivate cultural heritage and values across generations.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Arnold|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA121 121]}} | {{harvnb|Southgate|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PA38 38–39, 175–176]}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=50–51}} }}</ref> For some scholars, including [[Whig historians]] and the Marxist scholar [[E. H. Carr]], history is a key to understanding the present<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Jenkins|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mW_rXrXGXa8C&pg=PA53 53]}} | {{harvnb|Haviland|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=khYVsKMvQZIC&pg=PA6 6]}} }}</ref> and, in Carr's case, shaping the future.<ref name="Evans2002p2">{{Harvnb|Evans|2002|p=2}}</ref>

History has sometimes been used for political or ideological purposes, for instance, to justify the status quo by emphasising the respectability of certain traditions or to promote change by highlighting past injustices.<ref>{{harvnb|Southgate|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PR11 xi–xii 49–51, 175–176]}}</ref>  In extreme forms, evidence is intentionally ignored or misinterpreted to construct misleading narratives, which can result in pseudohistory or [[historical denialism]].<ref name="auto1"/>{{efn|[[Historical revisionism]], a related outlook, seeks to overturn established perspectives on history. This can take a variety of forms, from the introduction of new evidence and methods which counter current thinking, to criticising the value or significance of historical events or actors. Some theorists use the term ''revisionism'' in a neutral sense for any rejection or reinterpretation of mainstream views. Others associate it with practices that disregard genuine evidence and incorporate intensely skeptical and [[Relativism|relativist]] views to justify pseudohistorical perspectives, attempting to discredit established knowledge of historical events through epistemic criticism.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tucker|2008|pp=1–10}} | {{harvnb|Evans|1999|pp=238–243}} | {{harvnb|Buchanan|2010}} | {{harvnb|Fronza|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vWBODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4]}}}}</ref>}} Influential examples are [[Holocaust denial]], [[Armenian genocide denial]], [[Nanjing Massacre denial]], and [[Holodomor denial]].<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|Sinclair|2024|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bCDgEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA417 417–418]}}</ref>

===Etymology===
[[File:POxy v0017 n2099 a 01 hires - cropped.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of a damaged text written in black ink|Fragment of the ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' by [[Herodotus]], an Ancient Greek historical text<ref>{{harvnb|Woolf|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 22]}}</ref>]]

The word ''history'' comes from the [[Ancient Greek]] term {{lang|grc|[[wikt:ἵστωρ|ἵστωρ]]}} ({{Transliteration|grc|histōr}}), meaning {{gloss|learned, wise man}}. It gave rise to the Ancient Greek word {{lang|grc|[[wikt:ἱστορία|ἱστορία]]}} ({{Transliteration|grc|historiā}}), which had a wide meaning associated with inquiry in general and giving testimony. The term was later adopted into [[Classical Latin]] as {{lang|la|historia}}. In [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman times]], the meaning of the term shifted, placing more emphasis on narrative aspects and the art of presentation rather than focusing on investigation and testimony.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ritter|1986|pp=193–195}} | {{harvnb|Stevenson|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=anecAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA831 831]}} | {{harvnb|HarperCollins|2022}} | {{harvnb|Joseph|Janda|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8F_O12CS9L8C&pg=PA163 163]}} | {{harvnb|HarperCollins|2003|p=99}} | {{harvnb|OED Staff|2024}} }}</ref>

The word entered [[Middle English]] in the 14th century via the [[Old French]] term {{lang|fro|histoire}}.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|HarperCollins|2022}} | {{harvnb|Joseph|Janda|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8F_O12CS9L8C&pg=PA163 163]}} | {{harvnb|Stevenson|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=anecAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA831 831]}} }}</ref> At this time, it meant {{gloss|story, tale}}, encompassing both factual and fictional narratives. In the 15th century, its meaning shifted to cover the branch of knowledge studying the past in addition to narratives about the past.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Joseph|Janda|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8F_O12CS9L8C&pg=PA163 163]}} | {{harvnb|Hoad|1993|p=217}} | {{harvnb|Cresswell|2021|loc=§ History}} | {{harvnb|OED Staff|2024}} }}</ref> In the 18th and 19th centuries, the word ''history'' became more closely associated with factual accounts and evidence-based inquiry, coinciding with the professionalization of historical inquiry, a meaning still dominant in contemporary usage.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ritter|1986|pp=195–196}} | {{harvnb|HarperCollins|2022}}}}</ref> The dual meaning, referring to both mere stories and factual accounts of the past, is present in the terms for history in many other European languages. They include the French {{lang|fr|histoire}}, the Italian {{lang|it|storia}}, and the German {{lang|de|Geschichte}}.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Berkhofer|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bNnpEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10–11]}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|p=141}} }}</ref>

== Methods ==
{{main|Historical method}}
The historical method is a [[Methodology|set of techniques]] historians use to research and interpret the past, covering the processes of collecting, evaluating, and synthesizing evidence.{{efn|Understood in a narrow sense, the historical method is sometimes limited to the evaluation or criticism of sources.<ref>{{harvnb|Ritter|1986|p=268}}</ref>}} It seeks to ensure scholarly rigour, accuracy, and reliability in how historical [[evidence]] is chosen, analysed, and interpreted.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fazal|2023|p=140}} | {{harvnb|Howell|Prevenier|2001|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|Ahlskog|2020|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|Kamp|Legêne|Rossum|Rümke|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 9–10 ]}} | {{harvnb|Ritter|1986|p=268}} }}</ref> Historical research often starts with a [[research question]] to define the scope of the inquiry. Some research questions focus on a simple description of what happened. Others aim to explain why a particular event occurred, refute an existing theory, or confirm a new hypothesis.<ref>{{multiref| {{harvnb|Kamp|Legêne|Rossum|Rümke|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19–20]}} | {{harvnb|Bhat|2019|p=203}}}}</ref>

=== Sources and source criticism ===
To answer research questions, historians rely on various types of evidence to reconstruct the past and support their conclusions. Historical evidence is usually divided into [[Primary source|primary]] and [[secondary sources]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kamp|Legêne|Rossum|Rümke|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 35]}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=57–58}} | {{harvnb|Ritter|1986|pp=143–144}} }}</ref> A primary source is a source that originated during the period that is studied. Primary sources can take various forms, such as official documents, letters, diaries, eyewitness accounts, photographs, and audio or video recordings. They also include historical remains examined in [[archaeology]], [[geology]], and the [[medical sciences]], such as artefacts and [[fossil]]s unearthed from [[excavations]]. Primary sources offer the most direct evidence of historical events.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kamp|Legêne|Rossum|Rümke|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36]}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=54–58}} | {{harvnb|Storey|2013|p=32}} }}</ref>

[[File:Collections Archive, St. Petersburg Museum of History, St. Petersburg, FL.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of archive storage area; on the left, the hand cranks to operate shelving units; on the right, the shelves of one unit containing storage boxes|Archives preserve large quantities of original sources for researchers to access.<ref>{{harvnb|Arnold|2000|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA59 59–60]}}</ref>]]
A secondary source is a source that analyses or interprets information found in other sources.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kamp|Legêne|Rossum|Rümke|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 37]}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=57–58}} }}</ref> Whether a document is a primary or a secondary source depends not only on the document itself but also on the purpose for which it is used. For example, if a historian writes a text about slavery based on an analysis of historical documents, then the text is a secondary source on slavery and a primary source on the historian's opinion.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kamp|Legêne|Rossum|Rümke|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 37]}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=57–59}} }}</ref>{{efn|The exact definitions of ''primary source'' and ''secondary source'' are disputed and there is not always consensus on how a particular source should be categorized. For example, if a person was not present at a riot but reports on it shortly after it happened, some historians consider this report a primary source while others see it as a secondary source.<ref>{{harvnb|Tosh|2002|p=57}}</ref>}} Consistency with available sources is one of the main standards of historical works. For instance, the discovery of new sources may lead historians to revise or dismiss previously accepted narratives.<ref>{{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=56–57}}</ref> To find and access primary and secondary sources, historians consult [[archive]]s, [[libraries]], and [[museum]]s. Archives play a central role by preserving countless original sources and making them available to researchers in a systematic and accessible manner. Thanks to technological advances, historians increasingly rely on online resources, which offer vast digital [[database]]s with methods to search and access specific documents.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kamp|Legêne|Rossum|Rümke|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 40–45]}} | {{harvnb|Arnold|2000|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA59 59–60]}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|p=56}} }}</ref>

[[Source criticism]] is the process of analysing and evaluating the information a source provides.{{efn|[[Leopold von Ranke]]'s emphasis on source evaluation significantly influenced the practice of historical research.<ref>{{harvnb|Tosh|2002|p=87}}</ref>}} Typically, this process begins with external criticism, which evaluates the authenticity of a source. It addresses the questions of when and where the source was created and seeks to identify the author, understand their reasons for producing the source, and determine if it has undergone some type of modification since its creation. Additionally, the process involves distinguishing between original works, copies, and deceptive forgeries.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kamp|Legêne|Rossum|Rümke|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA70 70–71]}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=59, 87–88}} | {{harvnb|Topolski|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OMZ9CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA432 432]}} | {{harvnb|Ritter|1986|pp=84–86}} }}</ref>

Internal criticism evaluates the content of a source, typically beginning with the clarification of the meaning within the source. This involves disambiguating individual terms that could be misunderstood but may also require a general translation if the source is written in an unfamiliar language.{{efn|Historians consider the context and time of the document to understand the meanings of the terms it uses. For example, if a document uses the word ''awful'', they have to decide whether it expresses the modern meaning {{gloss|terrible}} or the historical meaning {{gloss|worthy of awe}}.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=90–91}} | {{harvnb|Gil|Marsen|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9RRoEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT24 24]}} }}</ref>}} Once the information content of a source is understood, internal criticism is specifically interested in determining accuracy. Critics ask whether the information is reliable or misrepresents the topic and further question whether the source is comprehensive or omits important details. One way to make these assessments is to evaluate whether the author was able, in principle, to provide a faithful presentation of the studied event. Other approaches include the assessment of the influences of the author's intentions and prejudices, and cross-referencing information with other credible sources. Being aware of the inadequacies of a source helps historians decide whether and which aspects of it to trust, and how to use it to construct a narrative.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kamp|Legêne|Rossum|Rümke|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA70 70–71]}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=59, 87–88, 91–92}} | {{harvnb|Topolski|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OMZ9CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA432 432]}} | {{harvnb|Ritter|1986|pp=84–86}} }}</ref>

=== Synthesis and schools of thought ===
The selection, analysis, and criticism of sources result in the validation of a large collection of mostly isolated statements about the past. As a next step, sometimes termed ''historical synthesis'', historians examine how the individual pieces of evidence fit together to form part of a larger story.{{efn|This becomes particularly challenging if different sources provide seemingly contradictory information.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=140, 171}} | {{harvnb|Howell|Prevenier|2001|p=71}} }}</ref>}} Constructing this broader perspective is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of the topic as a whole. It is a creative aspect{{efn|The creativity and imagination needed for this step is one of the reasons why some theorists understand history as an [[The arts|art]] rather than a [[science]].<ref>{{harvnb|Tosh|2002|p=141}}</ref>}} of historical writing that reconstructs, interprets, and explains what happened by showing how different events are connected.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Berkhofer|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1uvGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 49–50]}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=139–143}} }}</ref> In this way, historians address not only which events occurred but also why they occurred and what consequences they had.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=142–143}} | {{harvnb|Little|2020|loc=§ 1. History and its representation}} }}</ref> While there are no universally accepted techniques for this synthesis, historians rely on various interpretative tools and approaches in this process.<ref>{{harvnb|Tosh|2002|p=140}}</ref>

[[File:Auguste Comte.jpg|thumb|alt=Drawing of a seated man in formal dark clothes|[[Auguste Comte]] articulated [[positivism]], advocating a science-based approach to history.<ref>{{harvnb|Wright|2006}}</ref>]]

One tool to provide an accessible overview of complex developments is the use of [[periodization]], which divides a timeframe into different periods, each organized around central themes or developments that shaped the period. For example, the [[three-age system]] is traditionally used to divide early human history into [[Stone Age]], [[Bronze Age]], and [[Iron Age]] based on the predominant materials and technologies during these periods.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kamp|Legêne|Rossum|Rümke|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 78]}} | {{harvnb|Lucas|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=T-bmSSHFA9oC&pg=PA50 50–51]}} | {{harvnb|Christian|2015|pp=5–6}} }}</ref> Another methodological tool is the examination of silences, gaps or omissions in the historical record of events that occurred but did not leave significant evidential traces. Silences can happen when contemporaries find information too obvious to document but may also occur if there are specific reasons to withhold or destroy information.<ref name="auto">{{harvnb|Kamp|Legêne|Rossum|Rümke|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA77 77–78]}}</ref>{{efn|For example, [[Martha Washington]] burned all private letters between her and her husband [[George Washington]], leaving decades worth of silences on their relationship.<ref>{{harvnb|Oberg|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aHpzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT17 17]}}</ref> Another cause of silences, the existence of a [[taboo]], such as a taboo against [[homosexuality]], can have the effect that little information on the topic is recorded.<ref name="auto"/> The practice of erasing names of deceased people considered enemies from public record is known as ''[[damnatio memoriae]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Hedrick|2000|p=xii}}</ref>}} Conversely, when large [[dataset]]s are available, [[Quantitative history|quantitative approaches]] can be used. For instance, economic and social historians commonly employ [[statistical analysis]] to identify patterns and trends associated with large groups.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=244–245}} | {{harvnb|Howell|Prevenier|2001|pp=81, 92–93}} }}</ref>

Different schools of thought often come with their own methodological implications for how to write history.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Howell|Prevenier|2001|pp=13–14, 88}} | {{harvnb|Berkhofer|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1uvGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 49–50]}} | {{harvnb|Lloyd|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FeVdNxyFiKsC&pg=PA371 371–372]}} }}</ref> [[Positivism|Positivists]] emphasize the scientific nature of historical inquiry, focusing on [[empirical evidence]] to discover [[Objectivity (science)|objective truths]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Howell|Prevenier|2001|p=13}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=166, 185}} }}</ref> In contrast, [[Postmodernism|postmodernists]] reject [[grand narratives]] that claim to offer a single, objective truth. Instead, they highlight the [[Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)|subjective]] nature of historical interpretation, which leads to a multiplicity of divergent perspectives.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=22, 185}} | {{harvnb|Berkhofer|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1uvGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA45 45, 78]}} }}</ref> [[Marxism|Marxists]] interpret historical developments as expressions of economic forces and [[class struggle]]s.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Howell|Prevenier|2001|pp=13–14}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=27, 224–225}} }}</ref> The [[Annales school|''Annales'' school]] highlights long-term social and economic trends while relying on quantitative and interdisciplinary methods.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Howell|Prevenier|2001|pp=110–111}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=121, 133}} }}</ref> [[Feminist history|Feminist historians]] study the role of [[gender]] in history, with a particular interest in analysing the experiences of women to challenge [[Patriarchy|patriarchal]] perspectives.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Howell|Prevenier|2001|pp=113–114}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|p=238}} }}</ref>

==Areas of study==
History is a wide field of inquiry encompassing many branches. Some branches focus on a specific time period, while others concentrate on a particular geographic region or a distinct theme. Specializations of different types can usually be combined; for example, a work on economic history in ancient Egypt merges temporal, regional, and thematic perspectives. For topics with a broad scope, the amount of primary sources is often too extensive for an individual historian to review, forcing them to either narrow the scope of their topic or also rely on secondary sources to arrive at a wide overview.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=108–109}} | {{harvnb|Lemon|1995|p=112}} | {{harvnb|Jordanova|2000|pp=34–35}} | {{harvnb|Veysey|1979|p=1}} }}</ref>

=== By period ===
Chronological division is a common approach to organizing the vast expanse of history into more manageable segments. Different [[Periodization|periods]] are often defined based on dominant themes that characterize a specific time frame and significant events that initiated these developments or brought them to an end. Depending on the selected context and level of detail, a period may be as short as a decade or longer than several centuries.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kamp|Legêne|Rossum|Rümke|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 78]}} | {{harvnb|Christian|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BYLrRXaZrAkC&pg=PA97 97–99]}} | {{harvnb|Jordanova|2000|p=34}} }}</ref> A traditionally influential approach divides [[human history]] into [[prehistory]], [[ancient history]], [[post-classical history]], [[early modern history]], and [[modern history]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Van Nieuwenhuyse|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bhLbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA375 375]}} | {{harvnb|Christian|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BYLrRXaZrAkC&pg=PA98 98–99]}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2001|loc=Table of Contents}} | {{harvnb|Christian|2015|p=7}} }}</ref>{{efn|There are disagreements about when exactly each period starts and ends. Alternative subdivisions may use overlapping or radically different time frames.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Christian|2015|pp=5–7}} | {{harvnb|Northrup|2015|pp=110–111}} }}</ref>}} Depending on the region and theme, the time frames covered by these periods can vary and historians may use entirely different periodizations.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Christian|2015|pp=5–6}} | {{harvnb|Northrup|2015|pp=110–111}} }}</ref> For example, traditional periodizations of [[Chinese history]] follow the [[Dynasties of China|main dynasties]],<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hsu|1993|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EJeNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 161]}} | {{harvnb|Arcodia|Basciano|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=h4NSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR15 xv]}} }}</ref> and the division into [[Pre-Columbian era|pre-Columbian]], [[European colonization of the Americas|colonial]], and post-colonial periods plays a central role in the [[history of the Americas]].<ref>{{harvnb|Northrup|2015|p=111}}</ref>

[[File:Lucy Mexico.jpg|thumb|upright=.6|alt=Photo of the skeleton of a female hominin in a standing position, displayed in a museum|Historians draw on evidence from various fields to examine prehistory, including fossils like [[Lucy (hominid)|Lucy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Tuniz|Vipraio|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 27, 43–44]}}</ref>]]
The study of prehistory includes the examination of the evolution of [[Hominini|human-like species]] several million years ago, leading to the emergence of [[Homo sapiens|anatomically modern humans]] about 200,000 years ago.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tuniz|Vipraio|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1, 10]}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=17–20}} | {{harvnb|Aldenderfer|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA4 4]}} }}</ref> Subsequently, [[Recent African origin of modern humans|humans migrated out of Africa]] to populate most of the earth. Towards the end of prehistory, technological advances in the form of new and improved tools led many groups to give up their established [[nomadic]] lifestyle, based on [[hunting and gathering]], in favour of a [[sedentary]] lifestyle supported by [[Neolithic Revolution|early forms of agriculture]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Christian|2015|p=2}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=17–20}} | {{harvnb|Wragg-Sykes|2016|pp=195, 199, 211, 221}} }}</ref> The absence of written documents from this period presents researchers with unique challenges. It results in an interdisciplinary approach relying on other forms of evidence from fields such as [[archaeology]], [[anthropology]], [[palaeontology]], and [[geology]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Aldenderfer|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA1 1]}} | {{harvnb|Tuniz|Vipraio|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR5 v]}} }}</ref>

Historians studying the ancient period examine the [[Cradles of civilization|emergence of the first major civilizations]] in regions such as [[Mesopotamia]], Egypt, the [[Indus Valley Civilisation|Indus Valley]], China, and Peru, beginning approximately 3500 BCE in some regions. The new social, economic, and political complexities necessitated the [[Invention of writing|development of writing systems]]. Thanks to advancements in agriculture, surplus food allowed these civilizations to support larger populations, leading to [[urbanization]], the establishment of trade networks, and the emergence of regional empires. In the later part of the ancient period, sometimes termed the ''classical period'', societies in China, India, Persia, and the Mediterranean expanded further, reaching new cultural, scientific, and political heights. Meanwhile, influential religious systems and philosophical ideas were first formulated, such as [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Judaism]], and [[Greek philosophy]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=19–32}} | {{harvnb|Bulliet|Crossley|Headrick|Hirsch|2015|pp=1–2, 89–90}} | {{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008|pp=xxix–xxxix}} }}</ref>

In the study of post-classical or medieval history, which began around 500 CE, historians note the growing influence of major religions. [[Missionary]] religions, like Buddhism, [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]], spread rapidly and established themselves as [[world religions]], marking a cultural shift as they gradually replaced other belief systems. Meanwhile, inter-regional trade networks flourished, leading to increased technological and cultural exchange. Conquering many territories in Asia and Europe, the [[Mongol Empire]] became a dominant force during the 13th and 14th centuries.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=33–36}} | {{harvnb|Bulliet|Crossley|Headrick|Hirsch|2015|pp=193–194, 291–292}} }}</ref>

Historians focused on early modern history, which started roughly in 1500 CE, commonly highlight how European states rose to global power. As [[gunpowder empires]], they explored and [[Colonialism|colonized]] large parts of the world. As a result, the Americas were integrated into the global network, triggering a vast [[Columbian exchange|biological exchange]] of plants, animals, people, and diseases.{{efn|New diseases and European military aggression and exploitation had severe consequences in the form of a drastic loss of life and cultural disruption among Indigenous communities in the Americas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|p=36}} | {{harvnb|Bulliet|Crossley|Headrick|Hirsch|2015|p=401}} }}</ref>}} The [[Scientific Revolution]] prompted major discoveries and accelerated technological progress. It was accompanied by other intellectual developments, such as [[humanism]] and the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], which ushered in [[secularization]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=36–39}} | {{harvnb|Bulliet|Crossley|Headrick|Hirsch|2015|pp=401–402}} }}</ref>

[[File:Adolph Menzel - Eisenwalzwerk - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|alt=Oil painting of worker in an iron rolling mill|The Industrial Revolution had a profound impact on economic and social life, marking the transition from [[Agrarian society|agrarian]] to [[industrial societies]].<ref>{{harvnb|Pozdnyakova|Golikov|Peters|Morozova|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_xlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}}</ref>]]
In the study of modern history, which began at the end of the 18th century, historians are interested in how the [[Industrial Revolution]] transformed economies by introducing more efficient modes of production. Western powers [[Age of Imperialism|established vast colonial empires]], gaining superiority through industrialized military technology. The increased international exchange of goods, ideas, and people marked the beginning of [[globalization]]. Various social revolutions challenged [[autocratic]] and colonial regimes, paving the way for [[democracies]]. Many developments in fields like science, technology, economy, living standards, and human population accelerated at unprecedented rates. This happened despite the widespread destruction caused by two [[world wars]], which rebalanced international power relations by undermining European dominance.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=39–46}} | {{harvnb|Bulliet|Crossley|Headrick|Hirsch|2015|pp=537–538, 677–678, 817–818}} }}</ref>

=== By geographic location ===
Areas of historical study can also be categorized by the geographic locations they examine.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=108–109}} | {{harvnb|Jordanova|2000|pp=34, 46–47}} }}</ref> [[Geography]] plays a central role in history through its influence on [[food production]], [[natural resources]], economic activities, political boundaries, and cultural interactions.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Diamond|1999|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PWnWRFEGoeUC&pg=PA22 22, 25–32]}} | {{harvnb|Darby|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&pg=PA14 14]}} | {{harvnb|Baker|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&pg=PA23 23]}} | {{harvnb|Jordanova|2000|pp=34, 46–47}} }}</ref>{{efn|Emphasizing the central relation between geography and history, [[Jules Michelet]] wrote in the 1869 preface of his ''Histoire de France'': "without geographical basis, the people, the makers of history, seem to be walking on air".<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Darby|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&pg=PA14 14]}} | {{harvnb|Michelet|1871|p=[https://books.google.be/books?id=7CkJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR5 v]}} }}</ref>}} Some historical works limit their scope to small regions, such as a village or a settlement. Others focus on broad territories that encompass entire continents, like the histories of Africa, Asia, Europe, the Americas, and Oceania.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=108–109}} | {{harvnb|Jordanova|2000|pp=46–47}} }}</ref>

[[File:Pyramids of the Giza Necropolis.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of the Pyramids of Giza, with the three main pyramids at the center against a blue sky in the background|The [[Pyramids of Giza]] showcase the lasting heritage of the ancient Egyptian civilization.<ref>{{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008|pp=373–374}}</ref>]]
The [[history of Africa]] begins with the examination of the evolution of anatomically modern humans.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fisher|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ytx1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 127]}} | {{harvnb|Tuniz|Vipraio|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=17–20}} }}</ref> Ancient historians describe how the invention of writing and the establishment of civilization happened in [[ancient Egypt]] in the 4th millennium BCE.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Iliffe|2007|p=5}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=24–25}} }}</ref> Over the next millennia, other notable civilizations and kingdoms formed in [[Nubia]], [[Kingdom of Aksum|Axum]], [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage]], [[Ghana Empire|Ghana]], [[Mali Empire|Mali]], and [[Songhai Empire|Songhay]].<ref>{{harvnb|Asante|2024|p=92}}</ref> Islam began spreading across North Africa in the 7th century CE and became the dominant faith in many empires. Meanwhile, trade along the [[trans-Saharan route]] intensified.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Shillington|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rxtHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 93–94]}} | {{harvnb|Iliffe|2007|pp=2, 42–45}} }}</ref> Beginning in the 15th century, millions of Africans were enslaved and forcibly transported to the Americas as part of the [[Atlantic slave trade]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Shillington|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rxtHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 103]}} | {{harvnb|Iliffe|2007|pp=131–132}} }}</ref> Most of the continent [[Scramble for Africa|was colonized]] by European powers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref>{{harvnb|Iliffe|2007|pp=193–195}}</ref> Amid rising [[African nationalism|nationalism]], African states gradually [[Decolonisation of Africa|gained independence]] in the aftermath of [[World War II]], a period that saw economic progress, rapid population growth, and struggles for political stability.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Shillington|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rxtHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA417 417]}} | {{harvnb|Iliffe|2007|pp=242, 253, 260, 267–268}} }}</ref>

Historians studying the [[history of Asia]] note the arrival of anatomically modern humans around 100,000 years ago.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tuniz|Vipraio|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 15]}} | {{harvnb|Headrick|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qG2tPzkN6HUC&pg=PA6 6]}} | {{harvnb|Wragg-Sykes|2016|p=199}} }}</ref> They explore Asia's role as one of the cradles of civilization, with the emergence of some of the first ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and China beginning in the 4th and 3rd millennia BCE.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Mason|2005|pp=17–18}} | {{harvnb|Murphey|Stapleton|2019|pp=10–13}} | {{harvnb|Cotterell|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vVTWXK5kQC&pg=PR13 xiii, 3–4]}} | {{harvnb|AASA|2011|pp=3–4}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=24–25}} }}</ref> In the following millennia, civilisations on the Asian continent gave birth to all major world religions and several influential philosophical traditions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, [[Taoism]], Christianity, and Islam.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cotterell|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vVTWXK5kQC&pg=PR13 xiii–xiv]}} | {{harvnb|AASA|2011|pp=3–4}} }}</ref> Other developments were the establishment of the [[Silk Road]], which facilitated trade and cultural exchange across [[Eurasia]], and the formation of powerful empires, such as the Mongol Empire.<ref name="auto3">{{multiref|{{harvnb|Cotterell|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vVTWXK5kQC&pg=PA256 256–257]}}|{{harvnb|Mason|2005|pp=77–78}}}}</ref> European influence grew over the following centuries, ushering in the modern era. It culminated in the 19th and early 20th centuries when many parts of Asia came under direct colonial control [[Decolonisation of Asia|until the end of World War II]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Mason|2005|pp=111–112, 167–168}} | {{harvnb|Murphey|Stapleton|2019|pp=282–283}} | {{harvnb|Cotterell|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vVTWXK5kQC&pg=PR17 xvii–xviii]}} | {{harvnb|Rana|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ67CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 13–14]}} }}</ref> The post-independence period was characterized by modernization, economic growth, and a steep increase in population.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Murphey|Stapleton|2019|p=445}} | {{harvnb|Mason|2005|p=1}} | {{harvnb|Rana|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ67CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 13–14]}} }}</ref>
[[File:Greecemap-en.svg|alt=A map of Ancient Greece, showing both sides of the Aegean Sea|thumb|Due to its influence on Western culture and philosophy, [[Ancient Greece]] is an important area of study for historians of Europe.<ref name="Roberts 1997 Importance">{{harvnb|Roberts|1997|loc=§ The Importance of the Classical Past, § The Greeks, § An Attempt to Summarize}}</ref>]]
In the study of the [[history of Europe]], historians describe the arrival of the first anatomically modern humans about 45,000 years ago.<ref>{{harvnb|Tuniz|Vipraio|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}}</ref> They explore how in the first millennium BCE the [[Ancient Greeks]] contributed key elements to the [[Western culture|culture]], [[Western philosophy|philosophy]], and politics associated with the [[Western world]],<ref name="Roberts 1997 Importance"/> and how their cultural heritage influenced the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire]]s.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Roberts|1997|loc=§ The Importance of the Classical Past, § The Rise of Roman Power, § Empire}} | {{harvnb|Black|2021|loc=§ What is Europe?}} }}</ref> The [[medieval period]] began with the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]] in the 5th century CE and was marked by the [[spread of Christianity]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Roberts|1997|loc=§ Decline and Fall in the West, § Christiandom}} | {{harvnb|Black|2021|loc=§ What is Europe?}} }}</ref> Starting in the 15th century, European exploration and colonization interconnected the globe, while cultural, intellectual, and scientific developments transformed Western societies.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Roberts|1997|loc=§ Launching Modern History 1500–1800}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=36–39}} | {{harvnb|Bulliet|Crossley|Headrick|Hirsch|2015|pp=401–402}} }}</ref> From the late 18th to the early 20th centuries, European global dominance was further solidified by the Industrial Revolution and the establishment of large overseas colonies.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Roberts|1997|loc=§ The European Age}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=39–42}} | {{harvnb|Bulliet|Crossley|Headrick|Hirsch|2015|pp=677–678}} }}</ref> It came to an end because of the devastating effects of two world wars.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Roberts|1997|loc=§ Europe's Twentieth Century: The Era of European Civil War}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|p=44}} | {{harvnb|Bulliet|Crossley|Headrick|Hirsch|2015|pp=677–678}} }}</ref> In the following [[Cold War]] era, the continent was divided into a [[Western bloc|Western]] and an [[Eastern bloc]]. They pursued political and economic integration in the aftermath of the Cold War.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Roberts|1997|loc=§ Europe in the Cold War and After, § European Integration}} | {{harvnb|Alcock|2002|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5FmHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA266 266–268]}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=39–46}} | {{harvnb|Bulliet|Crossley|Headrick|Hirsch|2015|pp=677–678, 817–818}} | {{harvnb|Andrén|2022|pp=298, 304}}}}</ref>

Historians examining the history of the Americas document the arrival of the first humans around 20,000 to 15,000 years ago.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fisher|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ytx1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 127]}} | {{harvnb|Tuniz|Vipraio|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}} }}</ref> The Americas were home to some of the earliest civilizations, like the [[Norte Chico civilization]] in South America and the [[Maya civilization|Maya]] and [[Olmec civilization]]s in Central America.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008|pp=xvii–xix}} | {{harvnb|Fernández-Armesto|2003|loc=§ Between Colonizations: The Americas' First 'Normalcy'}} | {{harvnb|Dorling Kindersley|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8rqpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94 94–95]}} }}</ref> Over the next millennia, major empires arose beside them, such as the [[Teotihuacan]], [[Aztec]], and [[Inca empire]]s.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fernández-Armesto|2003|loc=§ Between Colonizations: The Americas' First 'Normalcy'}} | {{harvnb|Dorling Kindersley|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8rqpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94 94–95]}} }}</ref> Following the arrival of the Europeans from the late 15th century onwards, the spread of newly introduced diseases drastically reduced the local population. Together with colonization, it led to the collapse of major empires as demographic and cultural landscapes were reshaped.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fernández-Armesto|2003|loc=§ Colonial Americas: Divergence and its Limits, § The Independence Era}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=36–38}} | {{harvnb|Dorling Kindersley|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8rqpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA95 95]}} }}</ref> [[Decolonization of the Americas|Independence movements]] in the 18th and 19th centuries led to the formation of new nations across the Americas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fernández-Armesto|2003|loc=§ The Independence Era}} | {{harvnb|Raab|Rinke|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gQuWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 20]}} }}</ref> In the 20th century, the United States emerged as a dominant global power and a key player in the Cold War.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fernández-Armesto|2003|loc=§ The American Century}} | {{harvnb|Bulliet|Crossley|Headrick|Hirsch|2015|pp=817–818}} }}</ref>

In the study of the [[history of Oceania]], historians note the arrival of humans about 60,000 to 50,000 years ago.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tuniz|Vipraio|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}} | {{harvnb|Lawson|2024|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=T6j4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57]}} | {{harvnb|d'Arcy|2012|loc=§ Indigenous Exploration and Colonization of the Region}} }}</ref> They explore the establishment of [[Indigenous peoples of Oceania|diverse regional societies and cultures]], first in Australia and Papua New Guinea and later also on other [[Pacific Islands]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lawson|2024|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=T6j4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 32, 57]}} | {{harvnb|d'Arcy|2012|loc=§ Indigenous Exploration and Colonization of the Region}} }}</ref> The arrival of the Europeans in the 16th century prompted significant transformations, and by the end of the 19th century, most of the region had come under Western control.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lawson|2024|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=T6j4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA59 59–60, 85–86]}} | {{harvnb|d'Arcy|2012|loc=§ The Intersection of European and Indigenous Worlds, § The Impact of Pre-Colonial European Influences, § European Settler Societies and Plantation Colonies}} }}</ref> Oceania became involved in various conflicts during the world wars and experienced [[Decolonisation of Oceania|decolonization in the post-war period]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|d'Arcy|2012|loc=§ Times of Anxiety: World Wars, Pandemic, and Economic Depression, § Post-War Themes: The Nuclear Pacific, Decolonization, and the Search for Identity}} | {{harvnb|Lawson|2024|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=T6j4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR12 xii, 2, 96]}} }}</ref>

=== By theme ===
Historians often limit their inquiry to a specific theme.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Jordanova|2000|pp=34–35}} | {{harvnb|Yurdusev|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Mb6DDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 24]}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|p=109}} | {{harvnb|Gardiner|1988|pp=1–3}} }}</ref> Some propose a general subdivision into three major themes: [[political history]], [[economic history]], and [[social history]]. However, the boundaries between these branches are vague and their relation to other thematic branches, such as [[intellectual history]], is not always clear.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=109, 122}} | {{harvnb|Jordanova|2000|pp=34–35}} | {{harvnb|Gardiner|1988|pp=1–3}} }}</ref>

Political history studies the organization of [[Power (social and political)|power]] in society, examining how power structures arise, develop, and interact. Throughout most of recorded history, [[State (polity)|states]] or state-like structures have been central to this field of study. It explores how a state was [[political system|organized internally]], like [[Political faction|factions]], [[Political party|parties]], leaders, and other political institutions. It also examines which [[policies]] were implemented and how the state interacted with other states.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=109–110}} | {{harvnb|Jordanova|2000|pp=35–36}} }}</ref> Political history has been studied since antiquity by historians such as Herodotus and Thucydides, making it one of the oldest branches of history, while other major subfields have only become established branches in the past century.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|p=110}} | {{harvnb|Arnold|2000|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 16–17, 33–34, 41]}} | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 21–25]}} }}</ref>

[[File:Trébuchet Castelnaud.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of a reconstructed medieval trebuchet on a stone platform against a cloudy sky in the background|Military history studies armed conflicts, including advancements in military technology, like [[trebuchet]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Devries|2004}}</ref>]]
[[Diplomatic history|Diplomatic]] and [[military history]] are associated with political history. Diplomatic history examines [[international relations]] between states. It covers [[foreign policy]] topics such as negotiations, strategic considerations, [[treaties]], and conflicts between nations as well as the role of [[international organizations]] in these processes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=112–113}} | {{harvnb|Watt|Adams|Bullen|Brauer|1988|pp=131–133}} }}</ref> Military history studies the impact and development of [[armed conflict]]s in human history. This includes the examination of specific events, like the analysis of a particular battle and the discussion of the different causes of a war. It also involves more general considerations about the evolution of warfare, including advancements in [[military technology]], [[Military strategy|strategies]], [[Military tactics|tactics]], [[Military logistics|logistics]], and institutions.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Howard|Bond|Stagg|Chandler|1988|pp=4–5}} | {{harvnb|Morillo|2017|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MDBEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT9 § 1. An Introduction to Military History]}} }}</ref>

Economic history examines how [[commodities]] are produced, exchanged, and consumed. It covers economic aspects such as the use of land, [[Work (human activity)|labour]], and [[Capital (economics)|capital]], the [[supply and demand]] of goods, the costs and [[means of production]], and the [[distribution of income]] and [[distribution of wealth|wealth]]. Economic historians typically focus on general trends in the form of impersonal forces, such as [[inflation]], rather than the actions and decisions of individuals. If enough data is available, they rely on quantitative methods, like statistical analysis. For periods before the modern era, available data is often limited, forcing economic historians to rely on scarce sources and extrapolate information from them.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=122–124}} | {{harvnb|Coleman|Floud|Barker|Daunton|1988|pp=31–32}} }}</ref>

Social history is a broad field investigating social phenomena, but its precise definition is disputed. Some theorists understand it as the study of everyday life outside the domains of politics and economics, including cultural practices, family structures, community interactions, and education. A closely related approach focuses on experience rather than activities, examining how members of particular social groups, like [[social class]]es, [[Race (human categorization)|races]], [[gender]]s, or [[age group]]s, experienced their world. Other definitions see social history as the study of social problems, like poverty, disease, and crime, or take a broader perspective by examining how whole [[societies]] developed.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Samuel|Breuilly|Clark|Hopkins|1988|pp=48–51}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=125–127}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2021}} }}</ref> Closely related fields include [[cultural history]], [[gender history]], and [[religious history]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Collinson|Brooke|Norman|Lake|1988|pp=58–59}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=101, 236–237, 286}} | {{harvnb|Burke|2019|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hKukDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT8 § Introduction]}} }}</ref>

Intellectual history is the history of ideas and studies how concepts, philosophies, and [[ideologies]] have evolved. It is particularly interested in academic fields but not limited to them, including the study of the beliefs and prejudices of ordinary people. In addition to studying intellectual movements themselves, it also examines the cultural and social contexts that shaped them and their influence on other historical developments.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=272–273}} | {{harvnb|Collini|Skinner|Hollinger|Pocock|1988|pp=105–106, 109–110}} }}</ref> As closely related fields, the [[history of philosophy]] investigates the development of philosophical thought<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Santinello|Piaia|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gC2J3V7_TPUC&pg=PA487 487–488]}} | {{harvnb|Verene|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hkDX-dxMHpoC&pg=PA6 6–8]}} }}</ref> while the [[history of science]] studies the evolution of scientific theories and practices, such as the scientific contributions of [[Charles Darwin]] and [[Albert Einstein]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Porter|Shapin|Schaffer|Young|1988|pp=78–79}} | {{harvnb|Williams|2024|loc=§ Lead section}} }}</ref> [[Art history]], another connected discipline, examines historical [[works of art]] and the development of artistic activities, [[Artistic style|styles]], and [[artistic movement|movements]]. It includes a discussion of the cultural, social, and political contexts of art production.<ref>{{harvnb|Potts|House|Hope|Gretton|1988|pp=96–104}}</ref>

[[Environmental history]] studies the relation between humans and their environment. It seeks to understand how humans and the rest of nature have affected each other in the course of history.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-WZNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}}</ref> Other thematic branches include [[constitutional history]], [[legal history]], [[urban history]], [[business history]], [[history of technology]], [[medical history]], [[history of education]], and [[people's history]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=101, 112–113, 124–125, 127, 129}} | {{harvnb|Yapp|Bayly|Clarence-Smith|Abel|1988|pp=155, 158}} | {{harvnb|Antonellos|Rantall|2017|p=115}} | {{harvnb|Buchanan|2024|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Ramsay|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Bv9yAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA283 283]}} }}</ref>

=== Others ===
Some branches of history are characterized by the [[Methodology|methods]] they employ, such as [[quantitative history]] and [[digital history]], which rely on [[Quantitative research|quantitative methods]] and [[digital media]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=244–245}} | {{harvnb|Howell|Prevenier|2001|pp=81, 92–93}} | {{harvnb|Zaagsma|2023|loc=§ Introduction}} | {{harvnb|Jordanova|2000|pp=49–50}} }}</ref> [[Comparative history]] compares historical phenomena from distinct times, regions, or cultures to examine their similarities and differences.<ref>{{harvnb|Wong|2005|pp=416–417}}</ref> Unlike most other branches, [[oral history]] relies on oral reports rather than written documents, encompassing eyewitness accounts, [[hearsay]], and communal [[legend]]s. It reflects the personal experiences, interpretations, and [[Memory|memories]] of common people, showcasing how people subjectively remember the past.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sitton|Mehaffy|Davis|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xcwc7iAa1vkC&pg=PA4 4]}} | {{harvnb|Abrams|2016|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bluaCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT29 2. The Peculiarities of Oral History]}} | {{harvnb|Miller|2024|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SjOvU2iJ6JwC&pg=PA157 157–158]}} | {{harvnb|Thomson|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BnEnAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 80]}} }}</ref> [[Counterfactual history]] uses [[counterfactual thinking]] to examine alternative courses of history, exploring what could have happened under different circumstances.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Zhao|2023|pp=9–10}} | {{harvnb|Birke|Butter|Köppe|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VcgLgAedZ-IC&pg=PA7 7]}} }}</ref> Certain branches of history are distinguished by their theoretical outlook, such as [[Marxist history|Marxist]] and [[feminist history]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Howell|Prevenier|2001|pp=13–14, 113–114}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=27, 224–225, 238}} | {{harvnb|Veysey|1979|p=1}} }}</ref>

[[File:Map of the World (1820).jpg|thumb|alt=An old double-hemisphere map of the world|[[World history]] examines history on a global level, incorporating the whole of [[human history]].<ref name="auto5">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Christian|2015|p=3}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=11–13, 17–20}} }}</ref>]]

Some distinctions focus on the scope of the studied topic. [[Big History]] is the branch with the broadest scope, covering everything from the [[Big Bang]] to the present, incorporating elements of [[cosmology]], geology, [[biology]], and anthropology.<ref name="auto4"/> [[World history (field)|World history]] is another branch with a wide topic. It examines human history as a whole, starting with the evolution of human-like species.<ref name="auto5"/> The terms ''[[macrohistory]]'', ''mesohistory'', and ''[[microhistory]]'' refer to different scales of analysis, ranging from large-scale patterns that affect the whole globe to detailed studies of [[Local history|local contexts]], small communities, [[family history|family histories]], particular individuals, or specific events.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bod|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KaOcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA260 260]}} | {{harvnb|O'Hara|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=We7QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA176 176]}} }}</ref> Closely related to microhistory is the genre of [[historical biography]], which recounts an individual's life in its historical context and the legacy it left.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=113–115}} | {{harvnb|De Armond|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=r0nCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 75]}} }}</ref>

[[Public history]] involves activities that present history to the [[general public]]. It usually happens outside the traditional academic settings in contexts like [[museum]]s, [[historical site]]s, [[heritage tourism]], and popular media.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Glassberg|1996|pp=7–8}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=xiv–xv}} | {{harvnb|Stanton|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tV41DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA224 224]}} }}</ref>

== Evolution of the discipline ==
Before the invention of writing, the preservation and transmission of historical knowledge were limited to oral traditions.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fagan|Durrani|2019|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dB24DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT54 § Written Records, Oral History, and Archaeology]}} | {{harvnb|Wright|2006}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=1–3, 295}} }}</ref> Early forms of historical writing mixed facts with mythological elements, such as the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'' from [[ancient Mesopotamia]] and the ''[[Odyssey]]'', an [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] text attributed to [[Homer]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 20–21]}} | {{harvnb|Wright|2006}} | {{harvnb|Lefkowitz|2008|pp=353–354}} }}</ref> Published in the 5th century BCE, the ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' by [[Herodotus]]{{efn|Herodotus is traditionally considered the "father of history" but has also been called the "father of lies" because not all of his accounts were reliable.<ref>{{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 22–23]}}</ref>}} was one of the foundational texts of the Western historical tradition, putting more emphasis on rational and evidence-based inquiry than the stories of Homer and other poets.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 21–23]}} | {{harvnb|Wright|2006}} | {{harvnb|Jensen|loc=§ 1. Ancient through Medieval}} | {{harvnb|Lefkowitz|2008|pp=354–355}} }}</ref> [[Thucydides]] followed and further refined Herodotus's approach but focused more on particular political and military developments in contrast to the wide scope and [[ethnographic]] elements of Herodotus's work.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 23–24]}} | {{harvnb|Jensen|loc=§ 1. Ancient through Medieval}} | {{harvnb|Lefkowitz|2008|p=356}} }}</ref> [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] historiography was heavily influenced by Greek traditions. It often included not only historical facts but also [[Ethics|moral judgments]] of [[historical figure]]s.{{efn|This aspect is also found to some degree in works of Greek historians, including Herodotus and [[Polybius]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 26]}} | {{harvnb|Comber|2006|pp=38–39}} }}</ref>}} Early Roman historians used an [[annalistic]] style, arranging past events by year with little commentary, while later ones preferred a more narrative and analytical approach.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 28–30, 34]}} | {{harvnb|Comber|2006|pp=38–40, 42–43}} }}</ref>

[[File:『史記』唐写本.jpg|thumb|alt=The Book of Rivers and Canals from Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian|[[Sima Qian]]'s ''[[Shiji]]'' or ''Records of the Grand Historian'' was a foundational work in [[Chinese historiography]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 40–41]}} | {{harvnb|Lo|1998}} }}</ref>]]

[[Chinese historiography|Another complex tradition of historical writing]] emerged in [[ancient China]], with early precursors starting in the late 2nd millennium BCE. It considered annals the highest form of historical writing and emphasized verification through sources. This tradition was associated with [[Confucian philosophy]] and closely tied to the government in the form of the [[Dynasties of China|ruling dynasty]], each responsible for writing the [[Twenty-Four Histories|official history of its predecessor]]. Chinese historians established a coherent and systematic method for recording historical events earlier than other traditions.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 35–39, 41–42]}} | {{harvnb|Morgan|2006|pp=14–15}} }}</ref> Of particular influence was the work of [[Sima Qian]], whose meticulous research method and inclusion of alternative viewpoints shaped subsequent historiographical standards.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wright|2006}} | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 39–43]}} }}</ref> In [[ancient India]], [[Indian historiography|historical narratives]] were closely associated with [[religion in India|religion]]. They often mixed factual accounts with supernatural elements, as seen in works like the ''[[Mahabharata]]''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Vašíček|2008|pp=33–34}} | {{harvnb|Bayly|2006|pp=664–665}} | {{harvnb|Singh|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA18 18–19]}} }}</ref>

In Europe during the [[medieval period]], history was primarily documented by the [[clergy]] in the form of chronicles. [[Christianity|Christian]] historians drew from [[Greco-Roman]] and [[Jewish]] traditions and reinterpreted the past from a religious perspective as a narrative highlighting God's divine plan.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 49–50]}} | {{harvnb|Wright|2006}} | {{harvnb|Breisach|2005|loc=§ Christian Traditional Historiography}} }}</ref> Influential contributions shaping this tradition were made by the historians [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] and [[Bede]] and by the theologian [[Augustine of Hippo]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 49–52, 55]}} | {{harvnb|Wright|2006}} | {{harvnb|Breisach|2005|loc=§ Christian Traditional Historiography}} }}</ref> In the Islamic world, historical writing was similarly influenced by religion, interpreting the past from a [[Muslim]] perspective. It placed great importance on the [[isnad|chain of transmission]] to preserve the authority of historical accounts.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56–57]}} | {{harvnb|Wright|2006}} | {{harvnb|Breisach|2005|loc=§ Islamic Traditional Historiography}} | {{harvnb|Morgan|2006|pp=9–10}} }}</ref> [[Al-Tabari]] wrote a comprehensive history, spanning from the creation of the world to his present day. [[Ibn Khaldun]] reflected on philosophical issues underlying the practice of historians, such as universal patterns shaping historical changes and the limits of historical truth.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57, 60]}} | {{harvnb|Wright|2006}} | {{harvnb|Breisach|2005|loc=§ Islamic Traditional Historiography}} | {{harvnb|Morgan|2006|pp=11, 14}} }}</ref>

With the emergence of the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907 CE) in China, historical writing became increasingly institutionalized as a bureau for the writing of history was established in 629 CE. The bureau oversaw the establishment of [[Veritable Records]], a comprehensive compilation serving as the basis of the standard national history. Tang dynasty historians emphasized the difference between actual events that occurred in the past and the way these events are documented in historical texts.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 64–65]}} | {{harvnb|Breisach|2005|loc=§ Chinese Traditional Historiography}} }}</ref> Historical writing in the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279 CE) happened in a variety of historical genres, including encyclopedias, biographies, and historical novels, while history became a standard subject in the [[Imperial examination|Chinese educational system]].<ref>{{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 68–69, 84]}}</ref> Influenced by the Chinese model, a [[Historiography of Japan|tradition of historical writing emerged in Japan]] in the 8th century CE. Like in China, historical writing was closely related to the [[Imperial House of Japan|imperial household]], but Japanese historians placed less importance on critical source evaluation than their Chinese counterparts.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67 67–68]}} | {{harvnb|Breisach|2005|loc=§ Japanese Traditional Historiography}} }}</ref>

During the [[Renaissance]] and the [[early modern period]] (approximately 1500 to 1800), the different historical traditions came increasingly into contact with each other.<ref>{{harvnb|Woolf|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 84]}}</ref> Starting in 14th-century Europe, the Renaissance led to a shift away from medieval religious outlooks towards a renewed interest in the earlier classical tradition of Greece and Rome. [[Renaissance humanism|Renaissance humanists]] used sophisticated text criticism to scrutinize earlier religious historical works, which contributed to the [[secularization]] of historical writing. During the 15th to 17th centuries, historians placed greater emphasis on the [[didactic]] role of history, using it to promote the established order or argue for a return to an idealised vision of the past. As the invention of the [[printing press]] made written documents more accessible and affordable, interest in history expanded outside the [[clergy]] and [[nobility]]. At the same time, [[empiricist]] thought associated with the [[Scientific Revolution]] questioned the possibility of arriving at universal historical truths.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 78, 89, 124]}} | {{harvnb|Breisach|2005|loc=§ The Age of Anthropocentric Historiography}} | {{harvnb|Jensen|loc=§ 2. Humanism through Renaissance}} | {{harvnb|Arnold|2000|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 26–27]}}}}</ref> During the [[Age of Enlightenment]] in the 18th century, historical writing was influenced by [[rationalism]] and [[scepticism]]. Aiming to challenge traditional authority and dogma through reason and empirical methods, historians tried to uncover deeper patterns and meaning in the past, while the scope of historical inquiry expanded with an increased focus on societal and economic topics as well as [[Comparative history|comparisons between different cultures]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wright|2006}} | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA129 129–130, 134, 166–167]}} | {{harvnb|Arnold|2000|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 46–51]}}}}</ref>

In China during the [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644), public interest in historical writings and their availability also increased. In addition to the continuation of the Veritable Records by official governmental historians, non-official works by private scholars flourished. These scholars tended to use a more creative style and sometimes challenged orthodox accounts.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 99–100]}} | {{harvnb|Mittag|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jMMBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 27–28]}} | {{harvnb|Ng|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jMMBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 60–62]}} }}</ref> In the Islamic world, new traditions of historical writings emerged in the [[Safavid Empire|Safavid]], [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]], and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]]s.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101 101–106]}} | {{harvnb|Quinn|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GhIMEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–4, 8–10]}} }}</ref> Meanwhile, in the [[Americas]], European explorers recorded and interpreted indigenous narratives, which had been passed down through oral and [[pictographic]] practices. These views sometimes contested traditional European perspectives.<ref>{{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5, 106–114]}}</ref>

[[File:Jebens, Adolf - Leopold von Ranke (detail) - 1875.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of an older man with white hair dressed in a formal black garment with an ornate badge on his chest|[[Leopold von Ranke]] revolutionized the standards of historical scholarship by introducing a thorough evaluation of primary sources.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wright|2006}} | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA176 176–177]}} }}</ref>]]

Historical writing was transformed in the 19th century as it became more [[Professionalization|professional]] and science-oriented. Following the work of [[Leopold von Ranke]], a systematic method of source criticism was widely accepted while [[academic institution]]s dedicated to history were established in the form of university departments, professional associations, and journals.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wright|2006}} | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA174 174–177]}} | {{harvnb|Jensen|loc=§ 5. 19th Century Scientific Historiography}} | {{harvnb|Moloughney|Zarrow|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cs89EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}}}}</ref> In tune with this scientific outlook, [[Auguste Comte]] formulated the school of [[positivism]] and aimed to discover general laws of history, similar to the [[Scientific law|laws of nature]] studied by physicists.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wright|2006}} | {{harvnb|Jensen|loc=§ 5. 19th Century Scientific Historiography}} | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA184 184–185]}} }}</ref> Building on the philosophy of [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], [[Karl Marx]] proposed one such general law in his theory of [[historical materialism]], arguing that economic forces and [[class struggle]] are the fundamental drivers of historical change.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wright|2006}} | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA187 187–189]}} | {{harvnb|Jensen|loc=§ 4. 19th Century Teleological Systems}} }}</ref> Another influential development was the spread of European historiographical methods, which became the dominant approach to the academic study of the past worldwide.<ref>{{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5–6, 196–197, 215–216]}}</ref>

In the 20th century, traditional historical assumptions and practices were challenged while the scope of historical research broadened.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA216 216–217, 279–280]}} | {{harvnb|Wright|2006}} }}</ref> The [[Annales school|''Annales'' school]] used insights from [[sociology]], [[psychology]], and [[economics]] to study long-term developments.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wright|2006}} | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA229 229–230]}} }}</ref> [[Authoritarian regime]]s, like [[Nazi Germany]], the [[Soviet Union]], and China, manipulated historical narratives for [[ideological]] purposes.<ref>{{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA239 239–240, 242–245]}}</ref> Various historians covered unconventional perspectives, focusing on the experiences of [[marginalized groups]] through approaches such as [[history from below]], [[microhistory]], [[oral history]], and [[feminist history]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wright|2006}} | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA232 232, 247–249, 255–256]}} }}</ref> [[Postcolonialism]] aimed to undermine the hegemony of the Western approach and [[postmodernism]] rejected the claim to a single universal truth in history.<ref>{{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA262 262–264, 268–269]}}</ref> [[Intellectual history|Intellectual historians]] examined the historical development of ideas.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA251 251–252]}} | {{harvnb|Collini|Skinner|Hollinger|Pocock|1988|pp=105–107}} }}</ref> In the second half of the century, renewed attempts to write [[World history (field)|histories of the world]] as a whole gained momentum, while technological advances fostered the growth of [[Quantitative history|quantitative]] and [[digital history]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Moore|2006|pp=918–919}} | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 6, 297–300]}} | {{harvnb|Wright|2006}} }}</ref>

== Related fields ==
===Historiography===
{{Main|Historiography}}
[[File:Bust of Ibn Khaldun (Casbah of Bejaia, Algeria).jpg|thumb|upright=.8|alt=Bust of a man with a turban and a beard|[[Ibn Khaldun]] was an influential figure in Islamic historiography.<ref>{{harvnb|Woolf|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 60]}}</ref>]]

Historiography is the study of the methods and development of historical research. Historiographers examine what historians do, resulting in a [[metatheory]] in the form of a history of history. Some theorists use the term ''historiography'' in a different sense to refer to written accounts of the past.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Woolf|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3]}} | {{harvnb|Tucker|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FeVdNxyFiKsC&pg=PA2 xii, 2]}} | {{harvnb|Ritter|1986|pp=188–189}} | {{harvnb|Little|2020|loc=§ 4. Historiography and the Philosophy of History}} }}</ref>

A central topic in historiography as a metatheory focuses on the standards of [[evidence]] and reasoning in historical inquiry. Historiographers examine and codify how historians use sources to construct narratives about the past, including the analysis of the interpretative assumptions from which they proceed. Closely related issues include the [[Writing style|style]] and [[rhetorical]] presentation of works of history.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Little|2020|loc=§ 4. Historiography and the Philosophy of History}} | {{harvnb|Lloyd|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FeVdNxyFiKsC&pg=PA371 371, 374]}} }}</ref>

By comparing the works of different historians, historiographers identify schools of thought based on shared research methods, assumptions, and styles.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Little|2020|loc=§ 4. Historiography and the Philosophy of History}} | {{harvnb|Cheng|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5Jot-bWsBS0C&pg=PA1 1–2]}} }}</ref> For example, they examine the characteristics of the [[Annales school|''Annales'' school]], like its use of quantitative data from various disciplines and its interest in economic and social developments taking place over extended periods.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Howell|Prevenier|2001|pp=110–111}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=121, 133}} | {{harvnb|Little|2020|loc=§ 4. Historiography and the Philosophy of History}} }}</ref> Comparisons also extend to whole eras from ancient to modern times. This way, historiography traces the development of history as an academic discipline, highlighting how the dominant methods, themes, and research goals have changed over time.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Little|2020|loc=§ 4. Historiography and the Philosophy of History}} | {{harvnb|Bentley|2006|pp=xi,  xv}} | {{harvnb|Cheng|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5Jot-bWsBS0C&pg=PA1 1–2]}} }}</ref>

=== Philosophy of history ===
{{main|Philosophy of history}}
The philosophy of history{{efn|''Historical theory'' is a closely related term sometimes used as a synonym.<ref>{{harvnb|Paul|2015|pp=xv, 2–3, 12–13}}</ref>}} investigates the theoretical foundations of history. It is interested both in the past itself as a series of interconnected events and in the academic field studying this process. Insights and approaches from various branches of philosophy are relevant to this endeavour, such as [[metaphysics]], [[epistemology]], [[hermeneutics]], and [[ethics]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carr|2006|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Jensen|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Little|2020|loc=Lead section, § 1. History and its representation}} | {{harvnb|Paul|2015|p=10}} }}</ref>

In examining history as a process, philosophers explore the basic entities that make up historical phenomena. Some approaches rely primarily on the beliefs and actions of individual humans, while others include [[collective]] and other general entities, such as [[civilization]]s, [[institution]]s, [[ideologies]], and social forces.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Little|2020|loc=Lead section, § 1. History and its representation}} | {{harvnb|Paul|2015|p=10}} }}</ref> A related topic concerns the nature of [[Causality|causal mechanisms]] connecting historic events with their causes and consequences.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stanford|1998|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PijhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA85 85–87]}} | {{harvnb|Little|2020|loc=§ 3.3 Causation in history}} }}</ref> One view holds that there are general laws of history that determine the course of events, similar to the [[Scientific law|laws of nature]] studied in the [[natural sciences]]. According to another perspective, causal relations between historic events are unique and shaped by contingent factors.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carr|2006|loc=§ 2. "Critical" Philosophy of History: Philosophical Reflection on Historical Knowledge}} | {{harvnb|Little|2020|loc=§ 3.1 General laws in history?, § 3.3 Causation in history}} }}</ref> Historically, some philosophers have suggested that the general direction of the course of history follows large patterns. According to one proposal, history is cyclic, meaning that on a sufficiently large scale, individual events or general trends [[Historic recurrence|repeat]]. Another such theory asserts that history is a linear, [[teleological]] process moving towards a predetermined goal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Little|2020|loc=§ 2.2 Does history possess directionality?}} | {{harvnb|Stanford|1998|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PijhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74–75]}} | {{harvnb|Paul|2015|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kleingeld|2006|p=xxi}} }}</ref>{{efn|Some philosophers have followed [[Francis Fukuyama]] in arguing that the "[[The End of History and the Last Man|end of history]]" has already arrived based on the claim that the ideological evolution of humanity has reached its endpoint.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lemon|2003|pp=390–391}} | {{harvnb|Jackson|Xidias|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kEkrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 21]}} }}</ref>}}

The topics of philosophy of history and historiography overlap as both are interested in the standards of [[Historical thinking|historical reasoning]]. Historiographers typically focus more on describing specific methods and developments encountered in the study of history. Philosophers of history, by contrast, tend to explore more general patterns, including evaluative questions about which methods and assumptions are correct.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Little|2020|loc=§ 4. Historiography and the philosophy of history}} | {{harvnb|Heller|2016|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TFf7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT190 § 14. The Specificity of Philosophy of History]}} }}</ref> Historical reasoning is sometimes used in philosophy and other disciplines as a method to explain phenomena. This approach, known as [[historicism]], argues that understanding something requires knowledge of its unique history or how it evolved. For instance, historicism about [[truth]] states that truth depends on historical circumstances, meaning that there are no transhistorical truths. Historicism contrasts with approaches that seek a timeless and universal understanding of their subject matter.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lemon|2003|p=125}} | {{harvnb|Stanford|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PijhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA155 155]}} | {{harvnb|Carr|2006|loc=§ 4. Historicity, Historicism and the Historicization of Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Vision|2023|loc=§ VI Truth Epistemologized: 6. Historicism}} }}</ref>

==== Historical objectivity ====
Diverse debates in the philosophy of history focus on the possibility of an [[Objectivity (science)|objective]] account of history. Various theorists argue that this ideal is not achievable, pointing to the [[Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)|subjective]] nature of [[Interpretation (philosophy)|interpretation]], the narrative aspect of history, and the influence of personal values and biases on the perspective and actions of both historic individuals and historians. According to one view, some particular facts are objective, for example, facts about when a drought occurred or which army was defeated. However, this view does not ensure general objectivity since historians have to interpret and synthesize facts to arrive at an overall narrative describing large trends and developments.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Little|2020|loc=§ 3.2 Historical objectivity}} | {{harvnb|Carr|2006|loc=§ 2. "Critical" Philosophy of History: Philosophical Reflection on Historical Knowledge}} | {{harvnb|Stanford|1998|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PijhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 50–53]}} | {{harvnb|Paul|2015|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Carr|1990|pp=7–8, 21–22}} | {{harvnb|Evans|1999|pp=1–4}}}}</ref> As a result, some historians, such as [[G. M. Trevelyan]] and [[Keith Jenkins]], assert that all history is biased, arguing that historical narratives are never free of subjective presuppositions and value judgments.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dray|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4NEVEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 58]}} | {{harvnb|Wineburg|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PIZuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}} | {{harvnb|Fasolt|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4RdTAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR19 xix]}} | {{harvnb|Trevelyan|1947|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|Groot|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ayt-CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA173 173]}} | {{harvnb|Jenkins|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nCyJ26nIuRgC&pg=PR11 xi–xii, 44–45]}} }}</ref>

Some outlooks associated with realism, [[empiricism]], and reconstructionism,<ref>{{Harvnb|Donnelly|Norton|2012|pp=35–39}}</ref> conceptualise history as the search for truth or knowledge, which they see as recoverable through rigorous evaluation and careful interpretation of evidence.<ref name="auto6">{{Harvnb|Jenkins|2003|pp=16–18}}</ref>{{efn|The German historian [[Leopold von Ranke]] was among the most important proponents of this scientific approach in the 19th century.<ref>{{Harvnb|Donnelly|Norton|2012|pp=35–36}}</ref> Key modern scholars taking this view include Sir [[Geoffrey Elton]], [[Arthur Marwick]] and [[E. P. Thompson]].<ref name="auto6"/>}} Other scholars critique this view, emphasising the subjective and partial nature of historical knowledge.{{efn|These critiques rest on arguments including that: it is impossible to recover the totality of the past; as events have already passed, accounts cannot be verified against events but against other accounts; historical writing is mediated and constructed by the historian and the process of narrative construction involves interpretation and selective readings;<ref>{{Harvnb|Jenkins|2003|pp=12–15}}</ref> and evidence itself is necessarily subjective as its content is mediated through its maker and its survival through processes of selection.<ref>{{multiref|{{Harvnb|Carr|1990|pp=16–19}}|{{Harvnb|Donnelly|Norton|2012|pp=112–113}}}}</ref> From this viewpoint, hindsight and modern theorising also allow historians to piece together evidence and put forward interpretations that are only visible after the fact and do so from a biased perspective, meaning that history as the known past is a human creation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jenkins|2003|p=15}}</ref>}} [[Perspectivism|Perspectivists]] claim that historical perspectives are inherently subjective, as they require selecting particular sources and inquiries, and ascertaining what information can be regarded as historical fact. They argue that statements can only be objective within or relative to one of several competing historical perspectives.<ref>{{harvnb|Kragh|1987|pp=56–57}}</ref> A stronger [[Skepticism|scepticist]] or [[Relativism|relativist]] outlook states that no historical knowledge can be proven objective.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Kragh|1987|pp=58–60}}|{{harvnb|Tucker|2008|pp=3–4}}}}</ref>{{efn|Among the proponnents of the more relativist viewpoint was [[E. H. Carr]], whose ''[[What Is History?]]'' (1961) examined how historical and social contexts impact the way historians choose and analyse facts.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|1990|p=160}}</ref>}} This emphasis on subjectivities has been extended by [[postmodernism|postmodernist]] theories that suggest that it is impossible to know the past objectively, adding that meaning is created through human-made texts, the language of which "constitute our world as we perceive it".<ref>{{Harvnb|Donnelly|Norton|2012|p=100}}</ref>{{efn|Some scholars argue that recognising the subjective nature of historical sources has the benefit of opening up new areas of research and new ways of engaging with historical subjects; it also provides new approaches for analysing sources, critiquing dominant narratives, and allowing historians to engage with different concepts.<ref>{{Harvnb|Summerfield|2019|loc=§ Introduction}}</ref>}} Neo-realists have responded to this trend by reemphasising the centrality of empiricist methodologies to historical analysis. They acknowledge the influence of subjective evaluations but contend that historical truth is reachable nonetheless.<ref name="DonnellyNorton104-106">{{Harvnb|Donnelly|Norton|2012|pp=104–106}}</ref>{{efn|Scholars advocating for this view include [[Richard J. Evans]].<ref name="DonnellyNorton104-106"/>}}

===Education===
[[File:Girls at Albany Senior School in Enfield during a lesson on American History, 1943. D13781.jpg|thumb|alt=Black-and-white photo of a highschool classroom of girls looking to the front while their teacher stands behind them and explains|History is a standard school subject in most countries.<ref name="Metzger 2018 2">{{harvnb|Metzger|Harris|2018|p=2}}</ref>]]

History is part of the school [[curriculum]] in most countries.<ref name="Metzger 2018 2"/> Early history education aims to make students interested in the past and familiarize them with fundamental concepts of historical thought. By fostering a basic historical awareness, it seeks to instil a [[Personal identity|sense of identity]] by helping them understand their cultural roots.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hughes|Cox|Godard|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=33guAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4–5, 10–11]}} | {{harvnb|Metzger|Harris|2018|p=3}} | {{harvnb|Levstik|Thornton|2018|pp=476–477}} | {{harvnb|Cooper|1995|pp=3–4}} }}</ref> It often takes a narrative form by presenting children with simple stories, which may focus on historic individuals or the origins of local holidays, festivals, and food.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Levstik|Thornton|2018|p=477}} | {{harvnb|Cooper|1995|pp=110–112}} }}</ref> More advanced history education encountered in [[secondary school]] covers a broader spectrum of topics, ranging from ancient to modern history, at both local and global levels. It further aims to acquaint students with historical research methodologies, including the abilities to interpret and critically evaluate historical claims.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sharp|Dallimore|Bedford|Kerby|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=edxBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA66 66–67, 71]}} | {{harvnb|Hunt|2006|p=49}} | {{harvnb|Phillips|2008|pp=34, 48–50}} }}</ref>

History teachers employ a variety of [[teaching methods]]. They include narrative presentations of historical developments, questions to engage students and prompt [[critical thinking]], and discussions on historical topics. Students work with historical sources directly to learn how to analyse and interpret evidence, both individually and in group activities. They engage in historical writing to develop the skills of articulating their thoughts clearly and persuasively. [[Educational assessment|Assessment]] through oral or written tests aims to ensure that learning goals are reached.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|van Hover|Hicks|2018|pp=407–408}} | {{harvnb|Metzger|Harris|2018|pp=6–7}} | {{harvnb|Hunt|2006|p=36}} | {{harvnb|Grant|2018|pp=422–428}} }}</ref> Traditional methodologies in history education often present numerous facts, like dates of significant events and names of historical figures, which students are expected to memorize. Some modern approaches, by contrast, seek to foster a more active engagement and a deeper interdisciplinary understanding of general patterns, focusing not only on what happened but also on why it happened and its lasting historical significance.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Metzger|Harris|2018|p=6}} | {{harvnb|Cooper|1995|p=2}} | {{harvnb|Liu|Wang|Zhang|Zhu|2024|p=623}}}}</ref>

History education in [[state school]]s serves a variety of purposes. A key skill is historical literacy, the ability to comprehend, critically analyse, and respond to historical claims. By making students aware of significant developments in the past, they can become familiar with various contexts of human life, helping them understand the present and its diverse cultures. At the same time, history education can foster a sense of [[cultural identity]] by connecting students with their heritage, traditions, and practices, for example, by introducing them to iconic elements ranging from national landmarks and monuments to historical figures and traditional festivities.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Metzger|Harris|2018|pp=3, 6–7}} | {{harvnb|Sharp|Dallimore|Bedford|Kerby|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=edxBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 49]}} | {{harvnb|Hunt|2006|pp=6–7}} | {{harvnb|Miguel-Revilla|López-Torres|Ortuño-Molina|Molina-Puche|2024|pp=1–2}}}}</ref> Knowledge of a shared past and cultural heritage can contribute to the formation of a [[national identity]] and prepares students for active [[citizenship]]. This political aspect of history education may spark disputes about which topics school [[textbook]]s should cover. In various regions, it has resulted in so-called ''history wars'' over the curriculum.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sharp|Dallimore|Bedford|Kerby|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=edxBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 49]}} | {{harvnb|Zajda|2015|pp=5–6}} }}</ref> It can lead to a biased treatment of controversial topics in an attempt to present their national heritage in a favourable light.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Girard|Harris|2018|p=258}} | {{harvnb|Schneider|2008|pp=107–108}} }}</ref>{{efn|For example, some [[Japanese history textbook controversies|Japanese high school history textbooks have faced various criticisms]] for downplaying Japan's colonial and wartime activities.<ref>{{harvnb|Schneider|2008|pp=107–108}}</ref>}}

[[File:Tokyo National Museum Toyokan P1145505.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of a museum gallery showcasing a collection of historic artefacts|[[Informal education]] provided by exhibitions of historic artefacts in museums is part of [[public history]].<ref name="auto2">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stoddard|2018|pp=631–632}} | {{harvnb|Clark|Grever|2018|p=181}} }}</ref>]]

In addition to the [[formal education]] provided in public schools, history is also taught in [[Informal education|informal settings]] outside the classroom. [[Public history]] takes place in locations like [[museum]]s and memorial sites, where selected artefacts are often used to tell specific stories.<ref name="auto2"/> It includes [[popular history]], which aims to make the past accessible and appealing to a wide audience of non-specialists in media such as books, television programmes, and online content.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Clark|Grever|2018|pp=181, 184}} | {{harvnb|Korte|Paletschek|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=S6DJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 7–8]}} }}</ref> Informal history education also happens in [[oral tradition]]s as narratives about the past are transmitted across generations.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Leavy|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2Zk6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4]}} | {{harvnb|Abrams|2016|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bluaCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT37 2. The Peculiarities of Oral History]}} }}</ref>

=== Other fields ===
History employs an interdisciplinary [[methodology]], drawing on findings from fields such as [[archaeology]], [[geology]], [[genetics]], [[anthropology]], and [[linguistics]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tuniz|Vipraio|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR5 v]}} | {{harvnb|Kamp|Legêne|Rossum|Rümke|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36]}} | {{harvnb|Manning|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iuv_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} | {{harvnb|Norberg|Deutsch|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_VXGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 15]}} | {{harvnb|Aldenderfer|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA1 1]}} }}</ref>{{efn|They are sometimes grouped under the label ''[[auxiliary sciences of history]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Renier|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xU77CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 111–112]}}</ref>}} Archaeologists study human-made historical artefacts and other forms of [[material culture]]. Their findings provide crucial insights into past human activities and cultural developments.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tuniz|Vipraio|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR5 v, 1, 15]}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=11, 55}} }}</ref> The interpretation of archaeological evidence presents challenges that differ from standard historical work with written documents. At the same time, it offers new possibilities by presenting information that was not recorded, allowing historians to access the past of non-literate societies and marginalized groups within literate societies by studying the remains of their material culture. Before the advent of modern archaeology in the 19th century, [[antiquarianism]] laid the groundwork for this discipline and played a vital role in preserving historical artefacts.<ref>{{harvnb|Gaskell|Carter|2020|pp=1–5}}</ref>

Geology and other [[earth sciences]] help historians understand the environmental contexts and physical processes that affected past societies, including [[climate]] conditions, landscapes, and natural events.<ref>{{harvnb|Manning|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iuv_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2–3]}}</ref> Genetics provides key information about the evolutionary origins of humans as a species, [[human migration]], [[ancestry]], and [[demographic]] changes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tuniz|Vipraio|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4, 10, 13–16]}} | {{harvnb|Relethford|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuSvIa2xNHQC&pg=PA237 237]}} }}</ref> Anthropologists investigate [[human culture]] and behaviour, such as [[social structure]]s, [[belief system]]s, and ritual practices. This knowledge offers contexts for the interpretation of historical events.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tuniz|Vipraio|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR5 v, 1, 11, 19]}} | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=34, 205}} }}</ref> [[Historical linguistics]] studies the development of languages over time, which can be crucial for the interpretation of ancient documents and can also provide information about migration patterns and cultural exchanges.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tosh|2002|pp=90, 186–187}} | {{harvnb|Lewis|2012|loc=§ The Disciplines of Space and Time}} }}</ref> Historians further rely on evidence from various other fields belonging to the [[Physical sciences|physical]], [[Biological sciences|biological]], and [[social sciences]] as well as the [[humanities]].<ref>{{harvnb|Manning|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iuv_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3]}}</ref>

In virtue of its relation to [[ideology]] and national identity, history is closely connected to [[politics]] and historical theories can directly impact political decisions. For example, [[irredentist]] attempts by one state to annex territory of another state often rely on historical theories claiming that the disputed territory belonged to the first state in the past.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Southgate|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PR11 xi, 21]}} | {{harvnb|Arnold|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA121 121]}} | {{harvnb|White|Millett|2019|pp=419–421}} }}</ref> History also plays a central role in so-called ''historical religions'', which base some of their core doctrines on historical events. For instance, [[Christianity]] is often categorized as a historical religion because it is centred around historical events surrounding [[Jesus Christ]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wiles|1978|pp=4–6}} | {{harvnb|Johnson|2024|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CTEeEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT226 § 10. Historiography and History]}} | {{harvnb|Law|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vdZshKnGRCMC&pg=PA1 1]}} }}</ref> History is relevant to many fields through the study of their past, including the [[history of science]], [[history of mathematics|mathematics]], [[history of philosophy|philosophy]], and [[history of art|art]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Porter|Shapin|Schaffer|Young|1988|pp=78–79}} | {{harvnb|Verene|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hkDX-dxMHpoC&pg=PA6 6–8]}} | {{harvnb|Potts|House|Hope|Gretton|1988|pp=96–104}} }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|History}}
* [[Glossary of history]]
* [[Outline of history]]

== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{notelist|30em}}

=== Citations ===
{{reflist|30em}}

===Sources===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Abrams |first1=Lynn |title=Oral History Theory |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-27798-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bluaCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT29 |language=en |date=2016 |edition=2nd}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Ackermann |editor1-first=Marsha E. |editor2-last=Schroeder |editor2-first=Michael J. |editor3-last=Terry |editor3-first=Janice J. |editor4-last=Upshur |editor4-first=Jiu-Hwa Lo |editor5-last=Whitters |editor5-first=Mark F. |title=Encyclopedia of World History 1: The Ancient World, Prehistoric Eras to 600 CE |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-6386-4 |date=2008 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofworldhistory_201912}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ahlskog |first1=Jonas |title=The Primacy of Method in Historical Research: Philosophy of History and the Perspective of Meaning |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-28524-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkYHEAAAQBAJ |language=en |date=2020}}
* {{cite book |last1=Alcock |first1=A. |title=A Short History of Europe: From the Greeks and Romans to the Present Day |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-59742-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5FmHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2002 |doi=10.1057/9780230597426}}
* {{cite book |last1=Aldenderfer |first1=Mark |title=World History Encyclopedia |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-85109-930-6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA1 |language=en |chapter=Era 1: Beginnings of Human Society to 4000 BCE |volume=2 |date=2011 |pages=1–327}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Allchin |first1=Douglas |title=Pseudohistory and Pseudoscience |journal=Science & Education |volume=13 |issue=3 |doi=10.1023/B:SCED.0000025563.35883.e9 |date=2004 |pages=179–195 |bibcode=2004Sc&Ed..13..179A |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/B:SCED.0000025563.35883.e9|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |last1=Andrén |first1=Mats |title=Thinking Europe: A History of the European Idea since 1800 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1-80073-570-5 |language=en |date=2022 |volume=46 |jstor=j.ctv36cj83p |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv36cj83p}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Antonellos |first1=Steven |last2=Rantall |first2=Jayne |title=Indigenous History: A Conversation |journal=Australasian Journal of American Studies |volume=36 |issue=2 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26532936|date=2017 |pages=115–128 |jstor=26532936}}
* {{cite book |last1=Arcodia |first1=Giorgio Francesco |last2=Basciano |first2=Bianca |title=Chinese Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-884783-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h4NSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR15 |language=en |chapter=Periodization of Chinese History |date=2021 |page=xv |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198847830.001.0001}}
* {{cite book |last1=Arnold |first1=John |title=History: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-285352-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-lSsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2000 |doi=10.1093/actrade/9780192853523.001.0001}}
* {{cite book |last1=Asante |first1=Molefi Kete |title=The History of Africa: The Quest for Eternal Harmony |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-003-81615-7 |edition=4 |language=en |date=2024 |doi=10.4324/9781003351306 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781003351306/history-africa-molefi-kete-asante}}
* {{cite book |author1=Association of Academies of Sciences in Asia (AASA)|title=Towards a Sustainable Asia: The Cultural Perspectives |publisher=China Science Publishing & Media and Springer Science+Business Media|isbn=978-7-03-029011-3 |date=2011|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-16669-3|url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-642-16669-3|ref={{harvid|AASA|2011}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Baker |first1=Alan R. H. |title=Geography and History: Bridging the Divide |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-28885-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2003}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bayly |first1=C. A. |editor1-last=Bentley |editor1-first=Michael |title=Companion to Historiography |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-97023-0 |language=en |chapter=Modern Indian Historiography |date=2006 |pages=663–677 |doi=10.4324/9780203991459}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bentley |first1=Michael |editor1-last=Bentley |editor1-first=Michael |title=Companion to Historiography |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-97023-0 |language=en |chapter=General Introduction: The Project of Historiography |date=2006 |doi=10.4324/9780203991459 |pages=xi–xvi}}
* {{cite book |last1=Berkhofer |first1=R. |title=Fashioning History: Current Practices and Principles |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-61720-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1uvGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2008 |doi=10.1057/9780230617209}}
* {{cite book |last1=Berkhofer |first1=Robert F. |title=Forgeries and Historical Writing in England, France, and Flanders, 900–1200 |publisher=Boydell Press |isbn=978-1-78327-691-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bNnpEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 |language=en |date=2022 |jstor=j.ctv24tr8rg |doi=10.2307/j.ctv24tr8rg}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bhat |first1=P. Ishwara |title=Idea and Methods of Legal Research |publisher=Oxford University Press India |isbn=978-0-19-909830-9 |language=en |date=2019 |chapter=Historical Legal Research |pages=198–229 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780199493098.003.0007}}
* {{cite book |last1=Birke |first1=Dorothee |last2=Butter |first2=Michael |last3=Köppe |first3=Tilmann |title=Counterfactual Thinking - Counterfactual Writing |publisher=de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-026866-9 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VcgLgAedZ-IC&pg=PA7 |language=en |chapter=Introduction |date=2011 |doi=10.1515/9783110268669 |pages=1–11}}
* {{cite book |last1=Black |first1=Jeremy |title=A History of Europe: From Pre-History to the 21st Century |publisher=Arcturus Publishing |isbn=978-1-3988-0986-4 |language=en |date=2021 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iKgjEAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bod |first1=Rens |title=A New History of the Humanities: The Search for Principles and Patterns from Antiquity to the Present |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-966521-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KaOcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA260 |language=en |date=2013}}
* {{cite book |last1=Breisach |first1=Ernst |editor1-last=Jones |editor1-first=Lindsay |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |publisher=Macmillan Reference |isbn=978-0-02-865981-7 |edition=2nd |chapter-url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/historiography-overview |chapter=Historiography: An Overview |date=2005 |pages=4024–4035}}
* {{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Alexander |last2=Sinclair |first2=Adriana |title=Hate Speech Frontiers: Exploring the Limits of the Ordinary and Legal Concepts |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-35714-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCDgEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA418 |language=en |date=2024 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Buchanan |first1=Ian |title=A Dictionary of Critical Theory |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953291-9 |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110810105729649 |language=en |chapter=Revisionism |date=2010}}
* {{cite web |last1=Buchanan |first1=Robert Angus |title=History of Technology |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/history-of-technology |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=25 November 2024 |language=en |date=2024}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqOCwAAQBAJ |title=The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History |first1=Richard |last1=Bulliet |author-link=Richard Bulliet |first2=Pamela |last2=Crossley |author2-link=Pamela Kyle Crossley |first3=Daniel |last3=Headrick |author3-link=Daniel R. Headrick |first4=Steven |last4=Hirsch |first5=Lyman |last5=Johnson |last6=Northrup |first6=David |year=2015 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-285-44567-0 |edition=6th |volume=1 |access-date=25 August 2022 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429050129/https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqOCwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} <!-- another school textbook that might be worth looking for a new source for -->
* {{cite book |last1=Burke |first1=Peter |title=What Is Cultural History? |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-5095-2224-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hKukDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT8 |language=en |date=2019 |edition=3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Carr |first1=Edward Hallett |author-link=E. H. Carr |title=What Is History? |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-013584-8 |edition=2 |orig-date=1961 |date=1990 |url=https://archive.org/details/EdwardHallettCarrWhatIsHistoryPenguinBooks1990}}
* {{cite book |last1=Carr |first1=David |editor1-last=Borchert |editor1-first=Donald M. |title=Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott – Presupposition |chapter=Philosophy of History |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference |isbn=978-0-02-865787-5 |edition=2 |chapter-url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/philosophy-history |pages=386–399}}
* {{cite book |last1=Cheng |first1=Eileen Ka-May |title=Historiography: An Introductory Guide |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-1-4411-7767-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Jot-bWsBS0C&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2012}}
* {{cite book |last1=Christian |first1=David |title=This Fleeting World: A Short History of Humanity |publisher=Berkshire Publishing |isbn=978-1-933782-04-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BYLrRXaZrAkC&pg=PA102 |language=en |date=2008}}
* {{cite book |last1=Christian |first1=David |editor1-last=Christian |editor1-first=David |title=The Cambridge World History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-76333-2 |chapter=Introduction and Overview |date=2015 |volume=1 |pages=1–38 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139194662 |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-world-history/F3021D314888B26D40EF701D7F060799}}
* {{cite book |last1=Clark |first1=Anna |last2=Grever |first2=Maria |editor1-last=Metzger |editor1-first=Scott Alan |editor2-last=Harris |editor2-first=Lauren McArthur |title=The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-10081-2 |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch7 |language=en |chapter=Historical Consciousness |date=2018 |doi=10.1002/9781119100812.ch7 |pages=177–201}}
* {{cite book |last1=Coleman |first1=D. C. |last2=Floud |first2=Roderick |last3=Barker |first3=T. C. |last4=Daunton |first4=M. J. |last5=Crafts |first5=N. F. R. |title=What Is History Today ... ? |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |isbn=978-1-349-19161-1 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_4 |language=en |chapter=What Is Economic History ... ? |date=1988 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_4 |pages=31–41 |editor-last1=Gardiner |editor-first1=Juliet}}
* {{cite book |last1=Collingwood |first1=R. G. |title=Essays in the Philosophy of History |publisher=University of Texas Press |oclc=17517213 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/essaysinphilosop0000unse_l9z1/page/n9/mode/2up |language=en |chapter=The Nature and Aims of a Philosophy of History |date=1967 |author-link=R. G. Collingwood |pages=34–56}}
* {{cite book |last1=Collingwood |first1=R. G. |title=The Idea of History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-285306-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pTucAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |language=en |date=1993 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Collini |first1=Stefan |last2=Skinner |first2=Quentin |last3=Hollinger |first3=David A. |last4=Pocock |first4=J. G. A. |last5=Hunter |first5=Michael |title=What Is History Today ... ? |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |isbn=978-1-349-19161-1 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_10 |language=en |chapter=What Is Intellectual History ... ? |date=1988 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_10 |pages=105–119 |editor-last1=Gardiner |editor-first1=Juliet}}
* {{cite book |ref={{harvid|HarperCollins|2003}}|title=Collins Latin Concise Dictionary |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-06-053690-9 |language=en |date=2003}}
* {{cite book |last1=Collinson |first1=Patrick |last2=Brooke |first2=Christopher |last3=Norman |first3=Edward |last4=Lake |first4=Peter |last5=Hempton |first5=David |title=What Is History Today ... ? |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |isbn=978-1-349-19161-1 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_6 |language=en |chapter=What Is Religious History ... ? |date=1988 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_6 |pages=58–68 |editor-last1=Gardiner |editor-first1=Juliet}}
* {{cite book |last1=Comber |first1=Michael |editor1-last=Bentley |editor1-first=Michael |title=Companion to Historiography |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-97023-0 |language=en |chapter=Re-reading the Roman Historians |date=2006 |pages=38–52}}
* {{cite book |last1=Cooper |first1=Hilary |title=History in the Early Years |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-10100-4 |language=en |date=1995}}
* {{cite book |last1=Cotterell |first1=Arthur |title=Asia: A Concise History |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-82959-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vVTWXK5kQC&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2011}}
* {{cite book |last1=Cresswell |first1=Julia |title=Oxford Dictionary of Word Origins |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-886875-0 |edition=3rd |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198868750.001.0001/acref-9780198868750 |date=2021}}
* {{cite book |last1=d'Arcy |first1=Paul |editor1-last=Bentley |editor1-first=Jerry H. |title=Oxford Handbook of World History |publisher=Oxford University Press |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34513/chapter-abstract/292859287 |language=en |chapter=Oceania and Australasia |date=2012 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199235810.013.0031 |isbn=978-0-19-923581-0 |pages=546–563}}
* {{cite book |last1=Darby |first1=Henry Clifford |title=The Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States |publisher=University of Exeter Press |isbn=978-0-85989-699-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&pg=PA14 |language=en |date=2002}}
* {{cite book |last1=Davies |first1=R. W. |chapter="From E. H. Carr's Files: Notes towards a Second Edition of ''What Is History?'' |editor-first1=Edward Hallett |editor-last1=Carr |editor-first2=R. W. |editor-last2=Davies |title=What Is History? |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-013584-8 |edition=2 |orig-date=1961 |date=1990 |pages=157–184}}
* {{cite book |last1=De Armond |first1=Thea |editor1-last=Moshenska |editor1-first=Gabriel |editor2-last=Lewis |editor2-first=Clare |title=Life-writing in the History of Archaeology: Critical Perspectives |publisher=UCL Press |isbn=978-1-80008-450-6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r0nCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 |language=en |chapter=Toward a Prosopography of Archaeology form the Margins |date=2023 |pages=73–90}}
* {{cite book |last1=Devries |first1=Kelly |editor1-last=Bradford |editor1-first=James C. |title=International Encyclopedia of Military History |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-95033-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xq_lCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT594 |language=en |chapter=Catapult |date=2004 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Diamond |first1=Jared |title=Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-06922-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PWnWRFEGoeUC&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=1999}}
* {{cite book |last1=Donnelly |first1=Mark |last2=Norton |first2=Claire |title=Doing History |year=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-65694-1}}
* {{cite book |author1=Dorling Kindersley |title=Timelines of Everything: From Woolly Mammoths to World Wars |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |isbn=978-0-241-42807-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8rqpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94 |language=en |date=2018}}
* {{cite book |last1=Dray |first1=William |title=On History and Philosophers of History |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-45157-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4NEVEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 |language=en |date=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Richard J. |title=In Defence of History |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-04687-8 |date=1999}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Evans |first1=Richard J. |title=The Two Faces of E. H. Carr |journal=History in Focus |issue=2 |url=https://archives.history.ac.uk/history-in-focus/Whatishistory/evans10.html |publisher=University of London – Institute of Historical Research |date=2001}}
* {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Richard J. |editor1-last=Cannadine |editor1-first=D. |title=What Is History Now? |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-20452-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-zMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |language=en |chapter=Prologue: What Is History? – Now |date=2002 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1057/9780230204522_1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fagan |first1=Brian M. |last2=Durrani |first2=Nadia |title=World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-77280-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dB24DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT54 |language=en |date=2019 |edition=10th}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fasolt |first1=Constantin |title=The Limits of History |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-11564-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4RdTAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR19 |language=en |date=2013 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Fazal |first1=Tanweer |title='Documents of Power': Historical Method and the Study of Politics |journal=Studies in Indian Politics |volume=11 |issue=1 |doi=10.1177/23210230231166179 |date=2023 |pages=140–149}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fernández-Armesto |first1=Felipe |title=The Americas: A Hemispheric History |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-1-58836-302-2 |date=2003}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Michael H. |title=Migration: A World History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-976434-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ytx1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 |language=en |date=2014}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fronza |first1=Emanuela |title=Memory and Punishment: Historical Denialism, Free Speech and the Limits of Criminal Law |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-6265-234-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWBODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |language=en |date=2018}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gardiner |first1=Juliet |title=What Is History Today ... ? |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |isbn=978-1-349-19161-1 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_1 |language=en |chapter=Introduction |date=1988 |pages=1–3 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_1 |editor-last1=Gardiner |editor-first1=Juliet}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gaskell |first1=Ivan |last2=Carter |first2=Sarah Anne |editor1-last=Gaskell |editor1-first=Ivan |editor2-last=Carter |editor2-first=Sarah Anne |title=The Oxford Handbook of History and Material Culture |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-934176-4 |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28036/chapter/211920648 |chapter=Introduction: Why History and Material Culture? |date=2020 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199341764.002.0008|doi-broken-date=1 July 2025 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gil |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Marsen |first2=Sky |title=Exploring Language in Global Contexts |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-59387-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9RRoEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT24 |language=en |date=2022}}
* {{cite book |last1=Girard |first1=Brian |last2=Harris |first2=Lauren McArthur |editor1-last=Metzger |editor1-first=Scott Alan |editor2-last=Harris |editor2-first=Lauren McArthur |title=The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-10081-2 |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch10 |language=en |chapter=Global and World History Education |date=2018 |doi=10.1002/9781119100812.ch10 |pages=253–279}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Glassberg |first1=David |title=Public History and the Study of Memory |journal=The Public Historian |volume=18 |issue=2 |doi=10.2307/3377910 |date=1996 |pages=7–23 |jstor=3377910}}
* {{cite book |last1=Grant |first1=S. G. |editor1-last=Metzger |editor1-first=Scott Alan |editor2-last=Harris |editor2-first=Lauren McArthur |title=The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-10081-2 |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch16 |language=en |chapter=Teaching Practices in History Education |date=2018 |doi=10.1002/9781119100812.ch16 |pages=419–448}}
* {{cite book |last1=Groot |first1=Jerome de |title=Consuming History: Historians and Heritage in Contemporary Popular Culture |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-27796-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ayt-CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA173 |language=en |date=2016 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Haviland |first1=Beverly |title=Henry James' Last Romance: Making Sense of the Past and the American Scene |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56338-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=khYVsKMvQZIC&pg=PA6 |language=en |date=1997}}
* {{cite book |last1=Headrick |first1=Daniel R. |title=Technology: A World History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-971366-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qG2tPzkN6HUC&pg=PA6 |language=en |date=2009}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hedrick |first1=Charles W. |title=History and Silence: Purge and Rehabilitation of Memory in Late Antiquity |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=0-292-73121-3 |language=en |date=2000 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Heller |first1=Agnes |title=A Theory of History |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-26882-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TFf7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT190 |language=en |date=2016}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hesketh |first1=Ian |title=A History of Big History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-04156-0 |language=en |date=2023}}
* {{cite web |ref={{harvid|HarperCollins|2022}}|title=History |date=2022 |url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=history&submit.x=58&submit.y=14 |website=American Heritage Dictionary |publisher=HarperCollins |access-date=8 December 2024}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hoad |first1=T. F. |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-283098-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Howard |first1=Michael |last2=Bond |first2=Brian |last3=Stagg |first3=J. C. A. |last4=Chandler |first4=David |last5=Best |first5=Geoffrey |last6=Terrine |first6=John |title=What Is History Today ... ? |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |isbn=978-1-349-19161-1 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_2 |language=en |chapter=What Is Military History ... ? |date=1988 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_2 |pages=4–17 |editor-last1=Gardiner |editor-first1=Juliet}}
* {{cite book |last1=Howell |first1=Martha C. |last2=Prevenier |first2=Walter |title=From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-8560-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSqgwOZPjJ4C&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2001}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hsu |first1=Cho-yun |editor1-last=Stearns |editor1-first=Peter N. |title=Encyclopedia of Social History |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-58347-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EJeNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 |language=en |chapter=Chinese Periodization |date=1993 |pages=161–163}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hughes |first1=J. Donald |title=What Is Environmental History? |publisher=Polity |isbn=978-0-7456-8844-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-WZNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2016}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hughes |first1=Pat |last2=Cox |first2=Kath |last3=Godard |first3=Gillian |title=Primary History Curriculum Guide |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-12742-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=33guAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2013}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hunt |first1=Martin |editor-first1=Martin |editor-last1=Hunt |title=A Practical Guide to Teaching History in the Secondary School |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-19967-9 |language=en |chapter=Why Learn History? |date=2006 |doi=10.4324/9780203029831 |pages=3–14}}
* {{cite book |last1=Iliffe |first1=John |title=Africans: The History of a Continent |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-86438-1 |edition=2 |date=2007}}
* {{cite book |last1=Jackson |first1=Ian |last2=Xidias |first2=Jason |title=An Analysis of Francis Fukuyama's The End of History and the Last Man |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-35127-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEkrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 |language=en |date=2017}}
* {{cite book |last1=Jenkins |first1=Keith |title=On 'What Is History?': From Carr and Elton to Rorty and White |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-09725-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mW_rXrXGXa8C&pg=PA53 |language=en |date=1995}}
* {{cite book |last1=Jenkins |first1=Keith |title=Rethinking History |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-40827-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nCyJ26nIuRgC&pg=PA44 |language=en |date=2003 |edition=3}}
* {{cite web |last1=Jensen |first1=Anthony K. |title=History, Philosophy of |url=https://iep.utm.edu/history/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=30 November 2024}}
* {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Peter |title=R. G. Collingwood and Christianity: Faith, Philosophy and Politics |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-350-46543-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CTEeEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT226 |language=en |date=2024}}
* {{cite book |last1=Jordanova |first1=Ludmilla |title=History in Practice |publisher=Arnold Publishers |isbn=978-0-340-66331-8 |language=en |date=2000}}
* {{cite book |last1=Joseph |first1=Brian |last2=Janda |first2=Richard |editor-last1=Joseph |editor-first1=Brian |editor-last2=Janda |editor-first2=Richard |title=The Handbook of Historical Linguistics |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75633-1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8F_O12CS9L8C&pg=PA163 |language=en |date=2008 |chapter=On Language, Change, and Language Change - Or, Of History, Linguistics, and Historical Linguistics |pages=3–180 |doi=10.1002/9780470756393.ch}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kamp |first1=Jeannette |last2=Legêne |first2=Susan |last3=Rossum |first3=Matthias van |last4=Rümke |first4=Sebas |title=Writing History!: A Companion for Historians |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-485-3762-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vt_IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2020}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kipfer |first1=Barbara Ann |title=Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-306-46158-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XneTstDbcC0C&pg=PA457 |language=en |date=2000}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kleingeld |first1=Pauline |title=Toward Perpetual Peace and Other Writings on Politics, Peace, and History |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-11794-3 |language=en |date=2006 |chapter=Editor's Introduction |pages=xv–xxiv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Korte |first1=Barbara |last2=Paletschek |first2=Sylvia |editor1-last=Korte |editor1-first=Barbara |editor2-last=Paletschek |editor2-first=Sylvia |title=Popular History Now and Then: International Perspectives |publisher=transcript Verlag |isbn=978-3-8394-2007-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S6DJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 |language=en |chapter=Introduction |date=2014 |pages=7–12}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kragh |first1=Helge |title=An Introduction to the Historiography of Science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-38921-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OX7d7u_2rF4C&pg=PA41 |language=en |date=1987}}
* {{cite book |last1=Law |first1=David R. |title=The Historical-Critical Method: A Guide for the Perplexed |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-567-40012-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vdZshKnGRCMC&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2012}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lawson |first1=Stephanie |title=Regional Politics in Oceania: From Colonialism and Cold War to the Pacific Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-42758-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T6j4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2024}}
* {{cite book |last1=Leavy |first1=Patricia |title=Oral History: Understanding Qualitative Research |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-539509-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Zk6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |date=2011}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lefkowitz |first1=Mary |author-link=Mary Lefkowitz |editor1-last=Tucker |editor1-first=Aviezer |title=A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-0491-6 |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444304916.ch31 |language=en |chapter=Historiography and Myth |date=2008 |pages=353–361 |doi=10.1002/9781444304916.ch31}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lemon |first1=Michael C. |title=The Discipline of History and the History of Thought |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-12346-4 |date=1995}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lemon |first1=M. C. |title=Philosophy of History: A Guide for Students |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-71746-0 |language=en |date=2003}}
* {{cite book |last1=Levstik |first1=Linda S. |last2=Thornton |first2=Stephen J. |editor1-last=Metzger |editor1-first=Scott Alan |editor2-last=Harris |editor2-first=Lauren McArthur |title=The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-10081-2 |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch18 |language=en |chapter=Reconceptualizing History for Early Childhood Through Early Adolescence |date=2018 |doi=10.1002/9781119100812.ch18 |pages=473–501}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Martin W. |editor1-last=Bentley |editor1-first=Jerry H. |title=Geographies |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-923581-0 |language=en |date=2012}}
* {{cite web |last1=Little |first1=Daniel |title=Philosophy of History |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/history/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 November 2024 |date=2020}}
* {{cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Fangfang |last2=Wang |first2=Yiyun |last3=Zhang |first3=Zeyu |last4=Zhu |first4=Linkai |last5=Li |first5=Guang |editor-last1=Feng |editor-first1=Yongjun |editor-last2=Bhattacharjya |editor-first2=Aniruddha |editor-last3=Diao |editor-first3=Junfeng |editor-last4=Ghlamallah |editor-first4=Nahed Rajaa |title=Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Internet, Education and Information Technology (IEIT 2024) |publisher=Springer |doi=10.2991/978-94-6463-574-4_71 |isbn=978-94-6463-574-4 |date=2024 |pages=622–628 |chapter=Interdisciplinary Curriculum Design and Quasi-Experimental AI-Study of Junior High School History from the Perspective of Core Competencies}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lloyd |first1=Christopher |editor-last1=Tucker |editor-first1=Aviezer |title=A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-5152-1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FeVdNxyFiKsC&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2011 |chapter=Historiographic Schools |pages=371–380 |doi=10.1002/9781444304916.ch33}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lo |first1=Yuet Keung |editor1-last=Woolf |editor1-first=D.R. |title=A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing: K-Z |publisher=Garland Publishing |isbn=978-0-8153-1514-8 |language=en |chapter=Sima Qian [Ssu-ma Ch'ien] (145–85 BC) |date=1998 |volume=2 |page=835}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lucas |first1=Gavin |title=The Archaeology of Time |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-38427-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T-bmSSHFA9oC&pg=PA50 |language=en |date=2004}}
* {{cite book |last1=Manning |first1=Patrick |title=Methods for Human History: Studying Social, Cultural, and Biological Evolution |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-53882-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iuv_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2020}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mason |first1=Colin |title=A Short History of Asia |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4039-3611-0 |edition=2 |date=2005}}
* {{cite book |last1=Metzger |first1=Scott Alan |last2=Harris |first2=Lauren McArthur |editor1-last=Metzger |editor1-first=Scott Alan |editor2-last=Harris |editor2-first=Lauren McArthur |title=The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-10081-2 |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch0 |language=en |chapter=Introduction |date=2018 |doi=10.1002/9781119100812.ch0 |pages=1–10}}
* {{Cite book |last=Michelet |first=Jules |chapter=Préface de 1869 |pages=i-xxxviii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CkJAAAAQAAJ |title=Histoire de France |date=1871 |publisher=Librairie Internationale |language=fr |volume=1}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Miguel-Revilla |first1=Diego |last2=López-Torres |first2=Esther |last3=Ortuño-Molina |first3=Jorge |last4=Molina-Puche |first4=Sebastián |title=Cultural Heritage and Iconic Elements for History Education: A Study with Primary Education Prospective Teachers in Spain |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |volume=11 |issue=1 |doi=10.1057/s41599-024-04123-w |date=2024 |article-number=1590 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=Bruce Granville |title=Oral History on Trial: Recognizing Aboriginal Narratives in the Courts |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-2073-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SjOvU2iJ6JwC&pg=PA157 |language=en |date=2024}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mittag |first1=Achim |editor1-last=Rabasa |editor1-first=José |editor2-last=Sato |editor2-first=Masayuki |editor3-last=Tortarolo |editor3-first=Edoardo |editor4-last=Woolf |editor4-first=Daniel |title=The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-162944-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jMMBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 |language=en |chapter=Chinese Official Historical Writing under the Ming and Qing |date=2012 |pages=24–42 |doi=10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199219179.003.0002}}
* {{cite book |last1=Moloughney |first1=Brian |last2=Zarrow |first2=Peter |editor1-last=Moloughney |editor1-first=Brian |editor2-last=Zarrow |editor2-first=Peter |title=Transforming History: The Making of a Modern Academic Discipline in Twentieth-Century China |publisher=The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press |isbn=978-962-996-479-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cs89EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |language=en |chapter=Making History Modern: The Transformation of Chinese Historiography, 1895–1937 |date=2012 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=R. I. |editor1-last=Bentley |editor1-first=Michael |title=Companion to Historiography |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-97023-0 |language=en |chapter=World History |date=2006 |pages=918–936}}
* {{cite book |last1=Morgan |first1=David |editor1-last=Bentley |editor1-first=Michael |title=Companion to Historiography |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-97023-0 |language=en |chapter=The Evolution of Two Asian Historiographical Traditions |date=2006 |pages=9–19}}
* {{cite book |last1=Morillo |first1=Stephen |title=What Is Military History? |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-5095-1764-0 |language=en |date=2017}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Munslow |first1=Alun |title=What History Is |journal=History in Focus |issue=2 |url=https://archives.history.ac.uk/history-in-focus/Whatishistory/munslow6.html |publisher=University of London – Institute of Historical Research |date=2001}}
* {{cite book |last1=Murphey |first1=Rhoads |last2=Stapleton |first2=Kristin |title=A History of Asia |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-23189-3 |language=en |date=2019}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ng |first1=On-cho |editor1-last=Rabasa |editor1-first=José |editor2-last=Sato |editor2-first=Masayuki |editor3-last=Tortarolo |editor3-first=Edoardo |editor4-last=Woolf |editor4-first=Daniel |title=The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-162944-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jMMBAwAAQBAJ |language=en |chapter=Private Historiography in Late Imperial China |date=2012 |pages=60–79 |doi=10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199219179.003.0004}}
* {{cite book |last1=Norberg |first1=Matilda Baraibar |last2=Deutsch |first2=Lisa |title=The Soybean Through World History: Lessons for Sustainable Agrofood Systems |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-90347-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_VXGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 |language=en |date=2023}}
* {{cite book |last1=Northrup |first1=David R. |editor1-last=Christian |editor1-first=David |title=The Cambridge World History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-76333-2 |chapter=From Divergence to Convergence: Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces in History |date=2015 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139194662 |pages=110–131 |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-world-history/F3021D314888B26D40EF701D7F060799}}
* {{cite book |last1=O'Hara |first1=Phillip Anthony |editor1-last=Sinha |editor1-first=Ajit |editor2-last=Thomas |editor2-first=Alex M. |title=Pluralistic Economics and Its History |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-00183-9 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=We7QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA176 |language=en |chapter=History of Institutional Economics |date=2019 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.4324/9780429278860-12}}
* {{cite book |last1=Oberg |first1=Barbara B. |title=Women in the American Revolution: Gender, Politics, and the Domestic World |publisher=University of Virginia Press |isbn=978-0-8139-4260-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aHpzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT17 |language=en |date=2019}}
* {{cite web |author1=OED Staff |title=History, n. |website=Oxford English Dictionary Online |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/OED/9602520444 |date=2024 |url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/history_n}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Parrott |first1=Linda J. |last2=Hake |first2=Don F. |title=Toward a Science of History |journal=The Behavior Analyst |volume=6 |issue=2 |doi=10.1007/BF03392391 |date=1983 |pages=121–132 |pmid=22478582 |pmc=2741978}}
* {{cite book |last1=Paul |first1=Herman |title=Key Issues in Historical Theory |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-80272-8 |date=2015}}
* {{cite book |last1=Phillips |first1=Ian |title=Teaching History: Developing as a Reflective Secondary Teacher |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-4462-4538-5 |language=en |date=2008}}
* {{cite book |last1=Porter |first1=Roy |last2=Shapin |first2=Steven |last3=Schaffer |first3=Simon |last4=Young |first4=Robert M. |last5=Cooter |first5=Roger |last6=Crosland |first6=Maurice |title=What Is History Today ... ? |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |isbn=978-1-349-19161-1 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_7 |language=en |chapter=What Is the History of Science ... ? |date=1988 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_7 |pages=69–81 |editor-last1=Gardiner |editor-first1=Juliet}}
* {{cite book |author1-link=Alexander Potts |last1=Potts |first1=Alex |last2=House |first2=John |last3=Hope |first3=Charles |last4=Gretton |first4=Tom |title=What Is History Today ... ? |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |isbn=978-1-349-19161-1 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_9 |language=en |chapter=What Is the History of Art ... ? |date=1988 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_9 |pages=96–104 |editor-last1=Gardiner |editor-first1=Juliet}}
* {{cite book |last1=Pozdnyakova |first1=Ulyana A. |last2=Golikov |first2=Vyacheslav V. |last3=Peters |first3=Irina A. |last4=Morozova |first4=Irina A. |editor1-last=Popkova |editor1-first=Elena G. |editor2-last=Ragulina |editor2-first=Yulia V. |editor3-last=Bogoviz |editor3-first=Aleksei V. |title=Industry 4.0: Industrial Revolution of the 21st Century |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-94310-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_xlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 |language=en |chapter=Genesis of the Revolutionary Transition to Industry 4.0 in the 21st Century and Overview of Previous Industrial Revolutions |date=2018 |pages=11–20}}
* {{cite book |last1=Quinn |first1=Sholeh A. |title=Persian Historiography across Empires: The Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-90170-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GhIMEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2020}}
* {{cite book |last1=Raab |first1=Josef |last2=Rinke |first2=Stefan |editor1-last=Kaltmeier |editor1-first=Olaf |editor2-last=Raab |editor2-first=Josef |editor3-last=Foley |editor3-first=Mike |editor4-last=Nash |editor4-first=Alice |editor5-last=Rinke |editor5-first=Stefan |editor6-last=Rufer |editor6-first=Mario |title=The Routledge Handbook to the History and Society of the Americas |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-13869-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQuWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 |language=en |chapter=Introduction: history and society in the Americas from the 16th to the 19th century. The bigger picture |date=2019 |pages=15–33}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ramsay |first1=John G. |chapter=Education, History of |editor-last1=Provenzo |editor-first1=Eugene F. |title=Encyclopedia of the Social and Cultural Foundations of Education |date=2008 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-4522-6597-1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bv9yAwAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=3 May 2023 |pages=283–288}}
* {{cite book |last1=Rana |first1=Pradumna B. |editor1-last=Rana |editor1-first=Pradumna B. |title=Renaissance Of Asia: Evolving Economic Relations Between South Asia And East Asia |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-981-4458-19-1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ67CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |language=en |chapter=Regional Economic Integration in Asia: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives |date=2012 |pages=13–50 |doi=10.1142/9789814366519_0002}}
* {{cite book |last1=Relethford |first1=John H. |title=Human Population Genetics |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-46467-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AuSvIa2xNHQC&pg=PA237 |language=en |date=2012}}
* {{cite book |last1=Renfrew |first1=Colin |author-link=Colin Renfrew |title=Prehistory: The Making of the Human Mind |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-1-58836-808-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4CooTRuA3kAC&pg=PA172 |language=en |date=2008}}
* {{cite book |last1=Renier |first1=G. J. |title=History: Its Purpose and Method |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-24117-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xU77CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 |language=en |date=2016 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ritter |first1=Harry |title=Dictionary of Concepts in History |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0-313-22700-4 |date=1986}}
* {{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=J. |title=The Penguin History of Europe |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-192509-7 |language=en |date=1997}}
* {{cite book |last1=Samuel |first1=Raphael |last2=Breuilly |first2=John |last3=Clark |first3=J. C. D. |last4=Hopkins |first4=Keith |last5=Cannadine |first5=David |title=What Is History Today ... ? |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |isbn=978-1-349-19161-1 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_5 |language=en |chapter=What Is Social History ... ? |date=1988 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_5 |pages=42–57 |editor-last1=Gardiner |editor-first1=Juliet}}
* {{cite book |last1=Santinello |first1=Giovanni |last2=Piaia |first2=Gregorio |title=Models of the History of Philosophy: Volume II: From Cartesian Age to Brucker |date=1 December 2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-90-481-9507-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gC2J3V7_TPUC |language=en |access-date=25 May 2023}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Schneider |first1=Claudia |title=The Japanese History Textbook Controversy in East Asian Perspective |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=617 |issue=1 |doi=10.1177/0002716208314359 |date=2008 |pages=107–122}}
* {{cite book |last1=Shankman |first1=Steven |last2=Durrant |first2=Stephen |title=The Siren and the Sage: Knowledge and Wisdom in Ancient Greece and China |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-7252-0845-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oTn7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 |language=en |date=2003 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sharp |first1=Heather |last2=Dallimore |first2=Jonathon |last3=Bedford |first3=Alison |last4=Kerby |first4=Martin |last5=Goulding |first5=James |last6=Güttner |first6=Darius von |last7=Heath |first7=Treesa Clare |last8=Zarmati |first8=Louise |title=Teaching Secondary History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-96998-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=edxBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 |language=en |date=2021}}
* {{cite book |last1=Shillington |first1=Kevin |title=History of Africa |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-137-52481-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rxtHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |language=en |date=2018}}
* {{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Upinder |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1677-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA18 |language=en |date=2008 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Sitton |first1=Thad |last2=Mehaffy |first2=George L. |last3=Davis |first3=O. L. |title=Oral History: A Guide for Teachers (and Others) |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0-292-78582-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xcwc7iAa1vkC&pg=PA4 |language=en |date=2011}}
* {{cite book |last1=Southgate |first1=Beverley C. |title=What Is History For? |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-35098-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXrMbXUsQ8C&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2005}}
* {{cite book |last1=Stanford |first1=Michael |title=An Introduction to the Philosophy of History |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-631-19941-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PijhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=1998}}
* {{cite book |last1=Stanton |first1=Cathy |editor1-last=Gardner |editor1-first=James B. |editor2-last=Hamilton |editor2-first=Paula |title=The Oxford Handbook of Public History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-067378-9 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tV41DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA224 |language=en |chapter=Between Pastness and Presentism: Public History and Local Food Activism |date=2017 |pages=217–238 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199766024.013.12}}
* {{cite book |last1=Stearns |first1=Peter N. |title=The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |isbn=978-0-395-65237-4 |language=en |date=2001}}
* {{cite book |last1=Stearns |first1=Peter N. |title=World History: The Basics |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-88817-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LMMtCgAAQBAJ |language=en |date=2010}}
* {{cite web |last1=Stearns |first1=Peter N. |title=Social History |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199756384/obo-9780199756384-0131.xml |website=Oxford Bibliographies |access-date=24 November 2024 |language=en |doi=10.1093/obo/9780199756384-0131 |date=2021 |isbn=978-0-19-975638-4}}
* {{cite book |last1=Stevenson |first1=Angus |title=Oxford Dictionary of English |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-957112-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=anecAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA831 |language=en |date=2010}}
* {{cite book |last1=Stoddard |first1=Jeremy D. |editor1-last=Metzger |editor1-first=Scott Alan |editor2-last=Harris |editor2-first=Lauren McArthur |title=The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-10081-2 |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch24 |language=en |chapter=Learning History Beyond School |date=2018 |doi=10.1002/9781119100812.ch24 |pages=631–656}}
* {{cite book |last1=Storey |first1=William Kelleher |title=Writing History: A Guide for Students |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-983004-6 |edition=4 |date=2013}}
* {{cite book |last=Summerfield |first=Penny |title=Histories of the Self: Personal Narratives and Historical Practice |publisher=Routledge |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-429-94529-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Thomson |first1=Alistair |editor1-last=Ritchie |editor1-first=Donald A. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Oral History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-999636-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BnEnAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 |language=en |chapter=Memory and Remembering in Oral History |date=2012 |pages=77–95 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195339550.001.0001}}
* {{cite book |last1=Topolski |first1=Y. |title=Methodology of History |publisher=D. Reidel Publishing Company |isbn=978-94-010-1123-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMZ9CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA432 |language=en |date=2012}}
* {{cite book |last1=Tosh |first1=John |title=The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods and New Directions in the Study of Modern History |publisher=Pearson Education |isbn=978-0-582-77254-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bM1mAAAAMAAJ |language=en |date=2002}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Trevelyan |first1=G. M. |title=Bias in History |journal=History |volume=32 |issue=115 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-229X.1947.tb00181.x |date=1947 |pages=1–15}}
*{{cite book |first1=Aviezer |last1=Tucker |title=Past in the Making: Historical Revisionism in Central Europe After 1989 |editor-first=Michal |editor-last=Kopeček |publisher=[[Central European University Press]] |date=2008 |isbn=978-6-155-21142-3 |doi=10.1515/9786155211423 |chapter=Historiographic Revision and Revisionism |pages=1–16}}
* {{cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Aviezer |editor-last1=Tucker |editor-first1=Aviezer |title=A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-5152-1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FeVdNxyFiKsC&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2011 |chapter=Introduction |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1002/9781444304916.ch1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Tuniz |first1=Claudio |last2=Vipraio |first2=Patrizia Tiberi |title=Humans: An Unauthorized Biography |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-31021-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1BDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2016 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-31021-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Välimäki |first1=Reima |last2=Aali |first2=Heta |editor1-last=Fugelso |editor1-first=Karl |title=Politics and Medievalism |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=978-1-84384-625-3 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3kmHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 |language=en |chapter=The Ancient Finnish Kings and their Swedish Archenemy: Nationalism, Conspiracy Theories, and Alt-Right Memes in Finnish Online Medievalism |volume=3 |date=2020 |pages=55–78 |jstor=j.ctv24cns6q}}
* {{cite book |last1=van Hover |first1=Stephanie |last2=Hicks |first2=David |editor1-last=Metzger |editor1-first=Scott Alan |editor2-last=Harris |editor2-first=Lauren McArthur |title=The Wiley International Handbook of History Teaching and Learning |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-10081-2 |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119100812.ch15 |language=en |chapter=History Teacher Preparation and Professional Development |date=2018 |doi=10.1002/9781119100812.ch15 |pages=389–418}}
* {{cite book |last1=Van Nieuwenhuyse |first1=Karel |editor1-last=Berg |editor1-first=Christopher W. |editor2-last=Christou |editor2-first=Theodore M. |title=The Palgrave Handbook of History and Social Studies Education |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-37210-1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bhLbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA375 |language=en |chapter=From Knowing the National Past to Doing History |date=2020 |pages=355–386 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-37210-1_14}}
* {{cite book |last1=Vašíček |first1=Zdeněk |editor1-last=Tucker |editor1-first=Aviezer |title=A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-0491-6 |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444304916.ch3 |language=en |chapter=Philosophy of History |date=2008 |pages=26–43 |doi=10.1002/9781444304916.ch3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Verene |first1=Donald Phillip |title=The History of Philosophy: A Reader's Guide |date=20 June 2008 |publisher=Northwestern University Press |isbn=978-0-8101-5197-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hkDX-dxMHpoC |language=en |access-date=25 May 2023}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Veysey |first1=Laurence |title=The 'New' Social History in the Context of American Historical Writing |journal=Reviews in American History |volume=7 |issue=1 |doi=10.2307/2700953 |date=1979 |pages=1–12 |jstor=2700953}}
* {{cite book |last1=Vision |first1=Gerald A. |title=Modern Anti-Realism and Manufactured Truth |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-003-80838-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5jiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT142 |language=en |date=2023}}
* {{cite book |last1=Watt |first1=D. C. |last2=Adams |first2=Simon |last3=Bullen |first3=Roger |last4=Brauer |first4=Kinley |last5=Iriye |first5=Akira |title=What Is History Today ... ? |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |isbn=978-1-349-19161-1 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_12 |language=en |chapter=What Is Diplomatic History ... ? |date=1988 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_12 |pages=131–142 |editor-last1=Gardiner |editor-first1=Juliet}}
* {{cite book |last1=White |first1=W. George |last2=Millett |first2=Bruce |editor-last1=Kobayashi |editor-first1=Audrey |title=International Encyclopedia of Human Geography |date=2019 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-102296-2 |pages=419–426 |language=en}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wiles |first1=Maurice |title=In What Sense is Christianity a 'Historical' Religion? |journal=Theology |volume=81 |issue=679 |doi=10.1177/0040571X7808100102 |date=1978 |pages=4–14}}
* {{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=L. Pearce |title=History of Science |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-science |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=24 November 2024 |language=en |date=2024}}
* {{cite book |last1=Wineburg |first1=Sam |title=Why Learn History (When It's Already on Your Phone) |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-35735-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PIZuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 |language=en |date=2018 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wong |first1=R. Bin |title=Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History |publisher=Berkshire Publishing |isbn=978-0-9743091-0-1 |chapter=Comparative History |date=2005 |jstor=jj.9941129 |pages=630–635}}
* {{cite book |last1=Woolf |first1=Daniel |title=A Concise History of History: Global Historiography from Antiquity to the Present |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-42619-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1lN-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2019}}
* {{cite book |last1=Wragg-Sykes |first1=Rebecca |title=Big History: Our Incredible Journey, from Big Bang to Now |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |isbn=978-0-241-22590-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbbjDwAAQBAJ |language=English |date=2016 |chapter=Threshold 6 |access-date=4 May 2024 |pages=180–223}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Wright |editor1-first=Edmund |title=A Dictionary of World History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280700-7 |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095938853 |chapter=Historiography |date=2006}}
* {{cite book |last1=Yapp |first1=M. E. |last2=Bayly |first2=C. A. |last3=Clarence-Smith |first3=Gervase |last4=Abel |first4=Christopher |last5=Johnson |first5=Gordon |last6=Fyfe |first6=Christopher |title=What Is History Today ... ? |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |isbn=978-1-349-19161-1 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_14 |language=en |chapter=What Is Third World History ... ? |date=1988 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_14 |pages=155–167 |editor-last1=Gardiner |editor-first1=Juliet}}
* {{cite book |last1=Yurdusev |first1=A. |title=International Relations and the Philosophy of History: A Civilizational Approach |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4039-3840-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mb6DDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 |language=en |date=2003 |doi=10.1057/9781403938404}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Zaagsma |first1=Gerben |title=Digital History and the Politics of Digitization |journal=Digital Scholarship in the Humanities |volume=38 |issue=2 |doi=10.1093/llc/fqac050 |date=2023 |pages=830–851}}
* {{cite book |last1=Zajda |first1=Joseph |title=Nation-Building and History Education in a Global Culture |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-017-9729-0 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-9729-0_1 |language=en |chapter=Globalisation and the Politics of Education Reforms: History Education |date=2015 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1007/978-94-017-9729-0_1}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Helen |title=Counterfactual History: Three Worries and Replies |journal=Journal of the Philosophy of History |volume=17 |issue=1 |doi=10.1163/18722636-12341487 |date=2023 |pages=9–30}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
<!-- Please discuss on the talk page before adding more external links.-->
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ Internet History Sourcebooks Project] See also [[Internet History Sourcebooks Project]] (Collections of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts for educational use)
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=2025-07-23|En-History-article.ogg}}

{{navboxes
|list=
{{Historiography}}
{{Time topics}}
{{Humanities}}
{{Social sciences}}
{{Social philosophy}}
{{Chronology}}
{{Theories of History}}
}}
{{Subject bar |commons=yes |wikt=yes |n=yes |q=yes |s=yes |s-search=Portal:History |b=yes |b-search=Category:History |v=yes |v-search=Portal:History |d=yes |d-search=Q309}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:History| ]]
[[Category:Humanities]]
[[Category:Main topic articles]]